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Garrigós M, Ylla G, Martínez-de la Puente J, Figuerola J, Ruiz-López MJ. Two avian Plasmodium species trigger different transcriptional responses on their vector Culex pipiens. Mol Ecol 2023:e17240. [PMID: 38108558 DOI: 10.1111/mec.17240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease caused by protozoans of the genus Plasmodium that affects both humans and wildlife. The fitness consequences of infections by avian malaria are well known in birds, however, little information exists on its impact on mosquitoes. Here we study how Culex pipiens mosquitoes transcriptionally respond to infection by two different Plasmodium species, P. relictum and P. cathemerium, differing in their virulence (mortality rate) and transmissibility (parasite presence in exposed mosquitoes' saliva). We studied the mosquito response to the infection at three critical stages of parasite development: the formation of ookinetes at 24 h post-infection (hpi), the release of sporozoites into the hemocoel at 10 days post-infection (dpi), and the storage of sporozoites in the salivary glands at 21 dpi. For each time point, we characterized the gene expression of mosquitoes infected with each P. relictum and P. cathemerium and mosquitoes fed on an uninfected bird and, subsequently, compared their transcriptomic responses. Differential gene expression analysis showed that most transcriptomic changes occurred during the early infection stage (24 hpi), especially when comparing P. relictum and P. cathemerium-infected mosquitoes. Differentially expressed genes in mosquitoes infected with each species were related mainly to the metabolism of the immune response, trypsin, and other serine-proteases. We conclude that these differences in response may partly play a role in the differential virulence and transmissibility previously observed between P. relictum and P. cathemerium in Cx. pipiens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Garrigós
- Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Guillem Ylla
- Bioinformatics and Genome Biology Lab, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Josué Martínez-de la Puente
- Department of Parasitology, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jordi Figuerola
- CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana, CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
| | - María José Ruiz-López
- CIBER Epidemiologia y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana, CSIC, Sevilla, Spain
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Borovsky D, Rougé P. Heliothis virescens chymotrypsin is translationally controlled by AeaTMOF binding ABC putative receptor. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 114:1-24. [PMID: 37526204 DOI: 10.1002/arch.22042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Heliothis virescens larval chymotrypsin (GenBank accession number AF43709) was cloned, sequenced and its three dimensional (3D) conformation modeled. The enzyme's transcript was first detected 6 days after larval emergence and the transcript level was shown to fall between larval ecdysis periods. Comparisons between the activities of larval gut chymotrypsin and trypsin shows that chymotrypsin activity is only 16% of the total trypsin activity and the pH optimum of the larval chymotrypsin is between pH 9-10, however the enzyme also exhibited a broad activity between pH 4-6. Injections of AeaTMOF and several shorter analogues into 3rd instar larvae followed by Northern blot analyses showed that although the chymotrypsins activities were inhibited by 60%-80% the transcript level of the sequenced chymotrypsin was not reduced and was similar to controls in which the chymotrypsin activity was not inhibited, indicating that AeaTMOF and its analogues exert a translational control. Based on these observations a putative AeaTMOF receptor (ABCC4) homologous to the Ae. aegypti ABC receptor sequence was found in the H. virescens genome. 3D molecular modeling and docking of the AeaTMOF and several of its analogues to the ABCC4 receptor showed that it can bind AeaTMOF and its analogues as was shown before for the Ae. aegypti receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dov Borovsky
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Pierre Rougé
- UMR 152 Pharma-Dev, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, Institut de Recherche et Développement, Université Toulouse 3, Toulouse, France
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Borovsky D, Rougé P. Cloning and characterization of Aedes aegypti blood downregulated chymotrypsin II. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 113:e22018. [PMID: 37106507 DOI: 10.1002/arch.22018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 04/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Aedes aegypti adult and larval blood downregulated chymotrypsin II was cloned, sequenced and its 3D conformation modeled. Cloning of the enzymes from adult and larval guts indicated that both genes sit at the same location on Chromosome 2. Genomic analyses showed that larval and adult genes are the same and both have four exons and three introns that are located on an 8.32 Kb DNA in direction with the Ae. aegypti genome. The adult and larval transcript synthesis is controlled by alternative splicing explaining small difference in the amino acids sequences. Chymotrypsin II that was extracted from guts of sugar-fed and at 48 after blood feeding showed a pH optimum of 4-5 with a broad shoulder of activity from pH 6 to 10. Dot blot analyses show that the enzyme's transcript is downregulated after females take a blood meal and upregulated at 48 h after the blood meal. A Chymotrypsin II transcript was also detected in the larval gut during different times of larval developmental stages, indication that Ae. aegypti chymotrypsin II is synthesized by adults and larval guts. The possibility that JH III and 20HE play an active role in the regulation is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dov Borovsky
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Pierre Rougé
- UMR 152 Pharma-Dev, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, Institut de Recherche et Développement, Université Toulouse 3, Toulouse, France
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Peptidomics as a Tool to Assess the Cleavage of Wine Haze Proteins by Peptidases from Drosophila suzukii Larvae. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13030451. [PMID: 36979386 PMCID: PMC10046487 DOI: 10.3390/biom13030451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Thermolabile grape berry proteins such as thaumatin-like proteins (TLPs) and chitinases (CHIs) promote haze formation in bottled wines if not properly fined. As a natural grapevine pest, the spotted-wing fly Drosophila suzukii is a promising source of peptidases that break down grape berry proteins because the larvae develop and feed inside mature berries. Therefore, we produced recombinant TLP and CHI as model thermolabile wine haze proteins and applied a peptidomics strategy to investigate whether D. suzukii larval peptidases were able to digest them under acidic conditions (pH 3.5), which are typically found in winemaking practices. The activity of the novel peptidases was confirmed by mass spectrometry, and cleavage sites within the wine haze proteins were visualized in 3D protein models. The combination of recombinant haze proteins and peptidomics provides a valuable screening tool to identify optimal peptidases suitable for clarification processes in the winemaking industry.
