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Osmałek T, Froelich A, Jadach B, Tatarek A, Gadziński P, Falana A, Gralińska K, Ekert M, Puri V, Wrotyńska-Barczyńska J, Michniak-Kohn B. Recent Advances in Polymer-Based Vaginal Drug Delivery Systems. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:884. [PMID: 34203714 PMCID: PMC8232205 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13060884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The vagina has been considered a potential drug administration route for centuries. Most of the currently marketed and investigated vaginal formulations are composed with the use of natural or synthetic polymers having different functions in the product. The vaginal route is usually investigated as an administration site for topically acting active ingredients; however, the anatomical and physiological features of the vagina make it suitable also for drug systemic absorption. In this review, the most important natural and synthetic polymers used in vaginal products are summarized and described, with special attention paid to the properties important in terms of vaginal application. Moreover, the current knowledge on the commonly applied and innovative dosage forms designed for vaginal administration was presented. The aim of this work was to highlight the most recent research directions and indicate challenges related to vaginal drug administrations. As revealed in the literature overview, intravaginal products still gain enormous scientific attention, and novel polymers and formulations are still explored. However, there are research areas that require more extensive studies in order to provide the safety of novel vaginal products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Osmałek
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-780 Poznań, Poland; (A.F.); (B.J.); (A.T.); (P.G.); (A.F.); (K.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Anna Froelich
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-780 Poznań, Poland; (A.F.); (B.J.); (A.T.); (P.G.); (A.F.); (K.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Barbara Jadach
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-780 Poznań, Poland; (A.F.); (B.J.); (A.T.); (P.G.); (A.F.); (K.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Adam Tatarek
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-780 Poznań, Poland; (A.F.); (B.J.); (A.T.); (P.G.); (A.F.); (K.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Piotr Gadziński
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-780 Poznań, Poland; (A.F.); (B.J.); (A.T.); (P.G.); (A.F.); (K.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Aleksandra Falana
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-780 Poznań, Poland; (A.F.); (B.J.); (A.T.); (P.G.); (A.F.); (K.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Kinga Gralińska
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-780 Poznań, Poland; (A.F.); (B.J.); (A.T.); (P.G.); (A.F.); (K.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Michał Ekert
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 60-780 Poznań, Poland; (A.F.); (B.J.); (A.T.); (P.G.); (A.F.); (K.G.); (M.E.)
| | - Vinam Puri
- Department of Pharmaceutics, William Levine Hall, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Life Sciences Building, New Jersey Center for Biomaterials, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; (V.P.); (B.M.-K.)
| | - Joanna Wrotyńska-Barczyńska
- Division of Infertility and Reproductive Endocrinology, Department of Gynecology, Obstetrics and Gynecological Oncology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, 33 Polna St., 60-535 Poznań, Poland;
| | - Bozena Michniak-Kohn
- Department of Pharmaceutics, William Levine Hall, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Life Sciences Building, New Jersey Center for Biomaterials, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; (V.P.); (B.M.-K.)
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Somasundaram DB, Manokaran K, Selvanesan BC, Bhaskaran RS. Impact of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on the uterus of adult Wistar rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 2016; 36:565-572. [DOI: 10.1177/0960327116657601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is the most common plasticizer used in polyvinyl chloride-based plastics. DEHP is not covalently bound to the plastics and is easily released to the environment, resulting in human exposure. In this study, the adult rats were exposed to DEHP and its effects on the uterus was evaluated. Healthy adult female rats were treated with DEHP orally (with dose level 0, 1, 10, and 100 mg/kg body weight/day) for 30 days. No significant changes in the body weight and wet uterine weight were observed. Ovarian hormones and their receptor levels in the uterus were increased. Histological studies exhibited the structural abnormalities such as decrease in diameter, thinning of the layers and disruption in the glandular epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- DB Somasundaram
- Department of Endocrinology, University of Madras, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences
| | - K Manokaran
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Manipal University, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - BC Selvanesan
- Department of Endocrinology, University of Madras, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences
| | - RS Bhaskaran
- Department of Endocrinology, University of Madras, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences
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Hardt DJ, James RA, Gut CP, McInturf SM, Sweeney LM, Erickson RP, Gargas ML. Evaluation of submarine atmospheres: effects of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and oxygen on general toxicology, neurobehavioral performance, reproduction and development in rats. II. Ninety-day study. Inhal Toxicol 2015; 27:121-37. [PMID: 25687554 DOI: 10.3109/08958378.2014.999294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and low-level oxygen (O2) (hypoxia) are submarine atmosphere components of highest concern because of a lack of toxicological data available to address the potential effects from long-duration, combined exposures on female reproductive and developmental health. In this study, subchronic toxicity of mixed atmospheres of these three submarine air components was evaluated in rats. Male and female rats were exposed via inhalation to clean air (0.4 ppm CO; 0.13% CO2; 20.6% O2) (control), a low-dose (5.0 ppm CO; 0.41% CO2; 17.1% O2), a mid-dose (13.9 ppm CO; 1.19 or 1.20% CO2; 16.1% O2) and a high-dose (89.9 ppm CO; 2.5% CO2; 15.0% O2) gas mixture for 23 h per day for 70 d premating and a 14-d mating period. Impregnated dams continued exposure to gestation day 19. Adverse reproductive effects were not identified in exposed parents (P0) or first (F1) and second generation (F2) offspring during mating, gestation or parturition. No adverse changes to the estrous cycle or in reproductive hormone concentrations were identified. The exposure-related effects were reduced weight gains and adaptive up-regulation of erythropoiesis in male rats from the high-dose group. No adverse, dose-related health effects on clinical data or physiological data were observed. Neurobehavioral tests identified no apparent developmental deficits at the tested levels of exposure. In summary, subchronic exposures to the submarine atmosphere gases did not affect the ability of the exposed rats or their offspring to reproduce and did not appear to have any significant adverse health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Hardt
