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Towards Optimal pH of the Skin and Topical Formulations: From the Current State of the Art to Tailored Products. COSMETICS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/cosmetics8030069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Acidic pH of the skin surface has been recognized as a regulating factor for the maintenance of the stratum corneum homeostasis and barrier permeability. The most important functions of acidic pH seem to be related to the keratinocyte differentiation process, the formation and function of epidermal lipids and the corneocyte lipid envelope, the maintenance of the skin microbiome and, consequently, skin disturbances and diseases. As acknowledged extrinsic factors that affect skin pH, topically applied products could contribute to skin health maintenance via skin pH value control. The obtained knowledge on skins’ pH could be used in the formulation of more effective topical products, which would add to the development of the so-called products ‘for skin health maintenance’. There is a high level of agreement that topical products should be acidified and possess pH in the range of 4 to 6. However, formulators, dermatologists and consumers would benefit from some more precise guidance concerning favorable products pH values and the selection of cosmetic ingredients which could be responsible for acidification, together with a more extensive understanding of the mechanisms underlaying the process of skin acidification by topical products.
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The Differentiation-Associated Keratinocyte Protein Cornifelin Contributes to Cell-Cell Adhesion of Epidermal and Mucosal Keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2019; 139:2292-2301.e9. [PMID: 31129056 DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2019.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cornifelin (CNFN) has been identified as a protein component of epidermal corneocytes. Here, we investigated the tissue distribution of CNFN and potential consequences of CNFN deficiency on epithelial function in in vitro models of human skin and oral mucosa. Our detailed bioinformatics and immunostaining analysis revealed that CNFN is not only expressed in human epidermis but also in noncornifying oral mucosa. In normal epidermis, CNFN was confined to the upper granular layer and the stratum corneum. By contrast, in both partly cornifying and noncornifying oral mucosa, CNFN was expressed in a cell membrane-associated pattern over several suprabasal layers. Small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of CNFN in epidermal keratinocytes (KCs) was associated with only subtle alterations of the overall epidermal architecture in skin models in vitro but led to altered morphology of corneodesmosomes, as detected by electron microscopy. Using dispase treatment followed by mechanical stress, epithelial sheets of CNFN-deficient epidermal KCs were easily disrupted, whereas their CNFN-competent counterparts remained intact. In contrast to the epidermal KCs, CNFN knockdown in oral KCs had a more severe effect and caused pronounced acantholysis in organotypic models of oral mucosa. Together, these findings indicate that CNFN is a structural component of the cell adhesion system of differentiated KCs in both epidermis and oral mucosa.
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Wang JF, Orlow SJ. Keratosis Pilaris and its Subtypes: Associations, New Molecular and Pharmacologic Etiologies, and Therapeutic Options. Am J Clin Dermatol 2018; 19:733-757. [PMID: 30043128 DOI: 10.1007/s40257-018-0368-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Keratosis pilaris is a common skin disorder comprising less common variants and rare subtypes, including keratosis pilaris rubra, erythromelanosis follicularis faciei et colli, and the spectrum of keratosis pilaris atrophicans. Data, and critical analysis of existing data, are lacking, so the etiologies, pathogeneses, disease associations, and treatments of these clinical entities are poorly understood. The present article aims to fill this knowledge gap by reviewing literature in the PubMed, EMBASE, and CINAHL databases and providing a comprehensive, analytical summary of the clinical characteristics and pathophysiology of keratosis pilaris and its subtypes through the lens of disease associations, genetics, and pharmacologic etiologies. Histopathologic, genomic, and epidemiologic evidence points to keratosis pilaris as a primary disorder of the pilosebaceous unit as a result of inherited mutations or acquired disruptions in various biomolecular pathways. Recent data highlight aberrant Ras signaling as an important contributor to the pathophysiology of keratosis pilaris and its subtypes. We also evaluate data on treatments for keratosis pilaris and its subtypes, including topical, systemic, and energy-based therapies. The effectiveness of various types of lasers in treating keratosis pilaris and its subtypes deserves wider recognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason F Wang
- The Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology, New York University School of Medicine, 240 East 38th Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Seth J Orlow
- The Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology, New York University School of Medicine, 240 East 38th Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
