Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol delays the gastric emptying of solid food in humans: a double-blind, randomized study

AGA Clinical Practice Update on Diagnosis and Management of Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome: Commentary

DESCRIPTION

The purpose of this American Gastroenterological Association (AGA) Institute Clinical Practice Update (CPU) is to review the available evidence and provide expert advice regarding diagnosis and management of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.

METHODS

This CPU was commissioned and approved by the AGA Institute Clinical Practice Updates Committee (CPUC) and the AGA Governing Board to provide timely guidance on a topic of high clinical importance to the AGA membership and underwent internal peer review by the CPUC and external peer review through standard procedures of Gastroenterology. This expert commentary incorporates important as well as recently published studies in this field, and it reflects the experiences of the authors.

Got the Munchies for an Egg Sandwich? The Effects of Cannabis on Bowel Motility and Beyond

The use of medicinal cannabis has a long history dating back thousands of years. Recent discoveries have shed light on its mechanism of action with the identification of cannabinoid receptors and endocannabinoids, which make up the body's endocannabinoid system. Cannabinoid receptors, particularly the cannabinoid 1 and 2 receptors, play a crucial role in modulating the gut-brain axis and serve as potential therapeutic targets for gastrointestinal motility and inflammatory disorders. With increasing legalization of cannabis and a rising number of users, understanding the effects of cannabis on gut motility is essential for nuclear medicine providers. Although tetrahydrocannabinol, the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis, may decrease gut motility in experimental settings, it appears to paradoxically improve symptoms in gastroparesis. Treatment effects are difficult to measure given the large number of variables that could significantly alter outcomes, such as cannabinoid type, potency, and route of intake. Another consideration is the highly personalized gut microbiome, which directly interacts with the endocannabinoid system. Further research is required to delineate these multifaceted, complex cannabinoid interactions. The goal of this article is to explore the knowns and unknowns of the impact of cannabis on the alimentary system.

Cannabis use and cyclical vomiting syndrome: An open debate

INTRODUCTION

Cyclical vomiting syndrome (CVS) carries a significant financial burden on the U.S. healthcare system due to the recurrent emergency department visits and inpatient hospitalizations. We aimed to update the literature on the predictors of hospital utilization and readmission among individuals admitted with CVS.

METHODS

This is a retrospective nationwide study of patients hospitalized with a primary diagnosis of CVS. Using weighted data from the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) and the National Readmission Database (NRD), we conducted a multivariate regression analysis to assess predictors of length of stay (LOS), and 30-day readmission.

RESULTS

Primary admissions for CVS totaled 35,055 in the NIS, and 31,240 in the NRD. 2012 patients (6.4%) were readmitted within 30 days. On multivariate regression, cannabis use was associated with reduced LOS (adjusted Mean Difference (aMD) = -0.53 days, 95% CI: -0.68 to -0.38), and 30-day readmissions (adjusted Hazard Ratio (aHR) = 0.63, 95% CI: 0.54-0.73).

DISCUSSION

Cannabis use among CVS admissions was associated with reduced LOS and 30-day readmissions; these results could be in fact driven by Cannabis Hyperemesis Syndrome (CHS)-related hospitalizations and the effect of cannabis cessation on decreased symptomatology. ICD-10 coding for CHS should be transitioned to specific codes to improve the differentiation between CVS and CHS-related hospitalizations.

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: prevalence and management in an era of cannabis legalization

As more states legalize cannabinoid products for recreational use and medicinal purposes, the prevalence of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome has become increasingly common. Yet, it remains unrecognized to many healthcare providers along with the most efficacious treatments. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome most often presents with episodic vomiting secondary to chronic daily cannabis use over several months to years. Patients often complain of nausea and abdominal pain that is improved by taking hot showers or baths. Symptoms are alleviated with the cessation of cannabis use over a period of 6-12 months. Treatment for acute attacks often consists of parenteral benzodiazepines in the inpatient setting. Long-term management and prevention of further attacks are aided by tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline with a dose range of 50-200 mg/d. Once a patient is in remission, amitriptyline can be tapered slowly. As cannabis becomes more widely available and accepted in the continental United States, so must education on the diagnosis of cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome and treatment strategies.

Cannabis-Induced Gastrointestinal Tract Symptoms in the Adult Population: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVE

Cannabinoid usage is widespread in the self-management of various medical ailments. However, adverse effects have been reported with use, especially pertaining to the gastrointestinal system in adults and aged patients. These range from nausea, vomiting, bloating, or abdominal pain. This systematic review of previously reported cannabis-induced gastrointestinal symptoms in the adult population from the literature provides an analysis of relevant data to enhance knowledge and awareness of this topic.

METHODS

PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, Cochrane Central, EMBASE, and Google Scholar databases were searched for relevant studies published from inception to March 2023.

RESULTS

The search yielded 598 results, of which 13 were deemed relevant and underwent further review. These included two systematic reviews, one retrospective cohort study, one retrospective chart review, two cross-sectional studies, one survey, and six case reports. The Cochrane Risk Tool for bias analysis was applied where relevant. The total number of people in the studies selected for analysis was 79, 779. Twelve out of the thirteen included studies reported some type of gastrointestinal tract symptoms experienced in medical and/or recreational cannabis users ranging from nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain to adult intussusception.

CONCLUSION

Potential limitations include small sample sizes, variation in research methodologies, varied studied designs, and limited availability of data on specific populations such as geriatric users. Further research is warranted to add to current evidence pertaining to this emerging topic of significance, fill the broad knowledge gaps and contribute to evidence-based guidelines for healthcare professionals, ensuring safe prescribing practices and provision of quality care.

Cannabinoids and the Gastrointestinal Tract

The synthesis and degradation of endocannabinoids, location of cannabinoid (CB) receptors, and cannabinoid mechanisms of action on immune/inflammatory, neuromuscular, and sensory functions in digestive organs are well documented. CB2 mechanisms are particularly relevant in immune and sensory functions. Increasing use of cannabinoids in the United States is impacted by social determinants of health including racial discrimination, which is associated with tobacco and cannabis co-use, and combined use disorders. Several conditions associated with emesis are related to cannabinoid use, including cannabinoid hyperemesis or withdrawal, cyclic vomiting syndrome, and nausea and vomiting of pregnancy. Cannabinoids generally inhibit gastrointestinal motor function; yet they relieve symptoms in patients with gastroparesis and diverse nausea syndromes. Cannabinoid effects on inflammatory mechanisms have shown promise in relatively small placebo-controlled studies in reducing disease activity and abdominal pain in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Cannabinoids have been studied in disorders of motility, pain, and disorders of gut-brain interaction. The CB2-receptor agonist, cannabidiol, reduced the total Gastroparesis Cardinal Symptom Index and increases the ability to tolerate a meal in patients with gastroparesis appraised over 4 weeks of treatment. In contrast, predominant-pain end points in functional dyspepsia with normal gastric emptying were not improved significantly with cannabidiol. The CB2 agonist, olorinab, reduced abdominal pain in inflammatory bowel disease in an open-label trial and in constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome in a placebo-controlled trial. Cannabinoid mechanisms alter inflammation in pancreatic and liver diseases. In conclusion, cannabinoids, particularly agents affecting CB2 mechanisms, have potential for inflammatory, gastroparesis, and pain disorders; however, the trials require replication and further understanding of risk-benefit to enhance use of cannabinoids in gastrointestinal diseases.

