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Nosil P, de Carvalho CF, Villoutreix R, Zamorano LS, Sinclair-Waters M, Planidin NP, Parchman TL, Feder J, Gompert Z. Evolution repeats itself in replicate long-term studies in the wild. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadl3149. [PMID: 38787954 PMCID: PMC11122682 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adl3149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
The extent to which evolution is repeatable remains debated. Here, we study changes over time in the frequency of cryptic color-pattern morphs in 10 replicate long-term field studies of a stick insect, each spanning at least a decade (across 30 years of total data). We find predictable "up-and-down" fluctuations in stripe frequency in all populations, representing repeatable evolutionary dynamics based on standing genetic variation. A field experiment demonstrates that these fluctuations involve negative frequency-dependent natural selection (NFDS). These fluctuations rely on demographic and selective variability that pushes populations away from equilibrium, such that they can reliably move back toward it via NFDS. Last, we show that the origin of new cryptic forms is associated with multiple structural genomic variants such that which mutations arise affects evolution at larger temporal scales. Thus, evolution from existing variation is predictable and repeatable, but mutation adds complexity even for traits evolving deterministically under natural selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Nosil
- Theoretical and Experimental Ecology (SETE), CNRS, 2 route du CNRS, 09200 Moulis, France
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | - Laura S. Zamorano
- Theoretical and Experimental Ecology (SETE), CNRS, 2 route du CNRS, 09200 Moulis, France
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | | | - Jeffrey Feder
- Department of Biology, Notre Dame University, South Bend, IN 11111, USA
| | - Zach Gompert
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
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2
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Nosil P, Gompert Z, Funk DJ. Divergent dynamics of sexual and habitat isolation at the transition between stick insect populations and species. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2273. [PMID: 38480699 PMCID: PMC10937975 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46294-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Speciation is often viewed as a continuum along which populations diverge until they become reproductively-isolated species. However, such divergence may be heterogeneous, proceeding in fits and bursts, rather than being uniform and gradual. We show in Timema stick insects that one component of reproductive isolation evolves non-uniformly across this continuum, whereas another does not. Specifically, we use thousands of host-preference and mating trials to study habitat and sexual isolation among 42 pairs of taxa spanning a range of genomic differentiation and divergence time. We find that habitat isolation is uncoupled from genomic differentiation within species, but accumulates linearly with it between species. In contrast, sexual isolation accumulates linearly across the speciation continuum, and thus exhibits similar dynamics to morphological traits not implicated in reproductive isolation. The results show different evolutionary dynamics for different components of reproductive isolation and highlight a special relevance for species status in the process of speciation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Nosil
- CEFE, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Daniel J Funk
- Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA.
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3
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Hertaeg C, Vorburger C, De Moraes CM, Mescher MC. Effects of genotype and host environment on the cuticular hydrocarbon profiles of Lysiphlebus parasitoids and aggression by aphid-tending ants. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231642. [PMID: 37848063 PMCID: PMC10581773 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Parasitoids in the genus Lysiphlebus specialize on ant-tended aphids and have previously been reported to mimic the cuticular hydrocarbon (CHC) profiles of their aphid hosts to avoid detection by ants. However, the precise mechanisms that mediate reduced ant aggression toward Lysiphlebus spp. are not known, nor is it clear whether such mechanisms are broadly effective or specialized on particular aphid hosts. Here we explore the effects of wasp genotype and host environment on Lysiphlebus CHC profiles and ant aggression. Rearing asexual Lysiphlebus lines in different host aphid environments revealed effects of both wasp line and aphid host on wasp CHCs. However, variation in genotype and host affected different features of the CHC profile, with wasp genotype explaining most variation in linear and long-chain methyl alkanes, while aphid host environment primarily influenced short-chain methyl alkanes. Subsequent behavioural experiments revealed no effects of host environment on ant aggression, but strong evidence for genotypic effects. The influence of genotypic variation on experienced ant aggression and relevant chemical traits is particularly relevant in light of recent evidence for genetic divergence among Lysiphlebus parasitoids collected from different aphid hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne Hertaeg
- D-USYS, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Eawag, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Vorburger
- D-USYS, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Eawag, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Consuelo M. De Moraes
- D-USYS, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Mark C. Mescher
- D-USYS, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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4
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Susoy V, Samuel ADT. Evolutionarily conserved behavioral plasticity enables context-dependent mating in C. elegans. Curr Biol 2023; 33:4532-4537.e3. [PMID: 37769659 PMCID: PMC10615801 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2023.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Behavioral plasticity helps humans and animals to achieve their goals by adapting their behaviors to different environments.1,2 Although behavioral plasticity is ubiquitous, many innate species-specific behaviors, such as mating, are often assumed to be stereotyped and unaffected by plasticity or learning, especially in invertebrates. Here, we describe a novel case of behavioral plasticity in the nematode C. elegans. Under standard lab conditions (agar plates with bacterial food), the male performs parallel mating,3,4,5 a largely two-dimensional behavioral strategy where his body and tail remain flat on the surface and slide alongside the partner's body from initial contact to copulation. But when placed in liquid media, the male performs spiral mating, a distinctly three-dimensional behavioral strategy where he winds around the partner's body in a helical embrace. The performance of spiral mating does not require a long-term change in growing conditions, but it does improve with experience. This experience-dependent improvement appears to involve a critical period-a time window around the L4 larval stage to the early adult stage-which coincides with the development of most male-specific neurons. We tested several wild isolates of C. elegans and other Caenorhabditis species and found that most were capable of parallel mating on surfaces and spiral mating in liquids. We suggest that two- and three-dimensional mating strategies in Caenorhabditis are plastic, conditionally expressed phenotypes conserved across the genus, which can be genetically "fixed" in some species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav Susoy
- Department of Physics and Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
| | - Aravinthan D T Samuel
- Department of Physics and Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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5
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Jamie GA, Meier JI. The Persistence of Polymorphisms across Species Radiations. Trends Ecol Evol 2020; 35:795-808. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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6
