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Sublethal effects of pesticide residues differ between strains of captive Grey partridge: consequences in terms of rearing conditions. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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2
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Birds adapted to cold conditions show greater changes in range size related to past climatic oscillations than temperate birds. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10813. [PMID: 35752649 PMCID: PMC9233688 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14972-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Investigation of ecological responses of species to past climate oscillations provides crucial information to understand the effects of global warming. In this work, we investigated how past climate changes affected the distribution of six bird species with different climatic requirements and migratory behaviours in the Western Palearctic and in Africa. Species Distribution Models and Marine Isotopic Stage (MIS) 2 fossil occurrences of selected species were employed to evaluate the relation between changes in range size and species climatic tolerances. The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) range predictions, generally well supported by the MIS 2 fossil occurrences, suggest that cold-dwelling species considerably expanded their distribution in the LGM, experiencing more pronounced net changes in range size compared to temperate species. Overall, the thermal niche proves to be a key ecological trait for explaining the impact of climate change in species distributions. Thermal niche is linked to range size variations due to climatic oscillations, with cold-adapted species currently suffering a more striking range reduction compared to temperate species. This work also supports the persistence of Afro-Palearctic migrations during the LGM due to the presence of climatically suitable wintering areas in Africa even during glacial maxima.
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Fontaneto D, Viola P, Pizzirani C, Chiesa S, Rossetti A, Amici A, Lucentini L. Mismatches between Morphology and DNA in Italian Partridges May Not Be Explained Only by Recent Artificial Release of Farm-Reared Birds. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12050541. [PMID: 35268110 PMCID: PMC8908819 DOI: 10.3390/ani12050541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Translocations and releases of farm-reared birds are considered among the major drivers of genetic pollution with consequent loss of genetic diversity in wild populations. In this study, we aimed to assess the extent of hybridization and introgression in the Italian partridges as a consequence of translocation. We surveyed two mitochondrial markers and one nuclear marker of Alectoris and Perdix from collections (museums and private collections), extant wild populations and farms. Consistent with previous studies, we found haplotypes of allochthonous species within the same genus, likely due to introductions for hunting activities. In addition, we found hybrids between Perdix and Alectoris species with genetic markers from both genera in single individuals. Such introgression was bidirectional and in both mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Counterintuitively, most of the hybrid samples came from collections before the 1950s, when large-scale translocations started, from wild populations where Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix) and Rock Partridge (Alectoris graeca) overlap in their distribution, whereas only one hybrid occurred among the farmed birds. Our results suggest that Perdix and Alectoris species can hybridize in nature and that artificial translocations and releases of farm-reared birds for restocking or reintroduction purposes may be only partially responsible for the genomic mismatches of Italian partridges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Fontaneto
- Molecular Ecology Group (MEG), Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), 28922 Verbania Pallanza, Italy;
| | - Paolo Viola
- Department of Agriculture and Forest Science, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy;
| | - Claudia Pizzirani
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnologies, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy; (C.P.); (L.L.)
| | - Stefania Chiesa
- Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, 30172 Venice, Italy;
- ISPRA—The Italian Institute for Environmental Protection and Research, 00144 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Andrea Amici
- Department of Agriculture and Forest Science, University of Tuscia, 01100 Viterbo, Italy;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-3391731327
| | - Livia Lucentini
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Biotechnologies, University of Perugia, 06123 Perugia, Italy; (C.P.); (L.L.)