A Randomized, Controlled Trial of Efficacy and Safety of Cannabidiol in Idiopathic and Diabetic Gastroparesis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Cannabis (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol), a nonselective cannabinoid-receptor agonist, relieves nausea and pain. Cannabidiol (CBD), a cannabinoid receptor 2 inverse agonist with central effects, also reduces gut sensation and inflammation. We compared the effects of 4 weeks of treatment with pharmaceutical CBD vs placebo in patients with idiopathic or diabetic (diabetes mellitus) gastroparesis.

METHODS

We performed a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study of CBD twice daily (Epidiolex escalated to 20 mg/kg/d; Jazz Pharmaceuticals, Dublin, Ireland) in patients with nonsurgical gastroparesis with delayed gastric emptying of solids (GES). Symptoms were assessed by the Gastroparesis Cardinal Symptom Index Daily Diary. After 4 weeks of treatment, we measured GES, gastric volumes, and Ensure (Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, IL) satiation test (1 kcal/mL, 30 mL/min) to assess volume to comfortable fullness and maximum tolerance. Patients underwent specific FAAH and CNR1 genotyping. Statistical analysis compared 2 treatments using analysis of variance including baseline measurements and body mass index as covariates.

RESULTS

Among 44 patients (32 idiopathic, 6 diabetes mellitus type 1, and 6 diabetes mellitus type 2), 5 patients did not tolerate full-dose escalation; 3 withdrew before completing 4 weeks of treatment (2 placebo, 1 CBD); 95% completed 4 weeks of treatment and diaries. Compared with placebo, CBD reduced the total Gastroparesis Cardinal Symptom Index score (P = .008), inability to finish a normal-sized meal (P = .029), number of vomiting episodes/24 hours (P = .006), and overall symptom severity (P = .034). Patients treated with CBD had a higher volume to comfortable fullness and maximum tolerance and slower GES. FAAH rs34420 genotype significantly impacted nutrient drink ingestion. The most common adverse events reported were diarrhea (14 patients), fatigue (8 patients), headache (8 patients), and nausea (7 patients).

CONCLUSIONS

CBD provides symptom relief in patients with gastroparesis and improves the tolerance of liquid nutrient intake, despite slowing of GES.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov NCT #03941288.

Concerns Related to the Consequences of Pediatric Cannabis Use: A 360-Degree View

Cannabis, a plant known for its recreational use, has gained global attention due to its widespread use and addiction potential. Derived from the Cannabis sativa plant, it contains a rich array of phytochemicals concentrated in resin-rich trichomes. The main cannabinoids, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), interact with CB1 and CB2 receptors, influencing various physiological processes. Particularly concerning is its prevalence among adolescents, often driven by the need for social connection and anxiety alleviation. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of cannabis use, its effects, and potential health risks, especially in adolescent consumption. It covers short-term and long-term effects on different body systems and mental health and highlights the need for informed decision making and public health initiatives, particularly regarding adolescent cannabis use.

[Does medicinal cannabis or cannabis consumption have an influence on the perioperative anesthesiological management?]

The greatly increasing use of medicinal cannabis products as well as the upcoming legalization of cannabis not only require a general re-evaluation of how these substances might be classified as illegal drugs, but also enforce a critical view on the possible consequences that cannabis consumption might have on the anesthesiological strategies applied for surgical procedures. Although high-quality clinical studies are still lacking, several clinical studies meanwhile indicate that an active preoperative cannabis consumption seems to be associated with relevant pathophysiological aspects. Patients who regularly consume high doses of cannabis show an increased risk of cardiovascular and respiratory complications as well as the postoperative nausea and vomitting (PONV) associated with anesthesia. This also applies to relatively young patients. Moreover, the requirements for general anesthetics and analgesics seem to be increased in the context of cannabis consumption, e.g., these patients may require additional efforts when it comes to monitoring the depth of anesthesia and providing a personalized multimodal postoperative pain therapy. It therefore appears to be meaningful to carefully assess and document the extent and duration of the preoperative cannabis consumption during the preoperative assessment. Furthermore, the possibility to perform a preoperative dose reduction of cannabis products in cases with high doses should at least be considered. As the consumption of cannabis is not only increasing in Germany but also worldwide, important future insights will offer a guide towards a safe handling of cannabis in perioperative medicine in the coming years.

Should gastroenterologists prescribe cannabis? The highs, the lows and the unknowns

Cannabis, commonly known as marijuana, is a drug extracted from the Cannabis plant known for its psychotropic and medicinal properties. It has been used for healing purposes during ancient times, although its psychoactive components led to its restricted use in medicine. Nonetheless, cannabis is found to have modulatory effects on the endocannabinoid system exhibiting its medicinal role in the gastrointestinal (GI) system. Emerging animal and human studies demonstrate the influential effects of cannabis on a variety of GI diseases including inflammatory bowel disease, motility disorders and GI malignancies. It also has a regulatory role in GI symptoms including nausea and vomiting, anorexia, weight gain, abdominal pain, among others. However, both its acute and chronic use can lead to undesirable side effects such as dependency and addiction, cognitive impairment and cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome. We will discuss the role of cannabis in the GI system as well as dosing strategies to help guide gastroenterologists to assess its efficacy and provide patient counseling before prescription of medical marijuana.

Weight loss outcomes are not compromised in bariatric patients using cannabis

BACKGROUND

The legalization of cannabis in several states has led to increased documented use in the population. Bariatric surgery patients are no exception with estimates of anywhere from 6 to 8%. Cannabis is known to be associated with increased appetite, mood disorders, hyperphagia, and rarely, hyperemesis, which can potentially affect post-surgical weight loss. We aim to study the differences in bariatric surgery outcomes between cannabis users and non-users.

METHODS

A retrospective review identified patients undergoing bariatric surgery. Patients were divided into two groups, cannabis users (CU) and non-cannabis users (non-CU). Cannabis users (defined as using at least once weekly) and a group of non-users were called to obtain additional information. Primary outcome was weight loss. Secondary outcomes included incidence of post-operative nausea and vomiting (PONV), length of stay (LOS), readmission, and need for additional intervention.

RESULTS

A cohort of 364 sleeve gastrectomy patients met inclusion criteria, 31 (8.5%) CU and 333 (91.5%) non-CU. There was no difference in EWL between CU and non-CU at 1 week, 1 month, 3 months, 6 months, 9 months, 1 year, and 2 years. However, the CU group trended towards greater EWL at 3 years (52.9% vs. 38.1%, p = 0.094) and at 5 years (49.8% vs. 32.7%, p = 0.068). There were no significant differences between CU and non-CU with respect to either incidence or severity of PONV at one year after surgery or longer follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Cannabis users did not experience inferior weight loss after bariatric surgery despite common assumptions that appetite stimulation can lead to suboptimal weight loss outcomes. Our findings add to other work challenging this dogma. Larger, long-term, multicenter studies are warranted.