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Adedeji EO, Ogunlana OO, Fatumo S, Beder T, Ajamma Y, Koenig R, Adebiyi E. Anopheles metabolic proteins in malaria transmission, prevention and control: a review. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:465. [PMID: 32912275 PMCID: PMC7488410 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04342-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing resistance to currently available insecticides in the malaria vector, Anopheles mosquitoes, hampers their use as an effective vector control strategy for the prevention of malaria transmission. Therefore, there is need for new insecticides and/or alternative vector control strategies, the development of which relies on the identification of possible targets in Anopheles. Some known and promising targets for the prevention or control of malaria transmission exist among Anopheles metabolic proteins. This review aims to elucidate the current and potential contribution of Anopheles metabolic proteins to malaria transmission and control. Highlighted are the roles of metabolic proteins as insecticide targets, in blood digestion and immune response as well as their contribution to insecticide resistance and Plasmodium parasite development. Furthermore, strategies by which these metabolic proteins can be utilized for vector control are described. Inhibitors of Anopheles metabolic proteins that are designed based on target specificity can yield insecticides with no significant toxicity to non-target species. These metabolic modulators combined with each other or with synergists, sterilants, and transmission-blocking agents in a single product, can yield potent malaria intervention strategies. These combinations can provide multiple means of controlling the vector. Also, they can help to slow down the development of insecticide resistance. Moreover, some metabolic proteins can be modulated for mosquito population replacement or suppression strategies, which will significantly help to curb malaria transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunice Oluwatobiloba Adedeji
- Covenant University Bioinformatics Research (CUBRe), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State Nigeria
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State Nigeria
| | - Olubanke Olujoke Ogunlana
- Covenant University Bioinformatics Research (CUBRe), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State Nigeria
- Department of Biochemistry, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State Nigeria
| | - Segun Fatumo
- Department of Non-Communicable Disease Epidemiology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel St, Bloomsbury, London, UK
| | - Thomas Beder
- Integrated Research and Treatment Center, Center for Sepsis Control and Care (CSCC), Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Yvonne Ajamma
- Covenant University Bioinformatics Research (CUBRe), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State Nigeria
| | - Rainer Koenig
- Integrated Research and Treatment Center, Center for Sepsis Control and Care (CSCC), Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Ezekiel Adebiyi
- Covenant University Bioinformatics Research (CUBRe), Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State Nigeria
- Computer and Information Sciences, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State Nigeria
- Division of Applied Bioinformatics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), G200, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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Liu HW, Li YS, Tang X, Guo PC, Wang DD, Zhou CY, Xia QY, Zhao P. A midgut-specific serine protease, BmSP36, is involved in dietary protein digestion in the silkworm, Bombyx mori. INSECT SCIENCE 2017; 24:753-767. [PMID: 27311916 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Serine proteases play important roles in digestion and immune responses during insect development. In the present study, the serine protease gene BmSP36, which encodes a 292-residue protein, was cloned from the midgut cells of Bombyx mori. BmSP36 contains an intact catalytic triad (H57, D102 and S195) and a conserved substrate-binding site (G189, H216 and G226), suggesting that it is a serine protease with chymotrypsin-like specificity. The temporal and spatial expression patterns of BmSP36 indicated that its messenger RNA and protein expression mainly occurred in the midgut at the feeding stages. Western blotting, immunofluorescence and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analyses revealed secretion of BmSP36 protein from epithelial cells into the midgut lumen. The transcriptional and translational expression of BmSP36 was down-regulated after starvation but up-regulated after refeeding. Moreover, expression of the BmSP36 gene could be up-regulated by a juvenile hormone analogue. These results enable us to better define the potential role of BmSP36 in dietary protein digestion at the feeding stages during larval development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Wei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - You-Shan Li
- Vitamin D Research Institute, Shaanxi Sci-Tech University, Hanzhong, Shaanxi Province, China
| | - Xin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Peng-Chao Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Dan-Dan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Chun-Yan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qing-You Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ping Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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Cao X, Gulati M, Jiang H. Serine protease-related proteins in the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 88:48-62. [PMID: 28780069 PMCID: PMC5586530 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2017.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 07/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Insect serine proteases (SPs) and serine protease homologs (SPHs) participate in digestion, defense, development, and other physiological processes. In mosquitoes, some clip-domain SPs and SPHs (i.e. CLIPs) have been investigated for possible roles in antiparasitic responses. In a recent test aimed at improving quality of gene models in the Anopheles gambiae genome using RNA-seq data, we observed various discrepancies between gene models in AgamP4.5 and corresponding sequences selected from those modeled by Cufflinks, Trinity and Bridger. Here we report a comparative analysis of the 337 SP-related proteins in A. gambiae by examining their domain structures, sequence diversity, chromosomal locations, and expression patterns. One hundred and ten CLIPs contain 1 to 5 clip domains in addition to their protease domains (PDs) or non-catalytic, protease-like domains (PLDs). They are divided into five subgroups: CLIPAs (22) are clip1-5-PLD; CLIPBs (29), CLIPCs (12) and CLIPDs (14) are mainly clip-PD; most CLIPEs (33) have a domain structure of PD/PLD-PLD-clip-PLD0-1. While expression of the CLIP genes in group-1 is generally low and detected in various tissue- and stage-specific RNA-seq libraries, some putative GPs/GPHs (i.e. single domain gut SPs/SPHs) in group-2 are highly expressed in midgut, whole larva or whole adult libraries. In comparison, 46 SPs, 26 SPHs, and 37 multi-domain SPs/SPHs (i.e. PD/PLD-PLD≥1) in group-3 do not seem to be specifically expressed in digestive tract. There are 16 SPs and 2 SPH containing other types of putative regulatory domains (e.g. LDLa, CUB, Gd). Of the 337 SP and SPH genes, 159 were sorted into 46 groups (2-8 members/group) based on similar phylogenetic tree position, chromosomal location, and expression profile. This information and analysis, including improved gene models and protein sequences, constitute a solid foundation for functional analysis of the SP-related proteins in A. gambiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong Cao
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Mansi Gulati
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Haobo Jiang
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA.