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Cardador L, Abellán P, Blackburn TM. Incorporating phylogeographic information in alien bird distribution models increases geographic extent but not accuracy of predictions. Biol Invasions 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-021-02673-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Pârâu LG, Wink M. Common patterns in the molecular phylogeography of western palearctic birds: a comprehensive review. JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY 2021; 162:937-959. [PMID: 34007780 PMCID: PMC8118378 DOI: 10.1007/s10336-021-01893-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED A plethora of studies have offered crucial insights in the phylogeographic status of Western Palearctic bird species. However, an overview integrating all this information and analyzing the combined results is still missing. In this study, we compiled all published peer-reviewed and grey literature available on the phylogeography of Western Palearctic bird species. Our literature review indicates a total number of 198 studies, with the overwhelming majority published as journal articles (n = 186). In total, these literature items offer information on 145 bird species. 85 of these species are characterized by low genetic differentiation, 46 species indicate genetic variation but no geographic structuring i.e. panmixia, while 14 species show geographically distinct lineages and haplotypes. Majority of bird species inhabiting the Western Palearctic display genetic admixture. The glaciation cycles in the past few million years were pivotal factors in shaping this situation: during warm periods many species expanded their distribution range to the north over wide areas of Eurasia; whereas, during ice ages most areas were no longer suitable and species retreated to refugia, where lineages mixed. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10336-021-01893-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liviu G. Pârâu
- Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology, Department Biology, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 364, 4 OG, Heidelberg, Germany
- Present Address: SARS-CoV-2 Data Evaluation Office, Eurofins Genomics Europe Applied Genomics GmbH, Anzinger Straße 7a, 85560 Ebersberg, Germany
| | - Michael Wink
- Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology, Department Biology, Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 364, 4 OG, Heidelberg, Germany
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Rinaud T, Harmange C, Pays O, Sarasa M, Saillard M, Bretagnolle V. Interspecific competition between two partridges in farmland landscapes. Anim Behav 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Forcina G, Guerrini M, Barbanera F. Non-native and hybrid in a changing environment: conservation perspectives for the last Italian red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) population with long natural history. ZOOLOGY 2019; 138:125740. [PMID: 31935616 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2019.125740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The ever-increasing biotic homogenization - especially when associated with introgressive hybridization - raises concern for the reduction of the spatial component of diversity in wildlife worldwide. Nonetheless, there is a growing attention to the potential conservation value of hybridization in fastening the adaptive evolutionary responses to rapidly changing selective pressures. Under these premises, we investigated the genetic affinity of the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) population inhabiting Elba Island (Italy) in the context of the overall species phylogeography and particularly of the nominate subspecies it is traditionally ascribed to. Although notoriously hybrid with the congeneric A. chukar, this island population is of undisputedly value because of its long natural history and self-sustainability. As such, its adaptive conservation management calls for a comprehensive knowledge including the assessment of its geographic origin. For this purpose, 110 fecal samples were collected across Elba, genotyped at their joint Cytochrome-b and Control Region genes (2,249 characters), and compared with 149 conspecifics from all over the species distribution range. We confirmed a widespread A. chukar mitochondrial DNA introgression in Elba partridges, whereas their expected formal assignment to the nominate subspecies from Italy and France was rejected, since these turned out to be closely related to conspecifics from the Iberian Peninsula. This counterintuitive result found support in a large variety of literary sources and compelling evidences from personal testimonies revealing recent intense management with farm-reared birds of Spanish origin. Although the nativeness of Elba partridges was disproved, we advise local authorities to keep warranting the ongoing conservation efforts - and especially restore the connectivity between the western and eastern island sub-populations - as this resource may still be conceived as the ultimate repository for part of the otherwise extinct Italian A. r. rufa genome. Indeed, the admixture with conspecifics from the Iberian Peninsula does not necessarily mean that the entirety of the native nuclear genome of Elba partridges has been wiped out. Furthermore, these latter represent an interesting case study in conservation biology to investigate the possible role played by introgressive hybridization in the adaptation to recent land use and vegetation cover changes associated with rural abandonment in an insular yet heavily anthropized context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Forcina
- CIBIO/InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal; Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via A. Volta 4, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Monica Guerrini
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via A. Volta 4, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Filippo Barbanera
- Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via A. Volta 4, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