A Case of Panic Attacks Developing After 10 Years of Chronic Cannabis Use in a Patient With No Prior Psychiatric History

Cannabis use for medical and recreational purposes is increasing. Inhibitory activity of cannabinoids (CB) at the CB1 and CB2 receptors centrally and peripherally mediate the therapeutic effects that are wielded for palliation of pain, anxiety, inflammation, and nausea in indicated conditions. Cannabis dependence is also associated with anxiety; however, the direction of causality is unknown, such as whether anxiety disorders lead to cannabis use, or whether cannabis contributes to the development of anxiety disorder. The evidence hints that both may have validity. Here we present a case of cannabis-associated panic attacks following 10 years of chronic cannabis dependence in an individual with no prior psychiatric history. The patient is a 32-year-old male with no significant past medical history who presented complaining of five-minute episodes of palpitations, dyspnea, upper extremity paresthesia, subjective tachycardia, and cold diaphoresis occurring in a variety of circumstances for the past two years. His social history was significant for 10 years of smoking marijuana multiple times daily, which he had quit over two years ago. The patient denied past psychiatric history or known anxiety problems. Symptoms were unrelated to activity and only relieved with deep breathing. The episodes were not associated with chest pain, syncope, headache, or emotional triggers. The patient had no family history of cardiac disease or sudden death. The episodes were refractory to the elimination of caffeine, alcohol, or other sugary beverages. The patient had already stopped smoking marijuana when the episodes began. Due to the unpredictable nature of the episodes, the patient reported a growing fear of being in public. On laboratory workup, metabolic and blood panels were within normal limits, as well as thyroid studies. Electrocardiogram showed normal sinus rhythm, and continuous cardiac monitoring revealed no arrhythmias or abnormalities despite the patient indicating multiple triggered events within the duration of monitoring. Echocardiography also showed no abnormalities. With organic cardiac causes of the subjective palpitation episodes ruled out, a psychogenic etiology of the episodes was presumed, and the patient was referred to behavioral health services. In conclusion, cannabis-induced anxiety or panic disorders should be considered in patients with no prior psychiatric history presenting with anxiety-like attacks following a period of cannabis dependence or current use. These patients should be advised to cease cannabis use and referred to behavioral medicine.

Cannabidiol for Functional Dyspepsia With Normal Gastric Emptying: A Randomized Controlled Trial

INTRODUCTION

Cannabidiol (CBD), a CBR2 agonist with limited psychic effects, antagonizes CB1/CB2 receptors. Allelic variation CNR1 (gene for CBR1) rs806378 and FAAH rs324420 were associated with altered gut motility and sensation. This study aimed to compare the pharmacodynamics and clinical effects of a 4-week treatment with pharmaceutical-grade CBD vs placebo and assess the interactions of FAAH and CNR1 gene variants on the effects of CBD in patients with functional dyspepsia (FD).

METHODS

We performed a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled (1:1 ratio) study of CBD b.i.d. (20 mg/kg/d according to the US Food and Drug Administration escalation guidance) in FD patients with nondelayed gastric emptying (GE) at baseline. Symptoms were assessed by validated daily symptom diary (0-4 scale for upper abdominal pain, nausea, and bloating), weekly assessment of adequate relief, Leuven Postprandial Distress Scale (8 symptoms, adjectival scores rated 0-4 for severity), and quality of life (Short-Form Nepean Dyspepsia Index [average of 10 dimensions each on a 5-point scale]). After the 4-week treatment, all patients underwent measurements of GE of solids, gastric volumes, and Ensure nutrient satiation test. Statistical analysis compared 2 treatments for all endpoints and the effects of CBD in association with FAAH rs324420 and CNR1 rs806378.

RESULTS

CBD and placebo effects on physiological functions and patient response outcomes were not significantly different. There were borderline CBD treatment-by-genotype interactions: rs806378 CNR1 with Leuven Postprandial Distress Scale ( P = 0.06) and GE solids ( P = 0.12).

DISCUSSION

Approved doses of CBD used off-label do not relieve FD with normal baseline GE of solids or alter gastric motor functions and satiation. CBD treatment-by-gene interactions suggest potential benefits for postprandial distress with CNR1 rs806378 T allele.

Trends and Socioeconomic Health Outcomes of Cannabis Use Among Patients With Gastroparesis: A United States Nationwide Inpatient Sample Analysis

BACKGROUND

Although cannabis may worsen nausea and vomiting for patients with gastroparesis, it may also be an effective treatment for gastroparesis-related abdominal pain. Given conflicting data and a lack of current epidemiological evidence, we aimed to investigate the association of cannabis use on relevant clinical outcomes among hospitalized patients with gastroparesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients with a diagnosis of gastroparesis were reviewed from the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database between 2008 and 2014. Gastroparesis was identified by International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) codes with patients classified based on a diagnosis of cannabis use disorder. Demographics, comorbidities, socioeconomic status, and outcomes were compared between cohorts using χ2 and analysis of variance. Logistic regression was then performed and annual trends also evaluated.

RESULTS

A total of 1,473,363 patients with gastroparesis were analyzed [n=33,085 (2.25%) of patients with concomitant cannabis use disorder]. Patients with gastroparesis and cannabis use disorder were more likely to be younger and male gender compared with nonusers (36.7±18.8 vs. 51.9±16.8; P<0.001 and 52.9% vs. 33.5%; P<0.001, respectively). Race/ethnicity was different between groups (P<0.001). Cannabis users had a lower median household income and were more likely to have Medicaid payor status (all P<0.001). Controlling for confounders, length of stay, and mortality were significantly decreased for patients with gastroparesis and cannabis use (all P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

While patients with gastroparesis and cannabis use disorder were younger, with a lower socioeconomic status, and disproportionately affected by psychiatric diagnoses, these patients had better hospitalization outcomes, including decreased length of stay and improved in-hospital mortality.

Cannabis and Cannabis Derivatives for Abdominal Pain Management in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

For centuries, cannabis and its components have been used to manage a wide variety of symptoms associated with many illnesses. Gastrointestinal (GI) diseases are no exception in this regard. Individuals suffering from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are among those who have sought out the ameliorating properties of this plant. As legal limitations of its use have eased, interest has grown from both patients and their providers regarding the potential of cannabis to be used in the clinical setting. Similarly, a growing number of animal and human studies have been undertaken to evaluate the impact of cannabis and cannabinoid signaling elements on the natural history of IBD and its associated complications. There is little clinical evidence supporting the ability of cannabis or related products to treat the GI inflammation underlying these disorders. However, 1 recurring theme from both animal and human studies is that these agents have a significant impact on several IBD-related symptoms, including abdominal pain. In this review, we discuss the role of cannabis and cannabinoid signaling in visceral pain perception, what is currently known regarding the efficacy of cannabis and its derivatives for managing pain, related symptoms and inflammation in IBD, and what work remains to effectively utilize cannabis and its derivatives in the clinical setting.

Differentiating Diabetic Ketoacidosis and Hyperglycemic Ketosis Due to Cannabis Hyperemesis Syndrome in Adults With Type 1 Diabetes

OBJECTIVE

To differentiate diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) from hyperglycemic ketosis due to cannabis hyperemesis syndrome (HK-CHS) in adults with type 1 diabetes.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Of 295 adults with type 1 diabetes who were seen with DKA-related ICD-10 codes, 68 patients with 172 DKA events meeting the inclusion criteria were analyzed. Cannabis use was defined as a positive urine test result for cannabis. Linear mixed models were used to define HK-CHS (pH ≥7.4 with bicarbonate ≥15 mmol/L [mEq/L]), and sensitivity and specificity were calculated using the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve.