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Villoutreix R, de Carvalho CF, Soria-Carrasco V, Lindtke D, De-la-Mora M, Muschick M, Feder JL, Parchman TL, Gompert Z, Nosil P. Large-scale mutation in the evolution of a gene complex for cryptic coloration. Science 2020; 369:460-466. [PMID: 32703880 DOI: 10.1126/science.aaz4351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 02/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The types of mutations affecting adaptation in the wild are only beginning to be understood. In particular, whether structural changes shape adaptation by suppressing recombination or by creating new mutations is unresolved. Here, we show that multiple linked but recombining loci underlie cryptic color morphs of Timema chumash stick insects. In a related species, these loci are found in a region of suppressed recombination, forming a supergene. However, in seven species of Timema, we found that a megabase-size "supermutation" has deleted color loci in green morphs. Moreover, we found that balancing selection likely contributes more to maintaining this mutation than does introgression. Our results show how suppressed recombination and large-scale mutation can help to package gene complexes into discrete units of diversity such as morphs, ecotypes, or species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Villoutreix
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.,Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175 CNRS-Université de Montpellier, École Pratique des Hautes Études, Université Paul Valéry, 34293 Montpellier 5, France
| | | | - Víctor Soria-Carrasco
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
| | - Dorothea Lindtke
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bern, Bern CH-3012, Switzerland
| | - Marisol De-la-Mora
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.,Escuela Nacional de Estudios Superiores, Unidad Juriquilla, Querétaro 76230, México
| | - Moritz Muschick
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, Bern 3012, Switzerland.,Department of Fish Ecology & Evolution, EAWAG, Swiss Federal Institute for Aquatic Science and Technology, Kastanienbaum CH-6047, Switzerland
| | - Jeffrey L Feder
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Thomas L Parchman
- Department of Biology, University of Nevada-Reno, Reno, NV 89557, USA
| | - Zach Gompert
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Patrik Nosil
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK. .,Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175 CNRS-Université de Montpellier, École Pratique des Hautes Études, Université Paul Valéry, 34293 Montpellier 5, France.,Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
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7
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Muschick M, Soria-Carrasco V, Feder JL, Gompert Z, Nosil P. Adaptive zones shape the magnitude of premating reproductive isolation in Timema stick insects. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190541. [PMID: 32654646 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Simpson's fossil-record inspired model of 'adaptive zones' proposes that evolution is dominated by small fluctuations within adaptive zones, occasionally punctuated by larger shifts between zones. This model can help explain why the process of population divergence often results in weak or moderate reproductive isolation (RI), rather than strong RI and distinct species. Applied to the speciation process, the adaptive zones hypothesis makes two inter-related predictions: (i) large shifts between zones are relatively rare, (ii) when large shifts do occur they generate stronger RI than shifts within zones. Here, we use ecological, phylogenetic and behavioural data to test these predictions in Timema stick insects. We show that host use in Timema is dominated by moderate shifts within the systematic divisions of flowering plants and conifers, with only a few extreme shifts between these divisions. However, when extreme shifts occur, they generate greater RI than do more moderate shifts. Our results support the adaptive zones model, and suggest that the net contribution of ecological shifts to diversification is dependent on both their magnitude and frequency. We discuss the generality of our findings in the light of emerging evidence from diverse taxa that the evolution of RI is not always the only factor determining the origin of species diversity. This article is part of the theme issue 'Towards the completion of speciation: the evolution of reproductive isolation beyond the first barriers'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Muschick
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.,Department of Fish Ecology and Evolution, Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute for Aquatic Science and Technology, 6047 Kastanienbaum, Switzerland.,Aquatic Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Víctor Soria-Carrasco
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.,Department of Crop Genetics, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Jeffrey L Feder
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Zach Gompert
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Patrik Nosil
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.,Center for Evolution and Functional Ecology, CNRS, 34000 Montpellier, France
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8
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Moffat CE, Takahashi MK, Pease SL, Brown JM, Heard SB, Abrahamson WG. Are Eurosta solidaginis on Solidago rugosa a divergent host-associated race? Evol Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-018-9966-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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9
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Larose C, Rasmann S, Schwander T. Evolutionary dynamics of specialisation in herbivorous stick insects. Ecol Lett 2018; 22:354-364. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.13197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Larose
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; University of Lausanne; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Sergio Rasmann
- Institute of Biology; University of Neuchatel; Rue Emile-Argand 11 CH-2000 Neuchâtel Switzerland
| | - Tanja Schwander
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; University of Lausanne; Lausanne Switzerland
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10
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Epps MJ, Arnold AE. Quantifying beetle-macrofungal associations in a temperate biodiversity hot spot. Mycologia 2018; 110:269-285. [DOI: 10.1080/00275514.2018.1430439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mary Jane Epps
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - A. Elizabeth Arnold
- School of Plant Sciences and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
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11
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Lindtke D, Lucek K, Soria-Carrasco V, Villoutreix R, Farkas TE, Riesch R, Dennis SR, Gompert Z, Nosil P. Long-term balancing selection on chromosomal variants associated with crypsis in a stick insect. Mol Ecol 2017; 26:6189-6205. [DOI: 10.1111/mec.14280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dorothea Lindtke
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Calgary; Calgary AB Canada
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield UK
| | - Kay Lucek
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield UK
- Department of Environmental Sciences; University of Basel; Basel Switzerland
| | | | - Romain Villoutreix
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield UK
| | - Timothy E. Farkas
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of Connecticut; Storrs CT USA
| | - Rüdiger Riesch
- School of Biological Sciences; Royal Holloway; University of London; Egham UK
| | - Stuart R. Dennis
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology; Dübendorf Switzerland
| | - Zach Gompert
- Department of Biology; Utah State University; Logan UT USA
| | - Patrik Nosil
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield UK
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12