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Liu H, Liu Y, Song C, Cui Z. A chymotrypsin-like serine protease from Portunus trituberculatus involved in pathogen recognition and AMP synthesis but not required for prophenoloxidase activation. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 66:307-316. [PMID: 28522421 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2017.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2017] [Revised: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Clip domain serine proteases (clip-SPs) play critical roles in various immune responses in arthropods, such as hemolymph coagulation, antimicrobial peptide (AMP) synthesis, cell adhesion and melanization. In the present study, we report the molecular and functional characterization of a clip domain serine protease (PtcSP2) from the swimming crab Portunus trituberculatus. The N-terminal clip domain and the C-terminal SP-like domain of PtcSP2 were expressed in Escherichia coli system, and assayed for their activities. Sequence similarity and phylogenetic analysis revealed that PtcSP2 may belong to the chymotrypsin family, which was confirmed by protease activity assay of the recombinant SP-like domain. The clip domain of PtcSP2 exhibited strong antibacterial activity and microbial-binding activity, suggesting the potential role in immune defense and recognition. Knockdown of PtcSP2 by RNA interference could significantly reduce PtcSP2 transcript levels, but neither decrease the total phenoloxidase (PO) activity in crab nor significantly alter the expression levels of serine protease inhibitors PtPLC and PtSerpin. These results indicate that PtcSP2 is not involved in the proPO system. However, suppression of PtcSP2 led to a significant change in the expression of AMP genes PtALFs and PtCrustin but not PtALF5. All these findings suggest that PtcSP2 is a multifunctional chymotrypsin-like serine protease and may participate in crab innate immunity by its antibacterial activity, immune recognition or regulation of AMP expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hourong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yuan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Chengwen Song
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Zhaoxia Cui
- Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China.
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Santiago PB, de Araújo CN, Motta FN, Praça YR, Charneau S, Bastos IMD, Santana JM. Proteases of haematophagous arthropod vectors are involved in blood-feeding, yolk formation and immunity - a review. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:79. [PMID: 28193252 PMCID: PMC5307778 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2005-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Ticks, triatomines, mosquitoes and sand flies comprise a large number of haematophagous arthropods considered vectors of human infectious diseases. While consuming blood to obtain the nutrients necessary to carry on life functions, these insects can transmit pathogenic microorganisms to the vertebrate host. Among the molecules related to the blood-feeding habit, proteases play an essential role. In this review, we provide a panorama of proteases from arthropod vectors involved in haematophagy, in digestion, in egg development and in immunity. As these molecules act in central biological processes, proteases from haematophagous vectors of infectious diseases may influence vector competence to transmit pathogens to their prey, and thus could be valuable targets for vectorial control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Beatriz Santiago
- Laboratório de Interação Patógeno-Hospedeiro, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Carla Nunes de Araújo
- Laboratório de Interação Patógeno-Hospedeiro, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil.,Faculdade de Ceilândia, Universidade de Brasília, Centro Metropolitano, Conjunto A, Lote 01, 72220-275, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Flávia Nader Motta
- Laboratório de Interação Patógeno-Hospedeiro, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil.,Faculdade de Ceilândia, Universidade de Brasília, Centro Metropolitano, Conjunto A, Lote 01, 72220-275, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Yanna Reis Praça
- Laboratório de Interação Patógeno-Hospedeiro, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil.,Programa Pós-Graduação em Ciências Médicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Sébastien Charneau
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Química de Proteínas, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Izabela M Dourado Bastos
- Laboratório de Interação Patógeno-Hospedeiro, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Jaime M Santana
- Laboratório de Interação Patógeno-Hospedeiro, Departamento de Biologia Celular, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Campus Universitário Darcy Ribeiro, Asa Norte, 70910-900, Brasília, DF, Brazil.
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Costa-da-Silva AL, Marinotti O, Ribeiro JMC, Silva MCP, Lopes AR, Barros MS, Sá-Nunes A, Kojin BB, Carvalho E, Suesdek L, Silva-Neto MAC, James AA, Capurro ML. Transcriptome sequencing and developmental regulation of gene expression in Anopheles aquasalis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3005. [PMID: 25033462 PMCID: PMC4102416 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anopheles aquasalis is a major malaria vector in coastal areas of South and Central America where it breeds preferentially in brackish water. This species is very susceptible to Plasmodium vivax and it has been already incriminated as responsible vector in malaria outbreaks. There has been no high-throughput investigation into the sequencing of An. aquasalis genes, transcripts and proteins despite its epidemiological relevance. Here we describe the sequencing, assembly and annotation of the An. aquasalis transcriptome. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS A total of 419 thousand cDNA sequence reads, encompassing 164 million nucleotides, were assembled in 7544 contigs of ≥ 2 sequences, and 1999 singletons. The majority of the An. aquasalis transcripts encode proteins with their closest counterparts in another neotropical malaria vector, An. darlingi. Several analyses in different protein databases were used to annotate and predict the putative functions of the deduced An. aquasalis proteins. Larval and adult-specific transcripts were represented by 121 and 424 contig sequences, respectively. Fifty-one transcripts were only detected in blood-fed females. The data also reveal a list of transcripts up- or down-regulated in adult females after a blood meal. Transcripts associated with immunity, signaling networks and blood feeding and digestion are discussed. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE This study represents the first large-scale effort to sequence the transcriptome of An. aquasalis. It provides valuable information that will facilitate studies on the biology of this species and may lead to novel strategies to reduce malaria transmission on the South American continent. The An. aquasalis transcriptome is accessible at http://exon.niaid.nih.gov/transcriptome/An_aquasalis/Anaquexcel.xlsx.