RESULTS

Cannabis users had significantly higher pH (7.42 ± 0.01 vs. 7.09 ± 0.02) and bicarbonate (19.2 ± 0.61 vs. 9.1 ± 0.71 mmol/L) (P < 0.0001) compared with nonusers. The area under the ROC curve for a positive cannabis urine test result predicting HK-CHS was 0.9892.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients who present with DKA and higher pH, especially pH ≥7.4, cannabis use should be considered in the differential diagnosis.

Owens J, Barbian ME, Jones RM, R. Naudin C. At the heart of microbial conversations: endocannabinoids and the microbiome in cardiometabolic risk

Cardiometabolic syndrome encompasses intertwined risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, elevated triglycerides, abdominal obesity, and other maladaptive metabolic and inflammatory aberrations. As the molecular mechanisms linking cardiovascular disease and metabolic disorders are investigated, endocannabinoids have emerged as molecules of interest. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) of biologically active lipids has been implicated in several conditions, including chronic liver disease, osteoporosis, and more recently in cardiovascular diseases. The gut microbiome is a major regulator of inflammatory and metabolic signaling in the host, and if disrupted, has the potential to drive metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Extensive studies have unraveled the impact of the gut microbiome on host physiology, with recent reports showing that gut microbes exquisitely control the ECS, with significant influences on host metabolic and cardiac health. In this review, we outline how modulation of the gut microbiome affects host metabolism and cardiovascular health via the ECS, and how these findings could be exploited as novel therapeutic targets for various metabolic and cardiac diseases.

Gastroparesis

Gastroparesis is characterized by symptoms suggestive of, and objective evidence of, delayed gastric emptying in the absence of mechanical obstruction. This review addresses the normal emptying of solids and liquids from the stomach and details the myogenic and neuromuscular control mechanisms, including the specialized function of the pyloric sphincter, that result in normal emptying, based predominantly on animal research. A clear understanding of fundamental mechanisms is necessary to comprehend derangements leading to gastroparesis, and additional research on human gastric muscles is needed. The section on pathophysiology of gastroparesis considers neuromuscular diseases that affect nonsphincteric gastric muscle, disorders of the extrinsic neural control, and pyloric dysfunction that lead to gastroparesis. The potential cellular basis for gastroparesis is attributed to the effects of oxidative stress and inflammation, with increased pro-inflammatory and decreased resident macrophages, as observed in full-thickness biopsies from patients with gastroparesis. Predominant diagnostic tests involving measurements of gastric emptying, the use of a functional luminal imaging probe, and high-resolution antral duodenal manometry in characterizing the abnormal motor functions at the gastroduodenal junction are discussed. Management is based on supporting nutrition; dietary interventions, including the physical reduction in particle size of solid foods; pharmacological agents, including prokinetics and anti-emetics; and interventions such as gastric electrical stimulation and pyloromyotomy. These are discussed briefly, and comment is added on the potential for individualized treatments in the future, based on optimal gastric emptying measurement and objective documentation of the underlying pathophysiology causing the gastroparesis.

Modulatory role of the endocannabinoidome in the pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal tract

Originating from Eastern Asia, the plant Cannabis sativa has been used for centuries as a medicinal treatment. The unwanted psychotropic effects of one of its major components, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol, discouraged its therapeutic employment until, recently, the discovery of cannabinoids receptors and their endogenous ligands endocannabinoids reignited the interest. The endocannabinoid system has lately been found to play an important role in the maintenance of human health, both centrally and peripherally. However, the initial idea of the endocannabinoid system structure has been quickly understood to be too simplistic and, as new receptors, mediators, and enzymes have been discovered to participate in a complex relationship, the new, more comprehensive term "expanded endocannabinoid system" or "endocannabinoidome", has taken over. The discovery of other endocannabinoid-like receptors, such as the G protein-coupled receptor 119 and G protein-coupled receptor 55, has opened the way to the development of potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of various metabolic disorders. In addition, recent findings have also provided evidence suggesting the potential therapeutic link between the endocannabinoidome and various inflammatory-based gut diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease and cancer. This review will provide an introduction to the endocannabinoidome, focusing on its modulatory role in the gastrointestinal tract and on the interest generated by the link between gut microbiota, the endocannabinoid system and metabolic diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, type-2 diabetes and obesity. In addition, we will look at the potential novel aspects and benefits of drugs targeting the endocannabinoid system.

A Reason to Rethink Fasting Guidelines? Marijuana-Induced Gastroparesis and the Implications for Aspiration Risk in the Nil Per Os (NPO) Patient: A Case Report

Patient: Male, 24-year-old

Final Diagnosis: Gastroparesis • tetrahydrocannabinol

Symptoms: Vomiting

Medication: —

Clinical Procedure: —

Specialty: Anesthesiology

A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis of the Efficacy of Cannabis and Cannabinoids for Inflammatory Bowel Disease: What Can We Learn From Randomized and Nonrandomized Studies?

GOAL AND BACKGROUND

A number of studies have investigated the effectiveness of cannabis or cannabinoids for treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). We aimed to systematically analyze their effect in in the treatment of IBD patients.

STUDY

We included randomized controlled trials and nonrandomized studies analyzing IBD patients of any age using cannabi(noid)s. Two reviewers searched 3 databases until August 13, 2019. Primary outcome was clinical remission and secondary outcomes included inflammatory biomarkers, symptom improvement, quality of life (QoL) scores, and hospital outcomes. Risk of bias was assessed according to study type. The meta-analyses were performed using a random-effects model with subgroup analyses based on study type.

RESULTS

The search identified 682 records of which 15 nonrandomized studies and 5 randomized controlled trials were eligible for inclusion. The meta-analysis of the primary outcome included 146 randomized participants, all 18 years of age or older. Risk of bias was moderate. Cannabi(noid)s were not effective at inducing remission (risk ratio=1.56, 95% confidence interval=0.99-2.46). No effect on inflammatory biomarkers was observed. However, clinical symptoms (abdominal pain, general well-being, nausea, diarrhea, and poor appetite) all improved with cannabi(noid)s on Likert-scales. Baseline QoL scores were lower in patients using cannabis among cohort studies but improved significantly with cannabi(noid)s. Although length of hospital stay was shorter and risk of parenteral nutrition was lower in patients using cannabis, there was no effect on other IBD complications.

CONCLUSIONS

Cannabi(noid)s do not induce clinical remission or affect inflammation in IBD patients. However, cannabi(noid)s significantly improve patient-reported symptoms and QoL.

Anesthesia for Patients Who Self-Report Cannabis (Marijuana) Use Before Esophagogastroduodenoscopy: A Retrospective Review

Increasing numbers of patients are using cannabis before procedures that require anesthesia. This study set out to examine the impact of cannabis use on anesthetic agent requirements, associated cardiac and respiratory morbidity, and overall satisfaction levels in patients undergoing esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD). This involved a retrospective review of patients undergoing EGD at a single center. Fortyseven, self-reported cannabis users were identified and 23 were successfully cross-matched with control participants for comparison purposes. The Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to evaluate differences in propofol administration between the 2 groups, and the McNemar test was used to test for differences in fentanyl and ketamine administration. No statistically significant differences were observed in propofol, fentanyl, or ketamine administration in the cannabis group compared with the control group. No adverse cardiac or respiratory events were reported within 30 days for either group. This study was specific to EGD procedures of short duration, and larger studies are needed to confirm results of no consequence in cannabis users undergoing anesthesia. Future studies should consider cannabis users who undergo anesthesia for diverse procedure types of various durations.