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Gutiérrez-Valencia J, Gutiérrez Y, G. Dias L. Species delimitation in the crypsis-defended and polymorphic stick insects of the genusLibethra(Phasmatodea, Diapheromeridae). ZOOL SCR 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/zsc.12242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Juanita Gutiérrez-Valencia
- Erasmus Mundus Master Programme in Evolutionary Biology (MEME); University of Groningen; 9747 AG Groningen the Netherlands
| | - Yeisson Gutiérrez
- Institute of Landscape Ecology; Universtiy of Münster; 48149 Münster Germany
| | - Lucimar G. Dias
- Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences; Bionat Research Group; University of Caldas; Street 65, No. 26-10 A.A. 275 Manizales Colombia
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13
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Medina I, Langmore NE. The evolution of host specialisation in avian brood parasites. Ecol Lett 2016; 19:1110-8. [PMID: 27417381 DOI: 10.1111/ele.12649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Revised: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Traditional ecological theory predicts that specialisation can promote speciation; hence, recently derived species are specialists. However, an alternative view is that new species have broad niches, which become narrower and specialised over time. Here, we test these hypotheses using avian brood parasites and three different measures of host specialisation. Brood parasites provide an ideal system in which to investigate the evolution of specialisation, because some exploit more than 40 host species and others specialise on only one. We find that young brood parasite species are smaller and specialise on a narrower range of host sizes, as expected, if specialisation is linked with the generation of new species. Moreover, we show that highly virulent parasites are more specialised, supporting findings in other host-parasite systems. Finally, we demonstrate that different measures of specialisation can lead to different conclusions, and specialisation indices should be designed taking into account the biology of each system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iliana Medina
- Division of Ecology, Evolution and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Naomi E Langmore
- Division of Ecology, Evolution and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
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14
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Comeault AA, Carvalho CF, Dennis S, Soria-Carrasco V, Nosil P. Color phenotypes are under similar genetic control in two distantly related species ofTimemastick insect. Evolution 2016; 70:1283-96. [DOI: 10.1111/evo.12931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Aaron A. Comeault
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield S10 2TN United Kingdom
- Department of Biology; University of North Carolina; Chapel Hill North Carolina 27516
| | - Clarissa F. Carvalho
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield S10 2TN United Kingdom
| | - Stuart Dennis
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield S10 2TN United Kingdom
- Eawag, Department of Aquatic Ecology; Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology; Dübendorf Switzerland
| | - Víctor Soria-Carrasco
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield S10 2TN United Kingdom
| | - Patrik Nosil
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences; University of Sheffield; Sheffield S10 2TN United Kingdom
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15
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Mugleston J, Naegle M, Song H, Bybee SM, Ingley S, Suvorov A, Whiting MF. Reinventing the leaf: multiple origins of leaf-like wings in katydids (Orthoptera : Tettigoniidae). INVERTEBR SYST 2016. [DOI: 10.1071/is15055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Insects have developed incredible means to avoid detection by predators. At least five insect orders have species that resemble leaves. Katydids (Orthoptera : Tettigoniidae) are the most diverse and wide-ranging of the leaf-like insects. At least 14 of the 20 extant katydid subfamilies contain species with leaf-like wings. Although it is undisputed that many katydids resemble leaves, methods for delineating the leaf-like from non-leaf-like forms have varied by author and in many cases are not explicitly stated. We provide a simple ratio method that can be used to differentiate the leaf-like and non-leaf-like forms. Geometric morphometrics were used to validate the ratio method. Leaf-like wings have been independently derived in at least 15 katydid lineages. Relative rates of speciation were found to be greater in the non-leaf-like forms, suggesting that leaf-like wings within Tettigoniidae are not a driver of diversification. Likewise, throughout Tettigoniidae, selection seems to be favouring the transition away from leaf-like wings. However, within the large Phaneropterinae subclade, relative speciation and transition rates between the leaf-like and non-leaf-like forms do not differ significantly.
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16
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Gu H, Goodale E, Chen J. Does the role that frugivorous bird species play in seed dispersal networks influence the speed of evolutionary divergence? Glob Ecol Conserv 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2014.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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17
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Suzuki TK, Tomita S, Sezutsu H. Gradual and contingent evolutionary emergence of leaf mimicry in butterfly wing patterns. BMC Evol Biol 2014; 14:229. [PMID: 25421067 PMCID: PMC4261531 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-014-0229-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 10/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Special resemblance of animals to natural objects such as leaves provides a representative example of evolutionary adaptation. The existence of such sophisticated features challenges our understanding of how complex adaptive phenotypes evolved. Leaf mimicry typically consists of several pattern elements, the spatial arrangement of which generates the leaf venation-like appearance. However, the process by which leaf patterns evolved remains unclear. Results In this study we show the evolutionary origin and process for the leaf pattern in Kallima (Nymphalidae) butterflies. Using comparative morphological analyses, we reveal that the wing patterns of Kallima and 45 closely related species share the same ground plan, suggesting that the pattern elements of leaf mimicry have been inherited across species with lineage-specific changes of their character states. On the basis of these analyses, phylogenetic comparative methods estimated past states of the pattern elements and enabled reconstruction of the wing patterns of the most recent common ancestor. This analysis shows that the leaf pattern has evolved through several intermediate patterns. Further, we use Bayesian statistical methods to estimate the temporal order of character-state changes in the pattern elements by which leaf mimesis evolved, and show that the pattern elements changed their spatial arrangement (e.g., from a curved line to a straight line) in a stepwise manner and finally establish a close resemblance to a leaf venation-like appearance. Conclusions Our study provides the first evidence for stepwise and contingent evolution of leaf mimicry. Leaf mimicry patterns evolved in a gradual, rather than a sudden, manner from a non-mimetic ancestor. Through a lineage of Kallima butterflies, the leaf patterns evolutionarily originated through temporal accumulation of orchestrated changes in multiple pattern elements. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-014-0229-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takao K Suzuki
- Transgenic Silkworm Research Unit, Genetically Modified Organism Research Center, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 1-2 Oowashi, 305-8634, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | - Shuichiro Tomita
- Transgenic Silkworm Research Unit, Genetically Modified Organism Research Center, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 1-2 Oowashi, 305-8634, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
| | - Hideki Sezutsu
- Transgenic Silkworm Research Unit, Genetically Modified Organism Research Center, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 1-2 Oowashi, 305-8634, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.