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Song S, Jiang B, Liu NF. Phylogeography of chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) in China based on mtDNA control region. Mitochondrial DNA A DNA Mapp Seq Anal 2016; 28:473-481. [PMID: 27159688 DOI: 10.3109/19401736.2015.1137901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) is distributed in north and northwest of China, in mountainous areas that were heavily affected by cyclic climate and landscape changes during the last Pleistocene glaciations. Some partridge populations have colonized and expanded their present ranges only after deglaciation and recent deforestation by human. Consequently, partridges from different areas could be genetically differentiated. In this study, a 1152-1154 bp portion of the mitochondrial DNA control region were analyzed for all 279 specimens collected from 28 populations through their distribution in China. A total number of 91 haplotypes were defined by 113 variable sites. The mean haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity were 0.939 ± 0.008 and 0.0030 ± 0.0017, respectively, for chukar. Haplotype diversity among the 28 populations varied from 0.600 ± 0.215 (HH) to 1.000 ± 0.272 (SBC), and nucleotide diversity ranged from 0.0006 ± 0.0007 (HJ) to (0.0071 ± 0.0041) (HEG). The nucleotide diversity of chukar was descending from west to east and a possible historical scenario might be that A. chukar inhabited central Asia, and then dispersed eastward. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that there was no distinct phylogeographic structure in chukar populations in China. Haplotype network of chukar was star-like with some common haplotypes shared by different samples came from different populations as center. Both unstructured phylogeographic tree and star-like haplotype network are signatures of population expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen Song
- a School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University , Lanzhou , P.R. China
| | - Bo Jiang
- a School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University , Lanzhou , P.R. China
| | - Nai-Fa Liu
- a School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University , Lanzhou , P.R. China
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Bech N, Manel S, Bro E, Novoa C, Bijaoui-Georget BM, Beltran-Bech S, Boissier J. Genetic connectivity of the grey partridge in central northern France in a highly man dominated landscape. CONSERV GENET 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-014-0594-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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10
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Differences in mortality rates, dispersal distances and breeding success of commercially reared and wild grey partridges in the Czech agricultural landscape. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-012-0659-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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ANDERSEN LISELOTTEWESLEY, KAHLERT JOHNNY. Genetic indications of translocated and stocked grey partridges (Perdix perdix): does the indigenous Danish grey partridge still exist? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01833.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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12
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Lucentini L, Gigliarelli L, Puletti ME, Volpi L, Panara F. Comparison of conservative DNA extraction methods for two Galliformes: grey partridge (Perdix perdix italica, Hartert 1917) and red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Linnaeus 1758). CONSERV GENET RESOUR 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s12686-010-9264-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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13
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Bao XK, Liu NF, Qu JY, Wang XL, An B, Wen LY, Song S. The phylogenetic position and speciation dynamics of the genus Perdix (Phasianidae, Galliformes). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2010; 56:840-7. [PMID: 20363341 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2010.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2009] [Revised: 03/24/2010] [Accepted: 03/29/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The nuclear gene (c-mos) and mitochondrial genes (CYT B and ND2) sequences, representing 44 phasianid species and 26 genera (mainly distributed in China), were used to study the phylogeny of the genus Perdix, which comprises three partridge species. Maximum parsimony and Bayesian methods were employed, and the analysis of mitochondrial sequence data and the combined dataset showed that Perdix is specifically related either to typical pheasants or to Ithaginis. Phylogenetic trees also indicated that: (1) Perdix is monophyletic; (2) the Tibetan partridge (Perdix hodgsoniae) has been consistently placed as basal to all other Perdix, and the Daurian partridge (Perdix dauuricae) is placed sister to gray partridge (Perdix perdix); (3) the Daurian partridge subspecies przewalskii and Tibetan partridge subspecies hodgsoniae are basal to other subspecies in their species clade, respectively. Speciation in Perdix was likely promoted by the late Pliocene/early Pleistocene intensive uplift of the Tibetan Plateau and by Pleistocene glaciations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-kang Bao
- School of Life Science, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
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BARRETTE MARIEFRANCE, DAIGLE GAÉTAN, DODSON JULIANJ. Intraspecific vicariant history and the evolution of adaptive morphological diversity in a fish species (Osmerus mordax). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01195.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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15
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Knopp T, Merilä J. The postglacial recolonization of Northern Europe by Rana arvalis as revealed by microsatellite and mitochondrial DNA analyses. Heredity (Edinb) 2008; 102:174-81. [PMID: 18827835 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2008.91] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The postglacial history of the moor frog (Rana arvalis) in Northern Europe was investigated with the aid of eight variable microsatellite loci and a 661 bp sequence of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. A division between eastern and western mitochondrial lineages was discovered, supporting two recolonization routes to Fennoscandia since the last glacial maximum. This result was corroborated by the microsatellite data, which revealed a contact zone between the two lineages in Northern Sweden. These findings add to the increasing evidence that an intraspecific genetic biodiversity founded on the existence of eastern and western clades is a common element in Fennoscandian fauna and flora.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Knopp