- Naval Medical Research Unit Dayton (NAMRU Dayton), Wright-Patterson Air Force Base , OH , USA
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Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) signaling is vital to the development and function of the prostate and is a key pathway in prostate cancer. AR is differentially expressed in the stroma and epithelium, with both paracrine and autocrine control throughout the prostate. Stromal-epithelial interactions within the prostate are commonly dependent on AR signaling and expression. Alterations in these pathways can promote tumorigenesis. AR is also expressed in normal and malignant mammary tissues. Emerging data indicate a role for AR in certain subtypes of breast cancer that has the potential to be exploited therapeutically. The aim of this review is to highlight the importance of these interactions in normal development and tumorigenesis, with a focus on the prostate and breast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cera M Nieto
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Leah C Rider
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Scott D Cramer
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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Lang Podratz P, Delgado Filho VS, Lopes PFI, Cavati Sena G, Matsumoto ST, Samoto VY, Takiya CM, de Castro Miguel E, Silva IV, Graceli JB. Tributyltin impairs the reproductive cycle in female rats. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2012; 75:1035-1046. [PMID: 22852853 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2012.697826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Triorganotins are environmental contaminants, commonly used in antifouling agents for boats, that bioaccumulate and thus are found in mammals and humans due to ingestion of contaminated seafood diets. The importance of triorganotins as environmental endocrine disruptors and consequent reproductive toxicity in different animal models is well known; however, the adverse effects on reproductive cycle are less well understood. The potential reproductive toxicity of tributyltin (TBT) on regular reproductive cycling of female rats was examined. Wistar female rats (12 wk old, weighing approximately 230 g) were divided into two groups: control (vehicle, ethanol 0.4%) and tributyltin (100 ng/kg/d, 7 d/wk, for 16 d by gavage). Tributyltin significantly decreased the cycle regularity (%), duration of the reproductive cycle, the proestrus and diestrus phases, and number of epithelial cell in proestrus phase. TBT also increased the duration of metestrus and the number of cornified cells in this phase. Ovary weight and serum 17β-estradiol levels decreased markedly, accompanied by a significant increase in progesterone levels. Histological analysis showed apoptotic cells in corpus luteum and granulosa cells layer, with cystic follicles after TBT exposure. Tributyltin also elevated number of atretic follicles and corpoa lutea. The micronucleus (MN) test, using Chinese hamster ovary cells, demonstrated a concentration-dependent mutagenic effect of TBT, and at 2.0 × 10(-2)ng/ml most of the cells were nonviable. The toxic potential of TBT over the reproductive cycle may be attributed to changes found in the ovarian weight, unbalanced levels of sexual female hormones, and number of ovarian follicles and corpora lutea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Lang Podratz
- Department of Morphology, Federal University of Espirito Santo-UFES, Espírito Santo, Brazil
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Grassi TF, Guerra MT, Perobelli JE, de Toledo FC, da Silva DS, De Grava Kempinas W, Barbisan LF. Assessment of female reproductive endpoints in Sprague-Dawley rats developmentally exposed to Diuron: potential ovary toxicity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 92:478-86. [DOI: 10.1002/bdrb.20317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2011] [Accepted: 05/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Fetal topographical anatomy of the female urethra and descending vagina: a histological study of the early human fetal urethra. Ann Anat 2011; 193:500-8. [PMID: 21561749 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2011.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2010] [Revised: 02/27/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Which parts of the male urethra correspond to the female urethra? To resolve this question, we need to understand fetal topographical changes in the urethra, its external sphincter and vagina. The vagina joins the mid-course of the primitive urethra and, later "descends" to the vaginal vestibulum. METHODS We examined histological sections of 14 female and 4 male mid-term fetuses. RESULTS The inferior end of the vagina was consistently embedded in the posterior wall of the urethra at 9-12 weeks. The supero-inferior level of the vaginal merging was lower in larger fetuses. Thus, the sequential variation in levels appeared to reflect the process of vaginal descent. However, in spite of penetration of the vaginal end into the posterior urethral wall, we found no sign of destruction of the urethral wall after vaginal descent in the low-merging types. Before vaginal descent, the female external sphincter extended posterolaterally around the urethra. CONCLUSION The vaginal descent is classically regarded as a relative topographical change, but it is likely to be a result of elongation of the proximal urethra in the superior side of the vaginal merging. Conversely, the distal urethra is likely to be incorporated into the vaginal vestibulum by 15 weeks. During these processes, most of the female external sphincter seems to be expelled from the original anterior position into the vestibular wall as the urethrovaginal sphincter. The adult female urethra seems to correspond to the male prostatic urethra superior to the prostatic colliculus.