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18
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Wang M, Béthoux O, Bradler S, Jacques FMB, Cui Y, Ren D. Under cover at pre-angiosperm times: a cloaked phasmatodean insect from the Early Cretaceous Jehol biota. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91290. [PMID: 24646906 PMCID: PMC3960115 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Fossil species that can be conclusively identified as stem-relatives of stick- and leaf-insects (Phasmatodea) are extremely rare, especially for the Mesozoic era. This dearth in the paleontological record makes assessments on the origin and age of the group problematic and impedes investigations of evolutionary key aspects, such as wing development, sexual size dimorphism and plant mimicry. Methodology/Principal Findings A new fossil insect species, Cretophasmomima melanogramma Wang, Béthoux and Ren sp. nov., is described on the basis of one female and two male specimens recovered from the Yixian Formation (Early Cretaceous, ca. 126±4 mya; Inner Mongolia, NE China; known as ‘Jehol biota’). The occurrence of a female abdominal operculum and of a characteristic ‘shoulder pad’ in the forewing allows for the interpretation of a true stem-Phasmatodea. In contrast to the situation in extant forms, sexual size dimorphism is only weakly female-biased in this species. The peculiar wing coloration, viz. dark longitudinal veins, suggests that the leaf-shaped plant organ from the contemporaneous ‘gymnosperm’ Membranifolia admirabilis was used as model for crypsis. Conclusions/Significance As early as in the Early Cretaceous, some stem-Phasmatodea achieved effective leaf mimicry, although additional refinements characteristic of recent forms, such as curved fore femora, were still lacking. The diversification of small-sized arboreal insectivore birds and mammals might have triggered the acquisition of such primary defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maomin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Insect Evolution and Environmental Changes, Capital Normal University, Beijing, P. R. China
| | - Olivier Béthoux
- Sorbonne Universités - CR2P - MNHN, CNRS, UPMC-Paris6, Paris, France
| | - Sven Bradler
- Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach-Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Frédéric M. B. Jacques
- Laboratory of Palaeoecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, CAS, Menglun, Mengla, Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, P. R. China
| | - Yingying Cui
- Key Laboratory of Insect Evolution and Environmental Changes, Capital Normal University, Beijing, P. R. China
- Institute of Geology, Department of Palaeontology, Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany
| | - Dong Ren
- Key Laboratory of Insect Evolution and Environmental Changes, Capital Normal University, Beijing, P. R. China
- * E-mail:
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Roy D, Seehausen O, Nosil P. Sexual dimorphism dominates divergent host plant use in stick insect trophic morphology. BMC Evol Biol 2013; 13:135. [PMID: 23819550 PMCID: PMC3707739 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Clear examples of ecological speciation exist, often involving divergence in trophic morphology. However, substantial variation also exists in how far the ecological speciation process proceeds, potentially linked to the number of ecological axes, traits, or genes subject to divergent selection. In addition, recent studies highlight how differentiation might occur between the sexes, rather than between populations. We examine variation in trophic morphology in two host-plant ecotypes of walking-stick insects (Timema cristinae), known to have diverged in morphological traits related to crypsis and predator avoidance, and to have reached an intermediate point in the ecological speciation process. Here we test how host plant use, sex, and rearing environment affect variation in trophic morphology in this species using traditional multivariate, novel kernel density based and Bayesian morphometric analyses. RESULTS Contrary to expectations, we find limited host-associated divergence in mandible shape. Instead, the main predictor of shape variation is sex, with secondary roles of population of origin and rearing environment. CONCLUSION Our results show that trophic morphology does not strongly contribute to host-adapted ecotype divergence in T. cristinae and that traits can respond to complex selection regimes by diverging along different intraspecific lines, thereby impeding progress toward speciation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Roy
- Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada.