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Wójcik A, Bartnicka E, Namieciński P, Rotsztejn H. Influence of the complex of retinol-vitamin C on skin surface lipids. J Cosmet Dermatol 2015; 14:92-9. [PMID: 25810364 DOI: 10.1111/jocd.12140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Retinol is used to reduce symptoms of skin aging. It affects surface lipids and increases skin regeneration ability. AIM The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of retinol peel on the face and neck skin lipids in women, aged 50-69. MATERIAL AND METHODS The level of secreted sebum was measured using Sebumeter SM15 (Courage & Khazaka, Germany) on the forehead, cheeks, nose, chin, and neck. The measurements were carried out before each of the 3 retinol peel treatments applied at 3-week interval and 3 weeks after the last treatment. RESULTS A statistically significant increase of lipid film in both U-zone and T-zone and on the neck was observed in the study group. CONCLUSION Retinol peel treatments can help to increase the amount of skin surface lipids in women during menopause.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aneta Wójcik
- Department of Cosmetology and Aesthetic Dermatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Ewelina Bartnicka
- Department of Cosmetic Raw Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Piotr Namieciński
- Department of Operational Research, Faculty of Economics and Sociology, University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
| | - Helena Rotsztejn
- Department of Cosmetology and Aesthetic Dermatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland
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Stalder J, Tennstedt D, Deleuran M, Fabbrocini G, de Lucas R, Haftek M, Taieb C, Coustou D, Mandeau A, Fabre B, Hernandez-Pigeon H, Aries M, Galliano M, Duplan H, Castex-Rizzi N, Bessou-Touya S, Mengeaud V, Rouvrais C, Schmitt A, Bottino R, Cottin K, Saint Aroman M. Fragility of epidermis and its consequence in dermatology. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2014; 28 Suppl 4:1-18. [DOI: 10.1111/jdv.12509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J.F. Stalder
- Department of Dermatology; University Hospital of Nantes; Nantes France
| | - D. Tennstedt
- Department of Dermatology; Saint-Luc University Clinics; Brussels Belgium
| | - M. Deleuran
- Department of Dermatology; Aarhus University Hospital; Aarhus Denmark
| | - G. Fabbrocini
- Department of Dermatology; University Hospital of Naples; Naples Italy
| | - R. de Lucas
- Department of Dermatology; University Hospital La Paz; Madrid Spain
| | | | | | | | - A. Mandeau
- Herbal Product Laboratory; Institut de Recherche Pierre Fabre; Toulouse France
| | - B. Fabre
- Herbal Product Laboratory; Institut de Recherche Pierre Fabre; Toulouse France
| | | | - M.F. Aries
- Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; Pharmacologie in vitro; Toulouse France
| | - M.F. Galliano
- Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; Pharmacologie in vitro; Toulouse France
| | - H. Duplan
- Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; Pharmacologie in vitro; Toulouse France
| | - N. Castex-Rizzi
- Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; Pharmacologie in vitro; Toulouse France
| | - S. Bessou-Touya
- Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; Pharmacologie in vitro; Toulouse France
| | - V. Mengeaud
- Pierre-Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; European Center of Skin Research; Hôtel Dieu Toulouse France
| | - C. Rouvrais
- Pierre-Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; European Center of Skin Research; Hôtel Dieu Toulouse France
| | - A.M. Schmitt
- Pierre-Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; European Center of Skin Research; Hôtel Dieu Toulouse France
| | - R. Bottino
- Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; Lavaur France
| | - K. Cottin
- Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique; Lavaur France
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Kim SH, Kim S, Choi HI, Choi YJ, Lee YS, Sohn KC, Lee Y, Kim CD, Yoon TJ, Lee JH, Lee YH. Callus formation is associated with hyperproliferation and incomplete differentiation of keratinocytes, and increased expression of adhesion molecules. Br J Dermatol 2010; 163:495-501. [PMID: 20456341 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2010.09842.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A callus is a local thickening of skin, characterized by accelerated keratinization and a reduced rate of desquamation. However, the mechanism of callus formation is not fully understood. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the expression patterns, in callused skin, of genes that are implicated in keratinization and adhesion/desquamation. METHODS Samples of skin from the dorsum of the foot (DF), centre of the plantar arch (CP) and anterior aspect of the heel (AH) were obtained from fresh cadavers, and protein and gene expression were determined by immunohistochemistry and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, respectively. RESULTS The stratum corneum in the DF showed a splitting phenotype by conventional haematoxylin and eosin staining, while the stratum corneum was normal in the AH. Cells of the stratum corneum in the AH were nonsquamous. Expression of cornification-related molecules including involucrin, filaggrin, caspase 14 and calcium-sensing receptor was higher in the AH. Similarly, expression of adhesive proteins such as corneodesmosin, desmoglein 1 and desmocollin 1 was increased in the AH. However, protease-activated receptor 2 expression was reduced in the stratum granulosum in the AH. The number of proliferating cells in the stratum basale was significantly increased in the AH, compared with the DF and CP. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that calluses form as a result of hyperproliferation and incomplete differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes, and increased expression of adhesion molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Kim