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Affiliation(s)
- André L. Costa-da-Silva
- Laboratório de Mosquitos Geneticamente Modificados, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, INCT-EM, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Osvaldo Marinotti
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - José M. C. Ribeiro
- Section of Vector Biology, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Maria C. P. Silva
- Laboratório de Mosquitos Geneticamente Modificados, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Adriana R. Lopes
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Biofísica, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Michele S. Barros
- Laboratório de Imunologia Experimental, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anderson Sá-Nunes
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, INCT-EM, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratório de Imunologia Experimental, Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bianca B. Kojin
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Eneas Carvalho
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lincoln Suesdek
- Laboratório de Mosquitos Geneticamente Modificados, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mário Alberto C. Silva-Neto
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, INCT-EM, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- Laboratório de Sinalização Celular, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Anthony A. James
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California Irvine, Irvine, California, United States of America
| | - Margareth L. Capurro
- Laboratório de Mosquitos Geneticamente Modificados, Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Entomologia Molecular, INCT-EM, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Abrudan J, Ramalho-Ortigão M, O'Neil S, Stayback G, Wadsworth M, Bernard M, Shoue D, Emrich S, Lawyer P, Kamhawi S, Rowton ED, Lehane MJ, Bates PA, Valenzeula JG, Tomlinson C, Appelbaum E, Moeller D, Thiesing B, Dillon R, Clifton S, Lobo NF, Wilson RK, Collins FH, McDowell MA. The characterization of the Phlebotomus papatasi transcriptome. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2013; 22:211-232. [PMID: 23398403 PMCID: PMC3594503 DOI: 10.1111/imb.12015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
As important vectors of human disease, phlebotomine sand flies are of global significance to human health, transmitting several emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases. The most devastating of the sand fly transmitted infections are the leishmaniases, causing significant mortality and morbidity in both the Old and New World. Here we present the first global transcriptome analysis of the Old World vector of cutaneous leishmaniasis, Phlebotomus papatasi (Scopoli) and compare this transcriptome to that of the New World vector of visceral leishmaniasis, Lutzomyia longipalpis. A normalized cDNA library was constructed using pooled mRNA from Phlebotomus papatasi larvae, pupae, adult males and females fed sugar, blood, or blood infected with Leishmania major. A total of 47 615 generated sequences was cleaned and assembled into 17 120 unique transcripts. Of the assembled sequences, 50% (8837 sequences) were classified using Gene Ontology (GO) terms. This collection of transcripts is comprehensive, as demonstrated by the high number of different GO categories. An in-depth analysis revealed 245 sequences with putative homology to proteins involved in blood and sugar digestion, immune response and peritrophic matrix formation. Twelve of the novel genes, including one trypsin, two peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRP) and nine chymotrypsins, have a higher expression level during larval stages. Two novel chymotrypsins and one novel PGRP are abundantly expressed upon blood feeding. This study will greatly improve the available genomic resources for P. papatasi and will provide essential information for annotation of the full genome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenica Abrudan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Marcelo Ramalho-Ortigão
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Phillip Lawyer
- Intracellular Parasite Biology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, 20852, USA
| | - Shaden Kamhawi
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, 20852, USA
| | - Edgar D. Rowton
- Entomology Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 530 Robert Grant Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
| | | | - Paul A. Bates
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, LA1 4YQ, UK
| | - Jesus G. Valenzeula
- Vector Molecular Biology Section, Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institutes of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland, 20852, USA
| | - Chad Tomlinson
- The Genome Institute at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, 63108, USA
| | - Elizabeth Appelbaum
- The Genome Institute at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, 63108, USA
| | - Deborah Moeller
- The Genome Institute at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, 63108, USA
| | - Brenda Thiesing
- The Genome Institute at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, 63108, USA
| | - Rod Dillon
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, LA1 4YQ, UK
| | - Sandra Clifton
- The Genome Institute at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, 63108, USA
| | - Neil F. Lobo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Richard K. Wilson
- The Genome Institute at Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, 63108, USA
| | - Frank H. Collins
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Mary Ann McDowell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
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Sriwichai P, Rongsiryam Y, Jariyapan N, Sattabongkot J, Apiwathnasorn C, Nacapunchai D, Paskewitz S. Cloning of a trypsin-like serine protease and expression patterns during Plasmodium falciparum invasion in the mosquito, Anopheles dirus (Peyton and Harrison). ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 80:151-165. [PMID: 22627911 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Understanding specific gene regulation during responses to malaria infection is key to dissecting the mosquito defense mechanisms and host/parasite interactions. A full-length serine protease cDNA was isolated from the fat body of female Anopheles dirus, a major malaria vector in Thailand. The predicted amino acid sequence of SERF4 identifies it as a member of the serine protease family containing a single trypsin-like protease domain. Digestive trypsins function in the female mosquito midgut and are inducible in two phases in this tissue upon blood intake. However, the gene was highly upregulated in the midgut at day 3 postinfection by Plasmodium falciparum. In situ hybridization confirmed that SERF4 transcripts were located in the midgut epithelial cells rather than hemocytes or other tissues associated with the midgut. SERF4 was also strongly downregulated in the whole insects at day 16 after infection in comparison with the blood-fed control. Changes in the expression of the SERF4 gene in response to infection with this human malaria parasite suggest a role in parasite-specific innate immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patchara Sriwichai