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20
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Habermannová J, Bogusch P, Straka J. Flexible host choice and common host switches in the evolution of generalist and specialist cuckoo bees (Anthophila: Sphecodes). PLoS One 2013; 8:e64537. [PMID: 23691244 PMCID: PMC3656848 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0064537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Specialization makes resource use more efficient and should therefore be a common process in animal evolution. However, this process is not as universal in nature as one might expect. Our study shows that Sphecodes (Halictidae) cuckoo bees frequently change their host over the course of their evolution. To test the evolutionary scenario of host specialization in cuckoo bees, we constructed well-supported phylogenetic trees based on partial sequences of five genes for subtribe Sphecodina (Halictini). We detected up to 17 host switches during Sphecodes evolution based on 37 ingroup species subject to mapping analysis of the hosts associated with the cuckoo bee species. We also examine the direction of evolution of host specialization in Sphecodes using the likelihood ratio test and obtain results to support the bidirectional evolutionary scenario in which specialists can arise from generalists, and vice versa. We explain the existence of generalist species in Sphecodes based on their specialization at the individual level, which is recently known in two species. Our findings suggest flexible host choice and frequent host switches in the evolution of Sphecodes cuckoo bees. This scenario leads us to propose an individual choice constancy hypothesis based on the individual specialization strategy in cuckoo bees. Choice constancy has a close relationship to flower constancy in bees and might be an extension of the latter. Our analysis also shows relationships among the genera Microsphecodes, Eupetersia, Sphecodes and Austrosphecodes, a formerly proposed Sphecodes subgenus. Austrosphecodes species form a basal lineage of the subtribe, and Microsphecodes makes it paraphyletic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Habermannová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Bogusch
- Department of Biology, University of Hradec Králové, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Straka
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Praha, Czech Republic
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21
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Nosil P, Parchman TL, Feder JL, Gompert Z. Do highly divergent loci reside in genomic regions affecting reproductive isolation? A test using next-generation sequence data in Timema stick insects. BMC Evol Biol 2012; 12:164. [PMID: 22938057 PMCID: PMC3502483 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-12-164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Genetic divergence during speciation with gene flow is heterogeneous across the genome, with some regions exhibiting stronger differentiation than others. Exceptionally differentiated regions are often assumed to experience reduced introgression, i.e., reduced flow of alleles from one population into another because such regions are affected by divergent selection or cause reproductive isolation. In contrast, the remainder of the genome can be homogenized by high introgression. Although many studies have documented variation across the genome in genetic differentiation, there are few tests of this hypothesis that explicitly quantify introgression. Here, we provide such a test using 38,304 SNPs in populations of Timema cristinae stick insects. We quantify whether loci that are highly divergent between geographically separated (‘allopatric’) populations exhibit unusual patterns of introgression in admixed populations. To the extent this is true, highly divergent loci between allopatric populations contribute to reproductive isolation in admixed populations. Results As predicted, we find a substantial association between locus-specific divergence between allopatric populations and locus-specific introgression in admixed populations. However, many loci depart from this relationship, sometimes strongly so. We also report evidence for selection against foreign alleles due to local adaptation. Conclusions Loci that are strongly differentiated between allopatric populations sometimes contribute to reproductive isolation in admixed populations. However, geographic variation in selection and local adaptation, in aspects of genetic architecture (such as organization of genes, recombination rate variation, number and effect size of variants contributing to adaptation, etc.), and in stochastic evolutionary processes such as drift can cause strong differentiation of loci that do not always contribute to reproductive isolation. The results have implications for the theory of ‘genomic islands of speciation’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Nosil
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder 80303, USA.
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22
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MADDIN HILLARYC, RUSSELL ANTHONYP, ANDERSON JASONS. Phylogenetic implications of the morphology of the braincase of caecilian amphibians (Gymnophiona). Zool J Linn Soc 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00838.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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23
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Accelerated speciation in colour-polymorphic birds. Nature 2012; 485:631-4. [DOI: 10.1038/nature11050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Accepted: 03/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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24
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Forister ML, Dyer LA, Singer MS, Stireman III JO, Lill JT. Revisiting the evolution of ecological specialization, with emphasis on insect–plant interactions. Ecology 2012; 93:981-91. [DOI: 10.1890/11-0650.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 217] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Comeault AA, Sommers M, Schwander T, Buerkle CA, Farkas TE, Nosil P, Parchman TL. De novo characterization of the Timema cristinae transcriptome facilitates marker discovery and inference of genetic divergence. Mol Ecol Resour 2012; 12:549-61. [PMID: 22339780 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-0998.2012.03121.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Adaptation to different ecological environments can promote speciation. Although numerous examples of such 'ecological speciation' now exist, the genomic basis of the process, and the role of gene flow in it, remains less understood. This is, at least in part, because systems that are well characterized in terms of their ecology often lack genomic resources. In this study, we characterize the transcriptome of Timema cristinae stick insects, a system that has been researched intensively in terms of ecological speciation, but for which genomic resources have not been previously developed. Specifically, we obtained >1 million 454 sequencing reads that assembled into 84,937 contigs representing approximately 18,282 unique genes and tens of thousands of potential molecular markers. Second, as an illustration of their utility, we used these genomic resources to assess multilocus genetic divergence within both an ecotype pair and a species pair of Timema stick insects. The results suggest variable levels of genetic divergence and gene flow among taxon pairs and genes and illustrate a first step towards future genomic work in Timema.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron A Comeault
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80303, USA.