- Department of Anatomy, Research Institute for Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Chungnam National University, 55 Munhwa-ro, Daejeon 301-747, Korea
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Abstract
Since life in a terrestrial environment threatens mammals continuously with desiccation, the structural, cellular, biochemical, and regulatory mechanisms that sustain permeability barrier homeostasis have justifiably comprised a major thrust of prior and recent research on epidermal barrier function. Yet, the epidermis mediates a broad set of protective 'barrier' functions that includes defense against pathogen challenges. Permeability and antimicrobial function are both co-regulated and interdependent, overlapping through the dual activities of their lipid/protein constituents. Most of the defensive (barrier) functions of the epidermis localize to the stratum corneum (SC), which limits pathogen colonization through its low water content, acidic pH, resident (normal) microflora, and surface-deposited antimicrobial lipids (1 degree free fatty acid). These various barrier functions are largely mediated by either the corneocyte or the extracellular matrix, and it is both the localization and the organization of secreted hydrophobic lipids into characteristic lamellar bilayers that is critical not only for permeability barrier function, but also for antimicrobial function through its contribution to the maintenance of SC integrity. Low constitutive levels of antimicrobial peptides under basal conditions emphasize the key role of epithelial structure in antimicrobial defense. But antimicrobial peptide synthesis and delivery to the SC interstices accelerates after external insults to the barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M Elias
- Department of Dermatology, University of California San Francisco Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Hermanns-Lê T, Garcia R, Arrese JE, Piérard GE. Pitted Keratolysis: New Ultrastructural Insight in Keratohyalin Granule and Corneodesmosome Alterations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1159/000086942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Chang YT, Liu HN, Shiao YM, Lin MW, Lee DD, Liu MT, Wang WJ, Wu S, Lai CY, Tsai SF. A study of PSORS1C1 gene polymorphisms in Chinese patients with psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 2005; 153:90-6. [PMID: 16029332 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06570.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although genetic analyses have identified the HLA-Cw*0602 allele as the major risk allele for chronic plaque psoriasis in various ethnic groups, it has been proposed that the association of Cw*0602 is due to linkage disequilibrium and that other nearby genes are involved in susceptibility to psoriasis. The psoriasis susceptibility 1 candidate 1 (PSORS1C1, formerly SEEK1) gene, located 127 kb telomeric to the HLA-C locus, is considered to be one of the potential candidate genes of psoriasis. Up to the present, no association study of the PSORS1C1 gene has been conducted on Chinese patients with psoriasis. OBJECTIVES We aimed to determine whether the genetic polymorphisms of the PSORS1C1 gene were associated with an increased risk of psoriasis in Chinese patients. METHODS We investigated the PSORS1C1 gene for disease association by direct sequencing of the PSORS1C1 gene in 143 Chinese patients with chronic plaque psoriasis and 188 control subjects. Genotyping for HLA-Cw*0602 and the alpha-helix coiled-coil rod homologue (C6orf18, formerly HCR) gene was also carried out using a sequence-based typing method. RESULTS We identified 10 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on the PSORS1C1 gene in our subjects; four of these SNPs cause amino acid change. We also detected poly(C) repeat variants from nucleotide positions 386-392 (poly(C)6-8). The poly(C) repeat polymorphisms cause a frame shift mutation. Another poly(C) repeat variant was also found at nucleotide positions 748-751. No significantly different allelic distributions of the PSORS1C1 SNPs or poly(C) repeat polymorphisms could be found between the patients with chronic plaque psoriasis and controls after correction for multiple testing. However, a significant increase of the Cw*0602 allele and tryptophan-tryptophan allele of the C6orf18 gene (HCR*WW) was found in patients with early onset psoriasis (21.9% vs. 4.8%, P < 10(-7)). Haplotype-based association analysis also showed a susceptibility haplotype carrying Cw*0602 and HCR*WW alleles in early onset Chinese patients. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that the PSORS1C1 gene might not play an important role in the causation of chronic plaque psoriasis in Chinese people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y T Chang
- Department of Dermatology, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China.