- Department of Medical Entomology, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
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13
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Zhan Q, Zheng S, Feng Q, Liu L. A midgut-specific chymotrypsin cDNA (Slctlp1) from Spodoptera litura: cloning, characterization, localization and expression analysis. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2011; 76:130-143. [PMID: 21322004 DOI: 10.1002/arch.20353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Serine proteases play important roles in food digestion and immune response during insect development. A full-length cDNA (Slctlp1) encoding a chymotrypsin-like serine protease was cloned from Spodoptera litura and characterized for its cDNA structure, developmental and induced expression and localization. The deduced protein of the Slctlp1 cDNA contains a catalytic triad and a substrate specificity pocket found in most of the serine proteases. Both the transcripts and protein of Slctlp1 were predominately expressed in the midgut at the feeding stages during the larval development. Immunohistochemistry analysis indicated that the SLCTLP1 protein was predominately present in the midgut of the 6th instar feeding larvae. Starvation suppressed the expression of Slctlp1 gene and protein in 6th instar larvae and the protein expression was increased again by re-feeding the insect. The results suggest that the cloned Slctlp1 cDNA may be involved in food protein digestion at the feeding stages during larval development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinglei Zhan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
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14
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Brackney DE, Isoe J, W C B, Zamora J, Foy BD, Miesfeld RL, Olson KE. Expression profiling and comparative analyses of seven midgut serine proteases from the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 56:736-744. [PMID: 20100490 PMCID: PMC2878907 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2010.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2009] [Revised: 01/14/2010] [Accepted: 01/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Aedes aegypti utilizes blood for energy production, egg maturation and replenishment of maternal reserves. The principle midgut enzymes responsible for bloodmeal digestion are endoproteolytic serine-type proteases within the S1.A subfamily. While there are hundreds of serine protease-like genes in the A. aegypti genome, only five are known to be expressed in the midgut. We describe the cloning, sequencing and expression profiling of seven additional serine proteases and provide a genomic and phylogenetic assessment of these findings. Of the seven genes, four are constitutively expressed and three are transcriptionally induced upon blood feeding. The amount of transcriptional induction is strongly correlated among these genes. Alignments reveal that, in general, the conserved catalytic triad, active site and accessory catalytic residues are maintained in these genes and phylogenetic analysis shows that these genes fall within three distinct clades; trypsins, chymotrypsins and serine collagenases. Interestingly, a previously described trypsin consistently arose with other serine collagenases in phylogenetic analyses. These results suggest that multiple gene duplications have arisen within the S1.A subfamily of midgut serine proteases and/or that A. aegypti has evolved an array of proteases with a broad range of substrate specificities for rapid, efficient digestion of bloodmeals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doug E Brackney
- Arthropod Infectious Disease Laboratory, 1692 Campus Delivery, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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15
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Zhang C, Zhou D, Zheng S, Liu L, Tao S, Yang L, Hu S, Feng Q. A chymotrypsin-like serine protease cDNA involved in food protein digestion in the common cutworm, Spodoptera litura: Cloning, characterization, developmental and induced expression patterns, and localization. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 56:788-799. [PMID: 20149796 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 02/01/2010] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
A full-length cDNA (Slctlp2) encoding a chymotrypsin-like serine protease was cloned from Spodoptera litura. This cDNA encoded a putative serine protease with a predicted molecular mass of 30.6kDa, which contained a serine protease catalytic motif GDSGGPL. Temporal and spatial expression of Slctlp2 mRNA and protein detected by Northern blotting, RT-PCR, qPCR and Western blotting analyses revealed that both Slctlp2 mRNA and protein were mainly present in the foregut and midgut of the 5th and 6th instar larvae during the feeding stages. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry confirmed that both Slctlp2 mRNA and protein were predominately present in the midgut. Expression of the gene was not induced by bacterial infection. Juvenile hormone III induced the gene expression, while 20-hydroxyecdysone had no impact on the expression. The expression of Slctlp2 mRNA and protein was down-regulated by starvation but up-regulated by re-feeding. The SlCTLP2 protein was detected in the lumen residues of the anterior, middle and posterior midgut and feces of the feeding 6th instar larvae, suggesting that it was secreted from the epithelium into the lumen of the gut. The results suggest that this Slctlp2 gene may be involved in digestive process of food proteins during the feeding stages of the larval development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Biotechnology for Plant Development, School of Life Sciences, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
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16