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26
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Geographic host use variability and host range evolutionary dynamics in the phytophagous insect Apagomerella versicolor (Cerambycidae). Oecologia 2010; 165:387-402. [PMID: 20931235 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-010-1782-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2008] [Accepted: 09/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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27
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Kato T, Bonet A, Yoshitake H, Romero-Nápoles J, Jinbo U, Ito M, Shimada M. Evolution of host utilization patterns in the seed beetle genus Mimosestes Bridwell (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2010; 55:816-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2009] [Revised: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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28
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Colles A, Liow LH, Prinzing A. Are specialists at risk under environmental change? Neoecological, paleoecological and phylogenetic approaches. Ecol Lett 2009; 12:849-63. [PMID: 19580588 PMCID: PMC2730552 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01336.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The question 'what renders a species extinction prone' is crucial to biologists. Ecological specialization has been suggested as a major constraint impeding the response of species to environmental changes. Most neoecological studies indicate that specialists suffer declines under recent environmental changes. This was confirmed by many paleoecological studies investigating longer-term survival. However, phylogeneticists, studying the entire histories of lineages, showed that specialists are not trapped in evolutionary dead ends and could even give rise to generalists. Conclusions from these approaches diverge possibly because (i) of approach-specific biases, such as lack of standardization for sampling efforts (neoecology), lack of direct observations of specialization (paleoecology), or binary coding and prevalence of specialists (phylogenetics); (ii) neoecologists focus on habitat specialization; (iii) neoecologists focus on extinction of populations, phylogeneticists on persistence of entire clades through periods of varying extinction and speciation rates; (iv) many phylogeneticists study species in which specialization may result from a lack of constraints. We recommend integrating the three approaches by studying common datasets, and accounting for range-size variation among species, and we suggest novel hypotheses on why certain specialists may not be particularly at risk and consequently why certain generalists deserve no less attention from conservationists than specialists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Colles
- Unit "Ecobio", University Rennes 1, CNRS, Campus Beaulieu, Bâtiment 14A, 35042 Rennes, France
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29
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Nosil P. ADAPTIVE POPULATION DIVERGENCE IN CRYPTIC COLOR-PATTERN FOLLOWING A REDUCTION IN GENE FLOW. Evolution 2009; 63:1902-12. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00671.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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30
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De Vienne DM, Refrégier G, Hood ME, Guigue A, Devier B, Vercken E, Smadja C, Deseille A, Giraud T. Hybrid sterility and inviability in the parasitic fungal species complex Microbotryum. J Evol Biol 2009; 22:683-98. [PMID: 19228274 DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01702.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Microbotryum violaceum, the anther-smut fungus, forms a complex of sibling species which specialize on different plants. Previous studies have shown the presence of partial ecological isolation and F1 inviability, but did not detect assortative mating apart from a high selfing rate. We investigated other post-mating barriers and show that F1 hybrid sterility, the inability of gametes to mate, increased gradually with the increasing genetic distance between the parents. F2 hybrids showed a reduced ability to infect the plants that was also correlated with the genetic distance. The host on which the F2 hybrids were passaged caused a selection for alleles derived from the pathogen species originally isolated from that host, but this effect was not detectable for the most closely related species. The post-mating barriers thus remain weak among the closest species pairs, suggesting that premating barriers are sufficient to initiate divergence in this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M De Vienne
- Ecologie, Systématique et Evolution, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay Cedex, France
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31
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NOSIL PATRIK, YUKILEVICH ROMAN. Mechanisms of reinforcement in natural and simulated polymorphic populations. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01048.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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32
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NOSIL PATRIK. Ernst Mayr and the integration of geographic and ecological factors in speciation. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01091.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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33
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Trewick SA, Morgan-Richards M, Collins LJ. Are you my mother? Phylogenetic analysis reveals orphan hybrid stick insect genus is part of a monophyletic New Zealand clade. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2008; 48:799-808. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2007] [Revised: 03/06/2008] [Accepted: 05/20/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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34
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SANDOVAL CRISTINAP, CRESPI BERNARDJ. Adaptive evolution of cryptic coloration: the shape of host plants and dorsal stripes in Timema walking-sticks. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2007.00941.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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35
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Ecological niche dimensionality and the evolutionary diversification of stick insects. PLoS One 2008; 3:e1907. [PMID: 18382680 PMCID: PMC2270911 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2007] [Accepted: 02/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The degree of phenotypic divergence and reproductive isolation between taxon pairs can vary quantitatively, and often increases as evolutionary divergence proceeds through various stages, from polymorphism to population differentiation, ecotype and race formation, speciation, and post-speciational divergence. Although divergent natural selection promotes divergence, it does not always result in strong differentiation. For example, divergent selection can fail to complete speciation, and distinct species pairs sometimes collapse (‘speciation in reverse’). Widely-discussed explanations for this variability concern genetic architecture, and the geographic arrangement of populations. A less-explored possibility is that the degree of phenotypic and reproductive divergence between taxon pairs is positively related to the number of ecological niche dimensions (i.e., traits) subject to divergent selection. Some data supporting this idea stem from laboratory experimental evolution studies using Drosophila, but tests from nature are lacking. Here we report results from manipulative field experiments in natural populations of herbivorous Timema stick insects that are consistent with this ‘niche dimensionality’ hypothesis. In such insects, divergent selection between host plants might occur for cryptic colouration (camouflage to evade visual predation), physiology (to detoxify plant chemicals), or both of these niche dimensions. We show that divergent selection on the single niche dimension of cryptic colouration can result in ecotype formation and intermediate levels of phenotypic and reproductive divergence between populations feeding on different hosts. However, greater divergence between a species pair involved divergent selection on both niche dimensions. Although further replication of the trends reported here is required, the results suggest that dimensionality of selection may complement genetic and geographic explanations for the degree of diversification in nature.