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Ameen M, Allen MH, Fisher SA, Lewis CM, Cuthbert A, Kondeatis E, Vaughan RW, Murakami H, Nakagawa H, Barker JNWN. Corneodesmosin (CDSN) gene association with psoriasis vulgaris in Caucasian but not in Japanese populations. Clin Exp Dermatol 2005; 30:414-8. [PMID: 15953084 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2005.01789.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
PSORS1 on chromosome 6p21.3, which contains the MHC, is a major susceptibility locus for psoriasis vulgaris. This region is characterized by strong linkage disequilibrium and contains the corneodesmosin (CSDN) gene, an attractive candidate for psoriasis susceptibility based on its putative biological function in keratinocyte adhesion, and HLA-Cw6, an established marker for psoriasis susceptibility. We compared two genetically independent populations in order to define the major psoriasis susceptibility gene, a British Caucasian population comprising parent-offspring trios analysed by the transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) and a Japanese case-control population. All individuals were investigated for CDSN polymorphism (+619, +1236, +1240 and +1243) and HLA-C association. Our data confirms strong association with HLA-Cw6 and CDSN allele 5 (+619T, +1240G, +1243C) in the Caucasian cohort (TDT, P = 5.4 x 10(-6)) and in addition defines this region further by identifying a high-risk CDSN haplotype (allele 5 and +1236T, P = 8.5 x 10(-8)). In contrast no association was observed in the Japanese cohort for any HLA-C or CDSN alleles. This data supports a role for the CDSN gene in Caucasian populations with psoriasis. However the lack of association with HLA-Cw6 and CDSN alleles in Japanese psoriasis patients may be because Japanese patients exhibit a form of psoriasis similar to late onset or Type II psoriasis vulgaris in contrast to early onset or Type I disease characterizing our Caucasian population.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ameen
- St. John's Institute of Dermatology, Kings College, London, UK
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Löffler H, Dreher F, Maibach HI. Stratum corneum adhesive tape stripping: influence of anatomical site, application pressure, duration and removal. Br J Dermatol 2005; 151:746-52. [PMID: 15491413 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2004.06084.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tape stripping is a common method for investigating stratum corneum (SC) physiology as well as bioavailability and bioequivalence of topical drugs. OBJECTIVES To investigate the influence of procedures (anatomical site, pressure, pressure duration, tape removal rate) inherent in each stripping protocol on changes in skin physiology. METHODS Tape stripping was performed using tapes on the forearm, forehead and back. On the forearm different pressures (165 and 330 g cm(-2)), durations of pressure (2 and 10 s), and removal rate (slow and rapid removal) were used. Changes in skin physiology were evaluated by measurement of transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and hydration. RESULTS A significant influence of all parameters on the TEWL increase as a function of tape strip number was observed. The fastest increase was demonstrated on the forehead, followed by the back and, lastly, the forearm. Rapid removal produced a protracted increase in comparison with slow removal. Pressure for 10 s induced a faster increase in TEWL than 2 s pressure. Likewise, pressure at 330 g cm(-2) induced an earlier increase than pressure at 165 g cm(-2). Skin hydration was not influenced by the variables tested. CONCLUSIONS Tape stripping results are influenced dramatically by all investigated parameters. A dynamic SC stress test to investigate SC cohesion more closely is proposed based on the present observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Löffler
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Abstract
Psoriasis vulgaris is one of the most prevalent T cell-mediated inflammatory diseases in humans. It is multifactorial in origin and shows polygenic inheritance. Systemic immunosuppressive therapies play an important role in management of severe disease cases but are associated with variable response and toxicity. Within the last decade there have been significant advances in our understanding of the genetic basis of this complex disease and polymorphic candidate genes have been proposed. Susceptibility gene characterization together with an explosion in knowledge of its primary immune basis will further define disease pathways involved in psoriasis pathogenesis. This holds the promise of rational design of new therapeutic agents and pharmacogenetic testing to predict responders from non-responders and those at risk of toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahreen Ameen
- Department of Dermatology, St George's Hospital, Blackshaw Road, London, UK.