Heteroarylureas with fused bicyclic diamine cores as inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase

A series of mechanism-based heteroaryl urea fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitors with fused bicyclic diamine cores is described. In contrast to compounds built around a piperazine core, most of the fused bicyclic diamine bearing analogs prepared exhibited greater potency against rFAAH than the human enzyme. Several compounds equipotent against both species were identified and profiled in vivo.

Marijuana Use in Patients with Symptoms of Gastroparesis: Prevalence, Patient Characteristics, and Perceived Benefit

BACKGROUND

Marijuana may be used by some patients with gastroparesis (Gp) for its potential antiemetic, orexigenic, and pain-relieving effects.

AIMS

The aim of this study was to describe the use of marijuana by patients for symptoms of Gp, assessing prevalence of use, patient characteristics, and patients' perceived benefit on their symptoms of Gp.

METHODS

Patients with symptoms of Gp underwent history and physical examination, gastric emptying scintigraphy, and questionnaires assessing symptoms. Patients were asked about the current use of medications and alternative medications including marijuana.

RESULTS

Fifty-nine of 506 (11.7%) patients with symptoms of Gp reported current marijuana use, being similar among patients with delayed and normal gastric emptying and similar in idiopathic and diabetic patients. Patients using marijuana were younger, more often current tobacco smokers, less likely to be a college graduate, married or have income > $50,000. Patients using marijuana had higher nausea/vomiting subscore (2.7 vs 2.1; p = 0.002), higher upper abdominal pain subscore (3.5 vs 2.9; p = 0.003), more likely to be using promethazine (37 vs 25%; p = 0.05) and dronabinol (17 vs 3%; p < 0.0001). Of patients using marijuana, 51% had been using it for more than 2 years, 47% were using this once or more per day, and 81% of marijuana users rated their benefit from marijuana as better or much better.

CONCLUSIONS

A subset of patients (12%) with symptoms of Gp use marijuana. Patients with severe nausea and abdominal pain were more likely to use marijuana and perceive it to be beneficial for their symptoms.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01696747.

Role of the stress response and the endocannabinoid system in Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-induced nausea

RATIONALE

Dysregulation of the endocannabinoid (eCB) system by high doses of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is hypothesized to generate a dysfunctional hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis contributing to cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS).

OBJECTIVES AND METHODS

Using the conditioned gaping model of nausea, we aimed to determine if pre-treatments that interfere with stress, or an anti-emetic drug, interfere with THC-induced nausea in male rats. The corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) antagonist, antalarmin, was given to inhibit the HPA axis during conditioning. Since eCBs inhibit stress, MJN110 (which elevates 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG)) and URB597 (which elevates anandamide (AEA)) were also tested. Propranolol (β-adrenergic antagonist) and WAY-100635 (5-HT_1A antagonist) attenuate HPA activation by cannabinoids and, therefore, were assessed. In humans, CHS symptoms are not alleviated by anti-emetic drugs, such as ondansetron (5-HT₃ antagonist); however, benzodiazepines are effective. Therefore, ondansetron and chlordiazepoxide were tested. To determine if HPA activation by THC is dose-dependent, corticosterone (CORT) was analyzed from serum of rats treated with 0.0, 0.5, or 10 mg/kg THC.

RESULTS

Antalarmin (10 and 20 mg/kg), MJN110 (10 mg/kg), URB597 (0.3 mg/kg), propranolol (2.5 and 5 mg/kg), WAY-100635 (0.5 mg/kg), and chlordiazepoxide (5 mg/kg) interfered with THC-induced conditioned gaping, but the anti-emetic ondansetron (0.1 and 0.01 mg/kg) did not. THC produced significantly higher CORT levels at 10 mg/kg than at 0.0 and 0.5 mg/kg THC.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatments that interfere with the stress response also inhibit THC-induced conditioned gaping, but a typical anti-emetic drug does not, supporting the hypothesis that THC-induced nausea, and CHS, is a result of a dysregulated stress response.

Role of Cannabis and Its Derivatives in Gastrointestinal and Hepatic Disease

Medical and recreational cannabis use has increased dramatically over the last decade, resulting from mainstream cultural acceptance and legalization in several countries worldwide. Cannabis and its derivatives affect many gastrointestinal processes via the endocannabinoid system (ECS). The ECS influences gastrointestinal homeostasis through anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive, and anti-secretory effects. Some gastrointestinal disorders might therefore be treated with cannabinoids. Despite numerous studies in cell lines and animals, few human studies have evaluated the therapeutic effects of cannabinoids. Cannabis' schedule 1 drug status has limited its availability in research; cannabis has been legalized only recently, in some states, for medicinal and/or recreational use. Cannabinoids can alleviate chemotherapy-induced nausea and emesis and chronic pain. Studies have demonstrated the important roles of the ECS in metabolism, obesity, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and the anti-inflammatory effects of cannabis have been investigated in patients with inflammatory bowel diseases. Despite its potential benefits, undesired or even detrimental effects of cannabis can limit its use. Side effects such as cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome affect some users. We review the ECS and the effects of cannabis and its derivatives on gastrointestinal and hepatic function in health and disease.

Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome: A Review of Potential Mechanisms

Introduction: Cannabinoids have long been known for their ability to treat nausea and vomiting. Recent reports, however, have highlighted the paradoxical proemetic effects of cannabinoids. Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is characterized by cyclical episodes of nausea and vomiting, accompanied by abdominal pain following prolonged, high-dose cannabis use, which is alleviated by hot baths and showers. Little is known about the cause of this syndrome. Discussion: Cannabinoids produce a biphasic effect on nausea and vomiting, with low doses having an antiemetic effect and high doses producing emesis. Presentation and treatment of CHS are similar to cyclical vomiting syndrome as well as chemotherapy-related anticipatory nausea and vomiting, suggesting that these phenomena may share mechanisms. The prevalence of CHS is not known because of the symptomatic overlap with other disorders and the lack of knowledge of the syndrome by the public and physicians. Treatment with typical antiemetic drugs is ineffective for CHS, but anxiolytic and sedative drugs, along with hot showers, seem to be consistently effective at reducing symptoms. The only known way to permanently end CHS, however, is abstinence from cannabinoids. Case studies and limited pre-clinical data on CHS indicate that prolonged high doses of the main psychotropic compound in cannabis, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), result in changes to the endocannabinoid system by acting on the cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor. These endocannabinoid system changes can dysregulate stress and anxiety responses, thermoregulation, the transient receptor potential vanilloid system, and several neurotransmitters systems, and are thus potential candidates for mediating the pathophysiology of CHS. Conclusions: Excessive cannabinoid administration disrupts the normal functioning of the endocannabinoid system, which may cause CHS. More clinical and pre-clinical research is needed to fully understand the underlying pathophysiology of this disorder and the negative consequences of prolonged high-dose cannabis use.