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Ecological Genetics Research Unit, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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Hourlay F, Libois R, D'Amico F, Sarà M, O'Halloran J, Michaux JR. Evidence of a highly complex phylogeographic structure on a specialist river bird species, the dipper (Cinclus cinclus). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2008; 49:435-44. [PMID: 18762260 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2007] [Revised: 06/05/2008] [Accepted: 07/30/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This study details the phylogeographic pattern of the white-throated dipper (Cinclus cinclus), a Palearctic, temperate, passerine bird that is exclusively associated with flowing water. Our results reveal a complex phylogeographic structure with at least five distinct lineages for the Western Palearctic region. As for many species of the Western Palearctic fauna and flora, this genetic structure is probably linked to the isolation of populations in different southern refuges during glacial periods. Furthermore, the isolation of populations in Scandinavia and/or Eastern regions, but also in Morocco and probably in Corsica, was accentuated by ecological and biogeographic barriers during Quaternary interglacial periods. During glacial periods, Italy, Sicily and the Balkano-Carpathian region acted as major refuge zones for the dipper. At the end of the last ice age, Western Europe was repopulated by dippers from an Italian refuge, while Eastern Europe was recolonised by Balkano-Carpathian birds. A large contact zone between these two lineages was evidenced and extends from Luxembourg to Hungary. Finally, our results indicate the need to clarify the taxonomic status of the dipper, especially concerning the European subspecies whose validity appears uncertain.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Hourlay
- Zoogeography Researchs Unit, Institut de Botanique, Université de Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium.
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Buner F, Schaub M. How do different releasing techniques affect the survival of reintroduced grey partridges Perdix perdix? WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.2981/0909-6396(2008)14[26:hddrta]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
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Martínez-Fresno M, Henriques-Gil N, Arana P. Mitochondrial DNA sequence variability in red-legged partridge, Alectoris rufa, Spanish populations and the origins of genetic contamination from A. chukar. CONSERV GENET 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-007-9449-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Mäki-Petäys H, Corander J, Aalto J, Liukkonen T, Helle P, Orell M. No genetic evidence of sex-biased dispersal in a lekking bird, the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus). J Evol Biol 2007; 20:865-73. [PMID: 17465897 DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2007.01314.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Sex-biased dispersal is often connected to the mating behaviour of the species. Even if patterns of natal dispersal are reasonably well documented for monogamous birds, only a few data are available for polygynous and especially lekking species. We investigated the dispersal of the capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) by examining sex-specific gene flow among the leks. Genetic information was extracted using nuclear and mitochondrial molecular markers for sexed faecal samples and analysed by novel Bayesian statistical methods. Contrary to the traditional view that the males are highly philopatric and female is the dispersing sex, we found roughly equivalent gross and effective dispersal of the sexes. The level of polygamy has a strong influence on the effective population size and on the effective dispersal. The results do not support the theories that dispersal evolves solely as a result of resource competition or other advantages to males obtained through kin selection in lekking species.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Mäki-Petäys
- Department of Biology, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland.
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Duriez O, Sachet JM, Ménoni E, Pidancier N, Miquel C, Taberlet P. Phylogeography of the capercaillie in Eurasia: what is the conservation status in the Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mounts? CONSERV GENET 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s10592-006-9165-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Pavlova A, Zink RM, Rohwer S. Evolutionary history, population genetics, and gene flow in the common rosefinch (Carpodacus erythrinus). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2005; 36:669-81. [PMID: 16099383 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2005.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2004] [Revised: 02/03/2005] [Accepted: 02/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We analyzed sequences of two mitochondrial DNA gene regions (control region and ND2) from 186 specimens obtained from 17 Eurasian localities covering most of the distribution of the common rosefinch to assess phylogeographic structure. Populations possessed a high level of nucleotide diversity relative to many other Palearctic species, suggesting that rosefinch populations are relatively old and possess high effective sizes. Mismatch distributions suggested that many localities experienced past population expansions, which are older than those expected for post-Pleistocene climate warming and reforestation of Eurasia. Our Phi(st) analysis revealed that 12.4% of total genetic variation was distributed among localities owing in part to the existence of three incompletely isolated groups: southwestern (subspecies C. e. kubanensis), northeastern (subspecies C. e. grebnitskii), and northwestern (subspecies C. e. erythrinus and C. e. ferghanensis). The three groups are not reciprocally monophyletic which suggests that they were formed relatively recently. Gene flow among groups is restricted. Coalescence analysis indicated dispersal asymmetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Pavlova
- Bell Museum of Natural History and Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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