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36
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Wellenreuther M, Barrett PT, Clements KD. The evolution of habitat specialisation in a group of marine triplefin fishes. Evol Ecol 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-008-9255-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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37
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Nosil P, Egan SP, Funk DJ. Heterogeneous genomic differentiation between walking-stick ecotypes: "isolation by adaptation" and multiple roles for divergent selection. Evolution 2007; 62:316-36. [PMID: 17999721 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00299.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 320] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Genetic differentiation can be highly variable across the genome. For example, loci under divergent selection and those tightly linked to them may exhibit elevated differentiation compared to neutral regions. These represent "outlier loci" whose differentiation exceeds neutral expectations. Adaptive divergence can also increase genome-wide differentiation by promoting general barriers to neutral gene flow, thereby facilitating genomic divergence via genetic drift. This latter process can yield a positive correlation between adaptive phenotypic divergence and neutral genetic differentiation (described here as "isolation-by-adaptation"). Here, we examine both these processes by combining an AFLP genome scan of two host plant ecotypes of Timema cristinae walking-sticks with existing data on adaptive phenotypic divergence and ecological speciation in these insects. We found that about 8% of loci are outliers in multiple population comparisons. Replicated comparisons between population-pairs using the same versus different host species revealed that 1-2% of loci are subject to host-related selection specifically. Locus-specific analyses revealed that up to 10% of putatively neutral (nonoutlier) AFLP loci exhibit significant isolation-by-adaptation. Our results suggest that selection may affect differentiation directly, via linkage, or by facilitating genetic drift. They thus illustrate the varied and sometimes nonintuitive contributions of selection to heterogeneous genomic differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Nosil
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
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38
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Blüthgen N, Metzner A. Contrasting leaf age preferences of specialist and generalist stick insects (Phasmida). OIKOS 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0030-1299.2007.16037.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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39
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Abstract
Migration tends to oppose the effects of divergent natural selection among populations. Numerous theoretical and empirical studies have demonstrated that this migration-selection balance constrains genetic divergence among populations. In contrast, relatively few studies have examined immigration's effects on fitness and natural selection within recipient populations. By constraining local adaptation, migration can lead to reduced fitness, known as a "migration load," which in turn causes persistent natural selection. We develop a simple two-island model of migration-selection balance that, although very general, also reflects the natural history of Timema cristinae walking-stick insects that inhabit two host plant species that favor different cryptic color patterns. We derive theoretical predictions about how migration rates affect the level of maladaptation within populations (measured as the frequency of less-cryptic color-pattern morphs), which in turn determines the selection differential (the within-generation morph frequency change). Using data on color morph frequencies from 25 natural populations, we confirm previous results showing that maladaptation is higher in populations receiving more immigrants. We then present novel evidence that this increased maladaptation leads to larger selection differentials, consistent with our model. Our results provide comparative evidence that immigration elevates the variance in fitness, which in turn leads to larger selection differentials, consistent with Fisher's Theorem of Natural Selection. However, we also find evidence that recurrent adult migration between parapatric populations may tend to obscure the effects of selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel I Bolnick
- Section of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, USA.
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40
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Nosil P. Divergent Host Plant Adaptation and Reproductive Isolation between Ecotypes of Timema cristinae Walking Sticks. Am Nat 2007; 169:151-62. [PMID: 17211800 DOI: 10.1086/510634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 192] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2006] [Accepted: 09/22/2006] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Theoretical and empirical studies have demonstrated that divergent natural selection can promote the evolution of reproductive isolation. Three unresolved questions concern the types of reproductive barriers involved, the role of geography, and the factors determining the extent of progress toward complete speciation. Here I synthesize studies of Timema cristinae host plant ecotypes to address these issues. The approach is to compare the magnitude of multiple reproductive barriers among different ecological and geographic scenarios, where pairs of populations within each scenario are the unit of replication. Application of this approach to T. cristinae revealed that divergent host adaptation can promote the evolution of diverse reproductive barriers, including those that are not inherently ecological. Gene flow in parapatry tended to constrain divergence, with the notable exception of the reinforcement of sexual isolation. Thus, geography affected progress toward speciation but did not influence all reproductive barriers in the same way. Studies of any single pair of taxa often capture only certain stages of the speciation process. For example, reproductive isolation between T. cristinae ecotypes is incomplete, and so only the stages before the completion of speciation have been examined. Studies of more divergent taxa within the genus are required to determine the factors that complete speciation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Nosil
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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41
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Friar EA, Prince LM, Roalson EH, McGlaughlin ME, Cruse-Sanders JM, Groot SJD, Porter JM. ECOLOGICAL SPECIATION IN THE EAST MAUI-ENDEMIC DUBAUTIA (ASTERACEAE) SPECIES. Evolution 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00522.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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42
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Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Gries R, Gries G. Natural selection and divergence in mate preference during speciation. Genetica 2006; 129:309-27. [PMID: 16900317 DOI: 10.1007/s10709-006-0013-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2005] [Accepted: 04/25/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Sexual isolation can evolve due to natural selection against hybrids (reinforcement). However, many different forms of hybrid dysfunction, and selective processes that do not involve hybrids, can contribute to the evolution of sexual isolation. Here we review how different selective processes affect the evolution of sexual isolation, describe approaches for distinguishing among them, and assess how they contribute to variation in sexual isolation among populations of Timema cristinae stick-insects. Pairs of allopatric populations of T. cristinae living on different host-plant species exhibit greater sexual isolation than those on the same host, indicating that some sexual isolation has evolved due to host adaptation. Sexual isolation is strongest in regions where populations on different hosts are in geographic contact, a pattern of reproductive character displacement that is indicative of reinforcement. Ecological costs to hybridization do occur but traits under ecological selection (predation) do not co-vary strongly with the probability of between-population mating such that selection on ecological traits is not predicted to produce a strong correlated evolutionary response in mate preference. Moreover, F1 hybrid egg inviability is lacking and the factors contributing to reproductive character displacement require further study. Finally, we show that sexual isolation involves, at least in part, olfactory communication. Our results illustrate how understanding of the evolution of sexual isolation can be enhanced by isolating the roles of diverse ecological and evolutionary processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Nosil
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
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Nosil P, Crespi BJ. Experimental evidence that predation promotes divergence in adaptive radiation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:9090-5. [PMID: 16754870 PMCID: PMC1482571 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0601575103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Adaptive radiation is the evolution of ecological and phenotypic diversity within a rapidly multiplying lineage. Recent studies have identified general patterns in adaptive radiation and inferred that resource competition is a primary factor driving phenotypic divergence. The role and importance of other processes, such as predation, remains controversial. Here we use Timema stick insects to show that adaptive radiation can be driven by divergent selection from visual predators. Ecotypes using different host-plant species satisfy criteria for the early stages of adaptive radiation and differ in quantitative aspects of color, color pattern, body size, and body shape. A manipulative field experiment demonstrates that the direction and strength of divergent selection on these traits is strongly positively correlated with the direction and magnitude of their population divergence in nature but only when selection is estimated in the presence of predation. Our results indicate that both competition and predation may commonly serve as mechanisms of adaptive radiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Nosil
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6.