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Guerra MT, Scarano WR, de Toledo FC, Franci JA, Kempinas WDG. Reproductive development and function of female rats exposed to di-η-butyl-phthalate (DBP) in utero and during lactation. Reprod Toxicol 2010; 29:99-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2009.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2009] [Revised: 09/22/2009] [Accepted: 10/10/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Grande SW, Andrade AJM, Talsness CE, Grote K, Golombiewski A, Sterner-Kock A, Chahoud I. A dose–response study following in utero and lactational exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP): Reproductive effects on adult female offspring rats. Toxicology 2007; 229:114-22. [PMID: 17098345 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2006] [Revised: 10/10/2006] [Accepted: 10/10/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is used in numerous consumer products, mainly imparting flexibility and durability to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) based plastics. It is a known reproductive and developmental toxicant in male rodents. However, data regarding effects of DEHP on female reproductive health are particularly sparse. We performed an extensive dose-response study following developmental exposure to DEHP and evaluated the effects on adult female reproductive function. Two wide ranges of doses, low and high, were tested. Female Wistar rats were treated daily with DEHP and peanut oil (vehicle control) by gavage from gestation day 6 to lactation day 21. The low doses were: 0.015, 0.045, 0.135, 0.405 and 1.215mgDEHP/kg/bw/day and the high doses were: 5, 15, 45, 135 and 405mg DEHP/kg/bw/day. At the doses tested, no effects on organ (liver, kidney, spleen, thymus, thyroid, ovary and uterus) or body weights were detected. Female offspring presented a normal pattern of estrous cyclicity with no hormonal alterations (serum estradiol and progesterone). A statistically significant increase in tertiary atretic follicles was observed at the highest dose (405mgDEHP/kg/day). Morphometric analysis indicated that uterus and vagina luminal epithelial cell height were unaffected by treatment. An increase in the number of ovarian atretic tertiary follicles was the only effect observed in adult female offspring exposed in utero and during lactation to DEHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone W Grande
- Charité University Medical School Berlin, Campus Benjamin Franklin, Institute of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Toxicology, Garystrasse 5, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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Miyagawa S, Buchanan DL, Sato T, Ohta Y, Nishina Y, Iguchi T. Characterization of diethylstilbestrol-induced hypospadias in female mice. THE ANATOMICAL RECORD 2002; 266:43-50. [PMID: 11748570 DOI: 10.1002/ar.10033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The urethral duct and vagina are formed from the urogenital sinus (UGS) during the early neonatal period in mice. Neonatal estrogen exposure results in hypospadias, or the malpositioning of vaginal and urethral openings, with wide cleft clitoris. We sought to characterize diethylstilbestrol (DES) influence on UGS morphogenesis and hypospadias formation. Newborn (day 0) and 1-4-day-old female mice (ICR/Jcl) were given (s.c.) oil or 3.0 microg DES. Animals were killed 24 hr later; then hypospadias formation and epithelial apoptosis and proliferation within the developing UGS were assessed. DES did not alter normal UGS morphogenesis by day 1, in comparison with controls. However, hypospadias formation was observed in DES-treated mice by day 3. In these mice, the distal dorsal urethral duct appeared to fuse with and open into the lower vaginal solid cord region. Further, DES treatment produced a gradual significant increase in dorsal urethral epithelial apoptosis (P < 0.05) just prior to and during fusion and hypospadias formation. DES-induced urethral epithelial and sinus cord proliferation appeared significantly increased (P < 0.05) and unchanged, respectively, just prior to fusion. By day 5, DES-treated mice exhibited wide cleft clitoris. In addition, if DES was given on day 3 or 5, a gradual, distinct caudal shift in the vaginal-urethral junction was observed compared to mice treated on days 0-2. Although hypospadias was not induced when neonates were given DES on day 7, these mice continued to display early vaginal opening. Dose-response analysis indicated that 0.03 microg DES for 5 days is the lowest known critical dose for hypospadias induction. We have shown for the first time that DES-induced hypospadias onset may primarily be the result of changes in developing dorsal urethral epithelial cell apoptotic and proliferative activity, and that the location of DES-induced hypospadias formation is dependent on age at time of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinichi Miyagawa
- Graduate School of Integrated Science, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
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