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Broehan G, Arakane Y, Beeman RW, Kramer KJ, Muthukrishnan S, Merzendorfer H. Chymotrypsin-like peptidases from Tribolium castaneum: a role in molting revealed by RNA interference. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 40:274-283. [PMID: 19897036 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2009.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2009] [Revised: 10/30/2009] [Accepted: 10/31/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Chymotrypsin-like peptidases (CTLPs) of insects are primarily secreted into the gut lumen where they act as digestive enzymes. We studied the gene family encoding CTLPs in the genome of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum. Using an extended search pattern, we identified 14 TcCTLP genes that encode peptidases with S1 specificity pocket residues typically found in chymotrypsin-like enzymes. We further analyzed the expression patterns of seven TcCTLP genes at various developmental stages. While some TcCTLP genes were exclusively expressed in feeding larval and adult stages (TcCTLP-5A/B, TcCTLP-6A), others were also detected in non-feeding embryonic (TcCTLP-5C, TcCTLP-6D) and pupal stages (TcCTLP-5C, TcCTLP-6C/D/E). TcCTLP genes were expressed predominantly in the midgut, where they presumably function in digestion. However, TcCTLP-6C and TcCTLP-5C also showed considerable expression in the carcass. The latter two genes might therefore encode peptidases that act as molting fluid enzymes. To test this hypothesis, we performed western blots using protein extracts from larval exuviae. The extracts reacted with antibodies to TcCTLP-5C and TcCTLP-6E suggesting that the corresponding peptidases are secreted into the molting fluid. Finally, we performed systemic RNAi experiments. While injections of five TcCTLP-dsRNAs into penultimate larvae did not affect growth or development, injection of dsRNA for TcCTLP-5C and TcCTLP-6C resulted in severe molting defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunnar Broehan
- Department of Biology/Chemistry, Division of Animal Physiology, University of Osnabrück, Barbarastr. 11, 49069 Osnabrück, Germany
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17
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Wu DD, Wang GD, Irwin DM, Zhang YP. A Profound Role for the Expansion of Trypsin-Like Serine Protease Family in the Evolution of Hematophagy in Mosquito. Mol Biol Evol 2009; 26:2333-41. [DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msp139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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18
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Lopes AR, Sato PM, Terra WR. Insect chymotrypsins: chloromethyl ketone inactivation and substrate specificity relative to possible coevolutional adaptation of insects and plants. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 70:188-203. [PMID: 19194984 DOI: 10.1002/arch.20289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Insect digestive chymotrypsins are present in a large variety of insect orders but their substrate specificity still remains unclear. Four insect chymotrypsins from 3 different insect orders (Dictyoptera, Coleoptera, and two Lepidoptera) were isolated using affinity chromatography. Enzymes presented molecular masses in the range of 20 to 31 kDa and pH optima in the range of 7.5 to 10.0. Kinetic characterization using different colorimetric and fluorescent substrates indicated that insect chymotrypsins differ from bovine chymotrypsin in their primary specificity toward small substrates (like N-benzoyl-L-Tyr p-nitroanilide) rather than on their preference for large substrates (exemplified by Succynil-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe p-nitroanilide). Chloromethyl ketones (TPCK, N- alpha-tosyl-L-Phe chloromethyl ketone and Z-GGF-CK, N- carbobenzoxy-Gly-Gly-Phe-CK) inactivated all chymotrypsins tested. Inactivation rates follow apparent first-order kinetics with variable second order rates (TPCK, 42 to 130 M(-1) s(-1); Z-GGF-CK, 150 to 450 M(-1) s(-1)) that may be remarkably low for S. frugiperda chymotrypsin (TPCK, 6 M(-1) s(-1); Z-GGF-CK, 6.1 M(-1) s(-1)). Homology modelling and sequence alignment showed that in lepidopteran chymotrypsins, differences in the amino acid residues in the neighborhood of the catalytic His 57 may affect its pKa value. This is proposed as the cause of the decrease in His 57 reactivity toward chloromethyl ketones. Such amino acid replacement in the active site is proposed to be an adaptation to the presence of dietary ketones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana R Lopes
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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19
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Das S, Dimopoulos G. Molecular analysis of photic inhibition of blood-feeding in Anopheles gambiae. BMC PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 8:23. [PMID: 19087335 PMCID: PMC2646746 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6793-8-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2008] [Accepted: 12/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Background Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes exhibit an endophilic, nocturnal blood feeding behavior. Despite the importance of light as a regulator of malaria transmission, our knowledge on the molecular interactions between environmental cues, the circadian oscillators and the host seeking and feeding systems of the Anopheles mosquitoes is limited. Results In the present study, we show that the blood feeding behavior of mosquitoes is under circadian control and can be modulated by light pulses, both in a clock dependent and in an independent manner. Short light pulses (~2–5 min) in the dark phase can inhibit the blood-feeding propensity of mosquitoes momentarily in a clock independent manner, while longer durations of light stimulation (~1–2 h) can induce a phase advance in blood-feeding propensity in a clock dependent manner. The temporary feeding inhibition after short light pulses may reflect a masking effect of light, an unknown mechanism which is known to superimpose on the true circadian regulation. Nonetheless, the shorter light pulses resulted in the differential regulation of a variety of genes including those implicated in the circadian control, suggesting that light induced masking effects also involve clock components. Light pulses (both short and long) also regulated genes implicated in feeding as well as different physiological processes like metabolism, transport, immunity and protease digestions. RNAi-mediated gene silencing assays of the light pulse regulated circadian factors timeless, cryptochrome and three takeout homologues significantly up-regulated the mosquito's blood-feeding propensity. In contrast, gene silencing of light pulse regulated olfactory factors down-regulated the mosquito's propensity to feed on blood. Conclusion Our study show that the mosquito's feeding behavior is under circadian control. Long and short light pulses can induce inhibition of blood-feeding through circadian and unknown mechanisms, respectively, that involve the chemosensory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suchismita Das
- W, Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615N Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2179, USA.