Potential metabolic and behavioural roles of the putative endocannabinoid receptors GPR18, GPR55 and GPR119 in feeding

Endocannabinoids are ancient biomolecules involved in several cellular (e.g., metabolism) and physiological (e.g., eating behaviour) functions. Indeed, eating behaviour alterations in marijuana users have led to investigate the orexigen-ic/anorexigenic effects of cannabinoids in animal/human models. This increasing body of research suggests that the endo-cannabinoid system plays an important role in feeding control. Accordingly, within the endocannabinoid system, canna-binoid receptors, enzymes and genes represent potential therapeutic targets for dealing with multiple metabolic and behav-ioural dysfunctions (e.g., obesity, anorexia, etc.). Paradoxically, our understanding on the endocannabinoid system as a cel-lular mediator is yet limited. For example: (i) only two cannabinoid receptors have been classified, but they are not enough to explain the pharmacological profile of several experimental effects induced by cannabinoids; and (ii) several orphan G pro-tein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) interact with cannabinoids and we do not know how to classify them (e.g., GPR18, GPR55 and GPR119; amongst others).

On this basis, the present review attempts to summarize the lines of evidence supporting the potential role of GPR18, GPR55 and GPR119 in metabolism and feeding control that may explain some of the divergent effects and puzzling data re-lated to cannabinoid research. Moreover, their therapeutic potential in feeding behaviour alterations will be considered.

Role of chronic cannabis use: Cyclic vomiting syndrome vs cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome

Cannabis is commonly used in cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS) due to its antiemetic and anxiolytic properties. Paradoxically, chronic cannabis use in the context of cyclic vomiting has led to the recognition of a putative new disorder called cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS). Since its first description in 2004, numerous case series and case reports have emerged describing this phenomenon. Although not pathognomonic, a patient behavior called "compulsive hot water bathing" has been associated with CHS. There is considerable controversy about how CHS is defined. Most of the data remain heterogenous with limited follow-up, making it difficult to ascertain whether chronic cannabis use is causal, merely a clinical association with CVS, or unmasks or triggers symptoms in patients inherently predisposed to develop CVS. This article will discuss the role of cannabis in the regulation of nausea and vomiting, specifically focusing on both CVS and CHS, in order to address controversies in this context. To this objective, we have collated and analyzed published case series and case reports on CHS in order to determine the number of reported cases that meet current Rome IV criteria for CHS. We have also identified limitations in the existing diagnostic framework and propose revised criteria to diagnose CHS. Future research in this area should improve our understanding of the role of cannabis use in cyclic vomiting and help us better understand and manage this disorder.

Guidelines on management of cyclic vomiting syndrome in adults by the American Neurogastroenterology and Motility Society and the Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome Association

The increasing recognition of cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS) in adults prompted the development of these evidence-based guidelines on the management of CVS in adults, which was sponsored by the American Neurogastroenterology and Motility Society (ANMS) and the Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome Association (CVSA). GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation) framework was used and a professional librarian performed the literature search. The expert committee included the President of the CVSA who brought a patient perspective into the deliberations. The committee makes recommendations for the prophylaxis of CVS, treatment of acute attacks, diagnosis, and overall management of CVS. The committee strongly  recommends that adults with moderate-to-severe CVS receive a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA), such as amitriptyline, as a first-line prophylactic medication and receive topiramate or aprepitant as alternate prophylactic medications. Zonisamide or levetiracetam and mitochondrial supplements (Coenzyme Q10, L-carnitine, and riboflavin) are conditionally recommended as alternate prophylactic medications, either alone or concurrently with other prophylactic medications. For acute attacks, the committee conditionally recommends using serotonin antagonists, such as ondansetron, and/or triptans, such as sumatriptan or aprepitant to abort symptoms. Emergency department treatment is best achieved with the use of an individualized treatment protocol and shared with the care team (example provided). The committee recommended screening and treatment for comorbid conditions such as anxiety, depression, migraine headache, autonomic dysfunction, sleep disorders, and substance use with referral to appropriate allied health services as indicated. Techniques like meditation, relaxation, and biofeedback may be offered as complementary therapy to improve overall well-being and patient care outcomes.

Cannabis and Turmeric as Complementary Treatments for IBD and Other Digestive Diseases

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Complementary therapies for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have earned growing interest from patients and investigators alike, with a dynamic landscape of research in this area. In this article, we review results of the most recent studies evaluating the role of cannabis and turmeric for the treatment of IBD and other intestinal illnesses.

RECENT FINDINGS

Cannabinoids are well-established modulators of gut motility and visceral pain and have demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties. Clinical trials suggest that there may be a therapeutic role for cannabinoid therapy in the treatment of IBD, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), nausea and vomiting, and GI motility disorders. Recent reports of serious adverse effects from synthetic cannabinoids highlight the need for additional investigation of cannabinoids to establish their efficacy and safety. Turmeric trials have demonstrated some promise as adjuvant treatment for IBD, though not in other GI disease processes. Evidence suggests that the use of cannabis and turmeric is potentially beneficial in IBD and IBS; however, neither has been compared to standard therapy in IBD, and thus should not be recommended as alternative treatment for IBD. For cannabis in particular, additional investigation regarding appropriate dosing and timing, given known adverse effects of its chronic use, and careful monitoring of potential bleeding complications with synthetic cannabinoids are imperative.

Evaluation of Patients with Suspected Gastroparesis

There is substantial overlap between the symptoms of gastroparesis and a variety of alternative disorders. These conditions include rumination syndrome, drug-induced gastric emptying delay, cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome, and eating disorders, which can be identified based on the history alone. The remaining patients require a diagnostic approach of physical examination, laboratory tests, evaluation with esophagogastroduodenoscopy or contrast radiography, and a test to measure gastric emptying. Symptomatic patients who have normal nutritional status and gastric emptying that is either normal or mildly delayed should be diagnosed with functional dyspepsia, whereas patients with moderate or severe gastric emptying delay are diagnosed with gastroparesis.

Epidemiology and Pathophysiology of Gastroparesis

Gastroparesis is a complex syndrome with symptoms that include nausea, vomiting, and postprandial abdominal pain, and is frequently accompanied by significant delays in gastric emptying. The pathophysiology of diabetic gastroparesis is fairly well understood; however, idiopathic gastroparesis, which accounts for one-third of all cases, may stem from infections, or autoimmune or neurologic disorders, among other causes. To date, few population-based studies have estimated the true prevalence and incidence of gastroparesis. Nonetheless, its prevalence appears to be rising, as does its incidence among minority populations, documented via hospitalizations, which can impose significant economic burdens on patients.

Cannabinoid Hyperemesis

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is a paradoxical condition in which a long-term cannabis user suffers an episode of intractable vomiting that may last days separated by longer asymptomatic periods of weeks or months. Cannabinoids are often utilized for their antiemetic properties, so CHS can be a puzzling condition, and the diagnosis of CHS may be disputed by patients. Unlike other cyclic vomiting syndromes, CHS can be relieved by hot showers or topical capsaicin. Abstinence from cannabinoids causes CHS to resolve, sometimes in a matter of days or hours. Marijuana users as well as many clinicians are not aware of CHS, and patients may undergo unnecessary tests, scans, and other procedures to get an accurate diagnosis. Symptoms may be severe enough to require hospitalization. With liberalization of marijuana laws and favorable public opinion about the healing properties of cannabis, CHS may be more frequently observed in clinical practice.

When fasted is not empty: a retrospective cohort study of gastric content in fasted surgical patients†

Background

Perioperative aspiration leads to significant morbidity and mortality. Point-of-care gastric ultrasound is an emerging tool to assess gastric content at the bedside.