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Chang YT, Tsai SF, Lee DD, Shiao YM, Huang CY, Liu HN, Wang WJ, Wong CK. A study of candidate genes for psoriasis near HLA-C in Chinese patients with psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 2003; 148:418-23. [PMID: 12653732 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05166.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Genetic analyses have identified the HLA-Cw6 allele as the major risk allele for psoriasis in many racial groups. However, by serological typing, HLA-Cw6 is not considered a risk factor in Chinese psoriatics. There are several susceptibility genes for psoriasis residing in chromosome 6p near the HLA-C locus, including the corneodesmosin (CDSN) gene, the octamer transcription factor-3 (POU5F1) gene, the major histocompatibility complex class I chain-related gene A (MICA), and the gene for tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. However, the information about their role in psoriasis in Chinese patients is limited. OBJECTIVES We aimed to determine whether Cw6 and the genetic polymorphism of the CDSN gene, POU5F1 gene, MICA gene and the gene for TNF-alpha promoter region were associated with an increased risk of psoriasis in Chinese patients. METHODS We conducted a case-control association study in 105 Chinese patients with psoriasis vulgaris and 160 control subjects of similar ages. Genotypes of Cw6, the CDSN gene, the POU5F1 gene, and the gene for the TNF-alpha promoter region were determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by restriction enzyme digestion. Genotyping of MICA was determined by PCR combined with fluorescent-based automated fragment detection technology. Results The allele frequencies showed no differences between patients and controls for the POU5F1 gene, MICA gene and the gene for TNF-alpha promoter region. The frequency of the HLA-Cw6 allele in the psoriasis group was significantly higher than that in the control group (18.6% vs. 6.56%, P < 0.00005). For the CDSN gene, patients were more likely to have C allele at position +619 (P = 0.006) and C allele at position +1243 (P = 0.007), but the significance disappeared after correction for multiple testing (Pc > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS HLA-Cw6 remains the most significant susceptibility gene in Chinese patients with psoriasis. However, the role of the CDSN gene in the pathogenesis of psoriasis deserves further scrutiny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y T Chang
- Department of Dermatology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital and National Yang-Ming University, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Jenisch S, Koch S, Henseler T, Nair RP, Elder JT, Watts CE, Westphal E, Voorhees JJ, Christophers E, Krönke M. Corneodesmosin gene polymorphism demonstrates strong linkage disequilibrium with HLA and association with psoriasis vulgaris. TISSUE ANTIGENS 1999; 54:439-49. [PMID: 10599883 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-0039.1999.540501.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Corneodesmosin (CD) is thought to play a key role in corneocyte cohesion, and its proteolysis appears to be a major event in the process of desquamation. Recently it was shown that CD is encoded by the S-gene, which is located approximately 160 kb telomeric of HLA-C. In the present study, the role of CD in the genetics of psoriasis vulgaris was studied in greater detail. The second exon of the CD gene was sequenced in 86 HLA-typed individuals from 13 psoriasis multiplex families. A total of 11 silent dimorphisms and 7 variants resulting in amino acid substitutions were found. Pedigree analysis showed that these variants could be grouped into 7 alleles, encoding 6 different amino acid sequences. These alleles are in strong linkage disequilibrium with HLA-B and -C, indicating that the polymorphism of the CD gene is ancient and well conserved rather than sporadic. One allele at the CD locus, designated CD2, displayed strong linkage disequilibrium with HLA-Cw6, the HLA allele most prominently associated with psoriasis. CD2 demonstrated a greater relative risk than Cw6 (3.4 vs. 2.5, not significant) and higher significant transmission disequilibrium with psoriasis than any of the investigated HLA-alleles. Due to its biologic function, cellular location and disease association, the CD gene appears to be an excellent candidate gene for PSORS1, the HLA-linked determinant of psoriasis vulgaris.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Jenisch
- Department of Immunology, University of Kiel, Germany.
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