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A set of serine proteinase paralogs are required for blood-digestion in the ixodid tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. Parasitol Int 2008; 57:499-505. [PMID: 18775510 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2008.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2008] [Revised: 07/10/2008] [Accepted: 08/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We present evidence demonstrating that genes encoding enzymes essential for successful blood-feeding are differentially induced in the midgut of the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. Three serine proteinase genes (HlSP, HlSP2 and HlSP3) isolated from H. longicornis midgut exhibit protein sequence similarity with other trypsin-like serine proteinases reported from arthropods and vertebrate animal species. The endogenous enzymes were mainly detected in the midgut epithelial cells and in the lumen of an adult tick. The recombinant enzymes expressed in Escherichia coli efficiently hydrolyzed synthetic substrates specific for serine proteinases over a broad range of pH and temperature values. Notably, the transcript levels of HlSP2 and HlSP3 were detected to significantly increase at 96 h post infestation, while the transcript of HlSP was induced in the earlier stage of blood-feeding. Further, silencing of HlSP, HlSP2 and HlSP3 genes by RNA interference led to a significant reductions in the engorged tick body weight, suggesting synergetic roles of these serine proteinases in blood-feeding and digestion.
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21
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Sato PM, Lopes AR, Juliano L, Juliano MA, Terra WR. Subsite substrate specificity of midgut insect chymotrypsins. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 38:628-633. [PMID: 18510974 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2008.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2007] [Revised: 02/20/2008] [Accepted: 03/19/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Insect chymotrypsins are distinctively sensitive to plant protein inhibitors, suggesting that they differ in subsite architecture and hence in substrate specificities. Purified digestive chymotrypsins from insects of three different orders were assayed with internally quenched fluorescent oligopeptides with three different amino acids at P1 (Tyr, Phe, and Leu) and 13 amino acid replacements in positions P1', P2, and P3. The binding energy (DeltaG(s), calculated from K(m) values) and the activation energy (DeltaG(T)++, determined from k(cat)/K(m) values) were calculated. The hydrophobicities of each subsite were calculated from the efficiency of hydrolysis of the different amino acid replacements at that subsite. The results showed that except for S1, the other subsites (S2, S3, and S1') vary among chymotrypsins. This result contrasts with insect trypsin data that revealed a trend along evolution, putatively associated with resistance to plant inhibitors. In spite of those differences, the data suggested that in lepidopteran chymotrypsins S2 and S1' bind the substrate ground state, whereas only S1' binds the transition state, supporting aspects of the present accepted mechanism of catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- P M Sato
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Motobu M, Tsuji N, Miyoshi T, Huang X, Islam MK, Alim MA, Fujisaki K. Molecular characterization of a blood-induced serine carboxypeptidase from the ixodid tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. FEBS J 2007; 274:3299-312. [PMID: 17542992 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.05852.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Ticks feed exclusively on blood to obtain their nutrients, but the gene products that mediate digestion processes in ticks remain unknown. We report the molecular characterization and possible function of a serine carboxypeptidase (HlSCP1) identified in the midgut of the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. HlSCP1 consists of 473 amino acids with a peptidase S10 family domain and shows structural similarity with serine carboxypeptidases reported from other arthropods, yeasts, plants and mammals. Endogenous HlSCP1 is strongly expressed in the midgut and is supposed to localize at lysosomal vacuoles and on the surface of epithelial cells. Endogenous HlSCP1, identified as a 53 kDa protein with pI value of 7.5, was detected in the membrane/organelle fraction isolated from the midgut, and its expression was upregulated during the course of blood-feeding. Enzymatic functional assays revealed that a recombinant HlSCP1 (rHlSCP1) expressed in yeast efficiently hydrolyzed the synthetic substrates specific for cathepsin A and thiol protease over a broad range of pH and temperature values. Furthermore, rHlSCP1 was shown to cleave hemoglobin, a major component of the blood-meal. Our results suggest that HlSCP1 may play a vital role in the digestion of the host's blood-meal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maki Motobu
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Animal Health, Ibaraki, Japan
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23
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Miyoshi T, Tsuji N, Islam MK, Huang X, Motobu M, Alim MA, Fujisaki K. Molecular and reverse genetic characterization of serine proteinase-induced hemolysis in the midgut of the ixodid tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2007; 53:195-203. [PMID: 17275020 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2006.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2006] [Revised: 12/01/2006] [Accepted: 12/04/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Enzyme-induced hemolysis has been shown to occur in the midgut of ticks; however, little is known about the molecular basis for hemolytic activity. We report here the molecular and reverse genetic characterization of a hemolytic midgut serine proteinase, HlSP, recently identified from the ixodid tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. Endogenous HlSP was found in the midgut lumen and its contents, indicating that HlSP is extracellularly secreted. Recombinant H. longicornis serine proteinase (rHlSP) expressed in Escherichia coli showed dose-dependent hemolytic activity towards rabbit erythrocytes, with a maximum hemolysis of 94.5% within 1 h in vitro. Tests of pH dependency showed that rHlSP displayed optimal activity at pH 6.0. In binding assays, rHlSP showed high affinity to band 3, which shares the major erythrocyte membrane proteins. Disruption of HlSP-specific mRNA by RNA interference resulted in inhibition of the degradation of host erythrocyte membranes by endogenous HlSP in the knock-down ticks, indicating that HlSP plays a crucial role in the hemolysis in the midgut of haematophagous ticks. Our results suggest that HlSP may be essential for initiating the proteolytic cascade for the degradation of the host blood-meal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeharu Miyoshi
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
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Spatial and sex-specific dissection of the Anopheles gambiae midgut transcriptome. BMC Genomics 2007; 8:37. [PMID: 17261194 PMCID: PMC1804276 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-8-37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2006] [Accepted: 01/29/2007] [Indexed: 03/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The midgut of hematophagous insects, such as disease transmitting mosquitoes, carries out a variety of essential functions that mostly relate to blood feeding. The midgut of the female malaria vector mosquito Anopheles gambiae is a major site of interactions between the parasite and the vector. Distinct compartments and cell types of the midgut tissue carry out specific functions and vector borne pathogens interact and infect different parts of the midgut. Results A microarray based global gene expression approach was used to compare transcript abundance in the four major female midgut compartments (cardia, anterior, anterior part of posterior and posterior part of posterior midgut) and between the male and female Anopheles gambiae midgut. Major differences between the female and male midgut gene expression relate to digestive processes and immunity. Each compartment has a distinct gene function profile with the posterior midgut expressing digestive enzyme genes and the cardia and anterior midgut expressing high levels of antimicrobial peptide and other immune gene transcripts. Interestingly, the cardia expressed several known anti-Plasmodium factors. A parallel peptidomic analysis of the cardia identified known mosquito antimicrobial peptides as well as several putative short secreted peptides that are likely to represent novel antimicrobial factors. Conclusion The A. gambiae sex specific midgut and female midgut compartment specific transcriptomes correlates with their known functions. The significantly greater functional diversity of the female midgut relate to hematophagy that is associated with digestion and nutrition uptake as well as exposes it to a variety of pathogens, and promotes growth of its endogenous microbial flora. The strikingly high proportion of immunity related factors in the cardia tissue most likely serves the function to increase sterility of ingested sugar and blood. A detailed characterization of the functional specificities of the female mosquito midgut and its various compartments can greatly contribute to our understanding of its role in disease transmission and generate the necessary tools for the development of malaria control strategies.