Methods

We performed a retrospective cohort study of baseline gastric content on fasted elective surgical patients. The primary outcome was the incidence of full stomach (solid content or >1.5 ml kg−1 of clear fluid). Secondary outcomes included: gastric volume distribution (entire cohort, each antral grade); the association between gastric fullness, fasting intervals, and co-morbidities; anaesthetic management changes and incidence of aspiration.

Results

We identified 538 patients. Thirty-two patients (6.2%) presented with a full stomach. Nine of these (1.7%) had solid content and 23 (4.5%) had clear fluid >1.5 ml kg−1. An empty stomach was documented in 480 (89.8%) patients. The examination was inconclusive in the remaining 20 patients (5.0%). As expected, increasing antral grade was correlated with larger antral cross-sectional area and higher gastric volume (P<0.001). Of the 32 patients with a full stomach, only six had a documented risk factor for prolonged gastric emptying. The anaesthetic management was changed in all nine patients with solid content. No aspiration was reported.

Conclusions

This retrospective cohort study suggests that a small proportion of elective surgical patients may present with a full stomach despite the recommended duration of fasting. Further research is needed to establish the clinical implications of these findings in the elective setting. At present, the clinical role of gastric ultrasound continues to be for the evaluation of gastric contents to guide management when the risk of aspiration is uncertain or unknown.

Emergency Department Burden of Nausea and Vomiting Associated With Cannabis Use Disorder: US Trends From 2006 to 2013

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Chronic cannabis use is associated with nausea and vomiting that may lead to emergency department (ED) visits, multiple diagnostic tests, and procedures. The aim of this study was to analyze recent trends in ED visits for vomiting associated with cannabis use disorder between 2006 and 2013.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the National Emergency Department Sample records in which vomiting (ICD-9-CM codes 787.01, 787.03, and 536.2) was a primary diagnosis in combination with cannabis abuse or dependence (304.3, 304.30, 304.31, 304.32, 304.33, 305.2, 305.20, 305.21, 305.22, and 305.23) and were seen in the ED between 2006 and 2013. The National Emergency Department Sample collects data from more than 25 million visits in over 950 EDs and is weighted to provide national estimates.

RESULTS

The rate of ED visits for vomiting with cannabis use disorder from 2006 compared with 2013 increased from 2.3 to 13.3 per 100,000 ED visits, while the mean inflation-adjusted costs increased 68.5% from $2758.43 to $4647.62, respectively. Men between the ages of 20 and 29 were the most common group to present to the ED for vomiting with cannabis use disorder. The Midwest and West had the higher rates of ED visits for vomiting with cannabis use disorder compared with the Northeast and South.

CONCLUSIONS

ED visits for vomiting associated with cannabis use disorder is common and is associated with significant medical costs. Further research on the role of cannabis use in nausea and vomiting is warranted.

Emergency Department Treatment of Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome: A Review

BACKGROUND

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is a syndrome of cyclic vomiting associated with chronic cannabis use. As cannabis consumption steadily increases each year, CHS is becoming a commonplace and costly occurrence in hospitals nationwide. Currently, there are no best treatment strategies agreed upon universally.

AREAS OF UNCERTAINTY

Thus far, most data about CHS have come from case reports and case series. Consequently, the pathophysiology of the syndrome is unclear, and its occurrence in some cannabis users, but not others, is not understood.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search was conducted through PubMed, Embase, and Google Scholar from inception until 2017. Publications only in English describing the epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnostic criteria, and treatments of CHS were incorporated after thorough evaluation. National government surveys were also referred to for current information about the CHS patient population.

RESULTS

CHS should be considered in the differential diagnosis of any patient presenting with persistent nausea and vomiting. In particular, the diagnosis is suggested if the patient demonstrates regular and chronic cannabis use, intractable nausea and vomiting, cyclical vomiting, relief of symptoms with hot baths, and resolution of symptoms after cannabis cessation. There are currently many possible explanations regarding the mechanisms behind CHS. A variety of treatment options have also been examined, including hot water baths, haloperidol, capsaicin, and benzodiazepines.

CONCLUSIONS

CHS is becoming an increasingly prevalent and complicated problem for health care providers and patients. Further research must be done to address the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges of this syndrome.

Diabetic gastroparesis: current challenges and future prospects

Diabetic gastroparesis (DMGP) is a condition of delayed gastric emptying after gastric outlet obstruction has been excluded. Symptoms of nausea, vomiting, early satiety, bloating, and abdominal pain are associated with DMGP. Uncontrolled symptoms can lead to overall poor quality of life and financial burdens on the healthcare system. A combination of antiemetics and prokinetics is used in symptom control; metoclopramide is the main prokinetic available for clinical use and is the only U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved agent in the United States. However, a black box warning in 2009 reporting its association with tardive dyskinesia and recommending caution in chronically using this agent beyond 3 months has decreased its role in clinical practice. There is an unmet need for new prokinetics with good efficacy and safety profiles. Currently, there are several new drugs with different mechanisms of action in the pipeline that are under investigation and show promising preliminary results. Surgically combining gastric electrical stimulation with pyloroplasty is considered "gold" standard. Advances in therapeutic endoscopic intervention with gastric per-oral endoscopic pyloromyotomy have also been shown to improve gastric emptying and gastroparesis (GP) symptoms. In this review, we will comment on the challenges encountered when managing patients with DMGP and provide an update on advances in drug development and endoscopic and surgical interventions.

Cannabinoid pharmacology and therapy in gut disorders

Cannabis sp. and their products (marijuana, hashish…), in addition to their recreational, industrial and other uses, have a long history for their use as a remedy for symptoms related with gastrointestinal diseases. After many reports suggesting these beneficial effects, it was not surprising to discover that the gastrointestinal tract expresses endogenous cannabinoids, their receptors, and enzymes for their synthesis and degradation, comprising the so-called endocannabinoid system. This system participates in the control of tissue homeostasis and important intestinal functions like motor and sensory activity, nausea, emesis, the maintenance of the epithelial barrier integrity, and the correct cellular microenvironment. Thus, different cannabinoid-related pharmacological agents may be useful to treat the main digestive pathologies. To name a few examples, in irritable bowel syndrome they may normalize dysmotility and reduce pain, in inflammatory bowel disease they may decrease inflammation, and in colorectal cancer, apart from alleviating some symptoms, they may play a role in the regulation of the cell niche. This review summarizes the main recent findings on the role of cannabinoid receptors, their synthetic or natural ligands and their metabolizing enzymes in normal gastrointestinal function and in disorders including irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, colon cancer and gastrointestinal chemotherapy-induced adverse effects (nausea/vomiting, constipation, diarrhea).