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44
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Agosta SJ. On ecological fitting, plant-insect associations, herbivore host shifts, and host plant selection. OIKOS 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.15025.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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45
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Nosil P, Sandoval CP, Crespi BJ. The evolution of host preference in allopatric vs. parapatric populations of Timema cristinae walking-sticks. J Evol Biol 2006; 19:929-42. [PMID: 16674589 DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.01035.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Divergent habitat preferences can contribute to speciation, as has been observed for host-plant preferences in phytophagous insects. Geographic variation in host preference can provide insight into the causes of preference evolution. For example, selection against maladaptive host-switching occurs only when multiple hosts are available in the local environment and can result in greater divergence in regions with multiple vs. a single host. Conversely, costs of finding a suitable host can select for preference even in populations using a single host. Some populations of Timema cristinae occur in regions with only one host-plant species present (in allopatry, surrounded by unsuitable hosts) whereas others occur in regions with two host-plant species adjacent to one another (in parapatry). Here, we use host choice and reciprocal-rearing experiments to document genetic divergence in host preference among 33 populations of T. cristinae. Populations feeding on Ceanothus exhibited a stronger preference for Ceanothus than did populations feeding on Adenostoma. Both allopatric and parapatric pairs of populations using the different hosts exhibited divergent host preferences, but the degree of divergence tended to be greater between allopatric pairs. Thus, gene flow between parapatric populations apparently constrains divergence. Host preferences led to levels of premating isolation between populations using alternate hosts that were comparable in magnitude to previously documented premating isolation caused by natural and sexual selection against migrants between hosts. Our findings demonstrate how gene flow and different forms of selection interact to determine the magnitude of reproductive isolation observed in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Nosil
- Department of Biosciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby BC, Canada.
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46
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Nosil P, Crespi BJ. Ecological divergence promotes the evolution of cryptic reproductive isolation. Proc Biol Sci 2006; 273:991-7. [PMID: 16627285 PMCID: PMC1560232 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2005] [Accepted: 09/28/2005] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Speciation can involve the evolution of 'cryptic' reproductive isolation that occurs after copulation but before hybrid offspring are produced. Because such cryptic barriers to gene exchange involve post-mating sexual interactions, analyses of their evolution have focused on sexual conflict or traditional sexual selection. Here, we show that ecological divergence between populations of herbivorous walking sticks is integral to the evolution of cryptic reproductive isolation. Low female fitness following between-population mating can reduce gene exchange between populations, thus acting as a form of cryptic isolation. Female walking sticks show reduced oviposition rate and lower lifetime fecundity following between-population versus within-population mating, but only for mating between populations using different host-plant species. Our results indicate that even inherently sexual forms of reproductive isolation can evolve as a by-product of ecological divergence and that post-mating sexual interactions do not necessarily evolve independently of the ecological environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Nosil
- Department of Biosciences, Behavioural Ecology Research Group, Simon Fraser University 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada.
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47
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Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Sandoval CP, Kirkpatrick M. Migration and the Genetic Covariance between Habitat Preference and Performance. Am Nat 2006; 167:E66-78. [PMID: 16673338 DOI: 10.1086/499383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2005] [Accepted: 10/17/2005] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Studies of the genetic covariance between habitat preference and performance have reported conflicting outcomes ranging from no covariance to strong covariance. The causes of this variability remain unclear. Here we show that variation in the magnitude of genetic covariance can result from variability in migration regimes. Using data from walking stick insects and a mathematical model, we find that genetic covariance within populations between host plant preference and a trait affecting performance on different hosts (cryptic color pattern) varies in magnitude predictably among populations according to migration regimes. Specifically, genetic covariance within populations is high in heterogeneous habitats where migration between populations locally adapted to different host plants generates nonrandom associations (i.e., linkage disequilibrium) between alleles at color pattern and host preference loci. Conversely, genetic covariance is low in homogeneous habitats where a single host exists and migration between hosts does not occur. Our results show that habitat structure and patterns of migration can strongly affect the evolution and variability of genetic covariance within populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Nosil
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada.
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48
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Friar EA, Prince LM, Roalson EH, McGlaughlin ME, Cruse-Sanders JM, De Groot SJ, Porter JM. ECOLOGICAL SPECIATION IN THE EAST MAUI–ENDEMIC DUBAUTIA (ASTERACEAE) SPECIES. Evolution 2006. [DOI: 10.1554/05-345.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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49
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SIPES SEDONIAD, TEPEDINO VINCENTJ. Pollen-host specificity and evolutionary patterns of host switching in a clade of specialist bees (Apoidea: Diadasia). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00544.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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50
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Sandoval CP, Nosil P. COUNTERACTING SELECTIVE REGIMES AND HOST PREFERENCE EVOLUTION IN ECOTYPES OF TWO SPECIES OF WALKING-STICKS. Evolution 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb00950.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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