Novel derivatives of 1,2,3-triazole, cannabinoid-1 receptor ligands modulate gastrointestinal motility in mice

Cannabinoid-1 (CB1) receptors are broadly distributed in the central and peripheral nervous systems; among others, they are located in the enteric nervous system. In the gastrointestinal (GI) system, they participate in regulation of intestinal motility or ion transport. The aim of our study was to assess the effect of 1,2,3-triazole derivatives (compound 1: 2-[4,5-bis(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2H-1,2,3-triazol-2-yl]-N-(2-fluorobenzyl)acetamide, compound 2: 2-[4,5-bis(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2H-1,2,3-triazol-2-yl]-N-(4-fluorobenzyl)acetamide, compound 3: N-benzyl-2-[4-(4-chlorophenyl)-5-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2H-1,2,3-triazol-2-yl]acetamide]), characterized in vitro as CB1 antagonists with high CB1 over CB2 selectivity, in the mouse GI tract. The action of compounds 1-3 was assessed in vitro (electrical field stimulated smooth muscle contractility of the mouse ileum and colon) and in vivo (whole GI transit time). Compound 1 decreased ileal (10^-6 M) and colonic (10^-7-10^-6 M) smooth muscles contractility. Moreover, it prolonged whole GI transit. Compound 2 (10^-10-10^-8 M) slightly increased the amplitude of muscle contractions in the ileum, but at a higher concentration (10^-6 M), the amplitude was decreased. Compound 2 reduced colonic contractility but accelerated GI transit. Compound 3 decreased the amplitude of intestinal muscle contractions in the ileum (10^-6 M) and colon (10^-10-10^-6 M). Moreover, it increased the GI transit time in vivo. Triazole derivatives possess easily modifiable structure and interesting pharmacological action in the GI tract; further, alterations may enhance their efficacy at CB receptors and provide low side effect profile in clinical conditions.

Cyclic vomiting syndrome: a case series and review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

Cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS) is under-recognised. Treatment is difficult as the pathophysiology is incompletely understood. We report our experience of treating patients with amitriptyline, and review the literature to summarise symptoms and associated features, epidemiology, potential pathophysiological mechanisms, differential diagnoses and treatment.

DESIGN

Consecutive adult patients with CVS were identified during a 5-year period from January 2010 until December 2015. Medical records were reviewed retrospectively, and age and sex of the patient, symptoms, associated features and response to treatment with amitriptyline were recorded.

SETTING

A luminal gastroenterology clinic at a teaching hospital.

RESULTS

Seventeen patients were identified (mean age 29.8 years, 13 (76.5%) female). Five had a history of cannabis use. Duration of symptoms prior to diagnosis ranged from 5 months to 15 years. Fourteen patients commenced amitriptyline, and in eight (57.1%) symptoms either ceased entirely or improved. Review of the literature suggested the prevalence of CVS was 0.5%. Symptoms are stereotypical, with acute episodes of nausea and vomiting, interspersed by periods when the patient is symptom-free. Proposed pathophysiologies include neuroendocrine dysfunction, mutations in mitochondrial DNA and re-intoxication effects from cannabis stored in fat tissues. Treatment during the acute phase is supportive, with rehydration, sedation and antiemetics. Prophylaxis to prevent future attacks with antihistamines, antimigraine drugs, antiepileptics and tricyclic antidepressants may be beneficial. Complete cessation of cannabis smoking should be advised.

CONCLUSIONS

Diagnosis of CVS is often delayed in adults. Once identified, patients respond well to amitriptyline.

Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome: Public Health Implications and a Novel Model Treatment Guideline

Introduction

Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome (CHS) is an entity associated with cannabinoid overuse. CHS typically presents with cyclical vomiting, diffuse abdominal pain, and relief with hot showers. Patients often present to the emergency department (ED) repeatedly and undergo extensive evaluations including laboratory examination, advanced imaging, and in some cases unnecessary procedures. They are exposed to an array of pharmacologic interventions including opioids that not only lack evidence, but may also be harmful. This paper presents a novel treatment guideline that highlights the identification and diagnosis of CHS and summarizes treatment strategies aimed at resolution of symptoms, avoidance of unnecessary opioids, and ensuring patient safety.

Methods

The San Diego Emergency Medicine Oversight Commission in collaboration with the County of San Diego Health and Human Services Agency and San Diego Kaiser Permanente Division of Medical Toxicology created an expert consensus panel to establish a guideline to unite the ED community in the treatment of CHS.

Results

Per the consensus guideline, treatment should focus on symptom relief and education on the need for cannabis cessation. Capsaicin is a readily available topical preparation that is reasonable to use as first-line treatment. Antipsychotics including haloperidol and olanzapine have been reported to provide complete symptom relief in limited case studies. Conventional antiemetics including antihistamines, serotonin antagonists, dopamine antagonists and benzodiazepines may have limited effectiveness. Emergency physicians should avoid opioids if the diagnosis of CHS is certain and educate patients that cannabis cessation is the only intervention that will provide complete symptom relief.

Conclusion

An expert consensus treatment guideline is provided to assist with diagnosis and appropriate treatment of CHS. Clinicians and public health officials should identity and treat CHS patients with strategies that decrease exposure to opioids, minimize use of healthcare resources, and maximize patient safety.

Review: The Role of Cannabinoids on Esophageal Function-What We Know Thus Far

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) primarily consists of cannabinoid receptors (CBRs), endogenous ligands, and enzymes for endocannabinoid biosynthesis and inactivation. Although the presence of CBRs, both CB1 and CB2, as well as a third receptor (G-protein receptor 55 [GPR55]), has been established in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, few studies have focused on the role of cannabinoids on esophageal function. To date, studies have shown their effect on GI motility, inflammation and immunity, intestinal and gastric acid secretion, nociception and emesis pathways, and appetite control. Given the varying and sometimes limited efficacy of current medical therapies for diseases of the esophagus, further understanding and investigation into the interplay of the ECS on esophageal health and disease may present new therapeutic modalities that may help advance current treatment options. In this brief review, the current understanding of the ECS role in various esophageal functions and disorders is presented.

Esophageal bezoar due to karaya gum granules used as a laxative

Esophageal obstruction from soluble fiber laxatives, such as karaya gum, has been rarely reported in the literature. However, as such preparations are widely commercially available, it is important for gastroenterologists to be aware of their potential to form a bezoar in the esophagus due to swelling on contact with liquid. This report highlights such a case and discusses its challenging management.

MAGL inhibition modulates gastric secretion and motility following NSAID exposure in mice

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are common analgesic drugs that also cause well-known, negative gastrointestinal (GI) side effects. The physiological mechanism(s) of NSAID-induced GI damage are unclear and are likely due to multiple causes. The most studied contributing mechanisms are increased gastric acid secretion and increased gastric motility. The present study was designed to determine which ulcerogenic effects of the NSAID diclofenac sodium are reversed by blocking the endocannabinoid catabolic enzyme monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL). Both male and female mice were used to identify possible sex differences. We hypothesized that the MAGL inhibitor JZL184 would attenuate diclofenac-induced increases in both gastric acid secretion and gastric motility. Diclofenac dose-dependently induced gastric hemorrhages to a similar extent in both male and female mice. Gastric hemorrhage severity significantly correlated with gastric levels of myeloperoxidase, an objective measure of neutrophil infiltration. Similarly, JZL184 reduced gastric acidity, in controls as well as mice treated with pentagastrin, which stimulates gastric acid release. As hypothesized, JZL184 decreased gastric motility. Surprisingly, diclofenac also slowed gastric emptying, indicating that diclofenac-induced ulcers most likely occur through increased gastric acid secretion, and not increased gastric motility, as measured in the present study. Thus, MAGL inhibition may proffer gastroprotection through modulating the secretory pathway of gastric hemorrhage. These data underscore the importance of sampling multiple time points and using both sexes in research, in addition to multiple mechanistic targets, and contribute to the basic understanding of NSAID-induced gastric inflammation.