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Dana AN, Hillenmeyer ME, Lobo NF, Kern MK, Romans PA, Collins FH. Differential gene expression in abdomens of the malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, after sugar feeding, blood feeding and Plasmodium berghei infection. BMC Genomics 2006; 7:119. [PMID: 16712725 PMCID: PMC1508153 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-7-119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2005] [Accepted: 05/19/2006] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Large scale sequencing of cDNA libraries can provide profiles of genes expressed in an organism under defined biological and environmental circumstances. We have analyzed sequences of 4541 Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) from 3 different cDNA libraries created from abdomens from Plasmodium infection-susceptible adult female Anopheles gambiae. These libraries were made from sugar fed (S), rat blood fed (RB), and P. berghei-infected (IRB) mosquitoes at 30 hours after the blood meal, when most parasites would be transforming ookinetes or very early oocysts. RESULTS The S, RB and IRB libraries contained 1727, 1145 and 1669 high quality ESTs, respectively, averaging 455 nucleotides (nt) in length. They assembled into 1975 consensus sequences--567 contigs and 1408 singletons. Functional annotation was performed to annotate probable molecular functions of the gene products and the biological processes in which they function. Genes represented at high frequency in one or more of the libraries were subjected to digital Northern analysis and results on expression of 5 verified by qRT-PCR. CONCLUSION 13% of the 1965 ESTs showing identity to the A. gambiae genome sequence represent novel genes. These, together with untranslated regions (UTR) present on many of the ESTs, will inform further genome annotation. We have identified 23 genes encoding products likely to be involved in regulating the cellular oxidative environment and 25 insect immunity genes. We also identified 25 genes as being up or down regulated following blood feeding and/or feeding with P. berghei infected blood relative to their expression levels in sugar fed females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali N Dana
- Center for Tropical Disease Research and Training, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | | | - Neil F Lobo
- Center for Tropical Disease Research and Training, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Marcia K Kern
- Center for Tropical Disease Research and Training, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
| | - Patricia A Romans
- Department of Zoology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3G5, Canada
| | - Frank H Collins
- Center for Tropical Disease Research and Training, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
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Marinotti O, Calvo E, Nguyen QK, Dissanayake S, Ribeiro JMC, James AA. Genome-wide analysis of gene expression in adult Anopheles gambiae. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 15:1-12. [PMID: 16469063 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2006.00610.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
With their genome sequenced, Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes now serve as a powerful tool for basic research in comparative, evolutionary and developmental biology. The knowledge generated by these studies is expected to reveal molecular targets for novel vector control and pathogen transmission blocking strategies. Comparisons of gene-expression profiles between adult male and nonblood-fed female Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes revealed that roughly 22% of the genes showed sex-dependent regulation. Blood-fed females switch the majority of their metabolism to blood digestion and egg formation within 3 h after the meal is ingested, in detriment to other activities such as flight and response to environment stimuli. Changes in gene expression are most evident during the first, second and third days after a blood meal, when as many as 50% of all genes showed significant variation in transcript accumulation. After laying the first cluster of eggs (between 72 and 96 h after the blood meal), mosquitoes return to a nongonotrophic stage, similar but not identical to that of 3-day-old nonblood-fed females. Ageing and/or the nutritional state of mosquitoes at 15 days after a blood meal is reflected by the down-regulation of approximately 5% of all genes. A full description of the large number of genes regulated at each analysed time point and each biochemical pathway or biological processes in which they are involved is not possible within the scope of this contribution. Therefore, we present descriptions of groups of genes displaying major differences in transcript accumulation during the adult mosquito life. However, a publicly available searchable database (http://www.angagepuci.bio.uci.edu/) has been made available so that detailed analyses of specific groups of genes based on their descriptions, functions or levels of gene expression variation can be performed by interested investigators according to their needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Marinotti
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3900, USA
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Kalume DE, Okulate M, Zhong J, Reddy R, Suresh S, Deshpande N, Kumar N, Pandey A. A proteomic analysis of salivary glands of female Anopheles gambiae mosquito. Proteomics 2006; 5:3765-77. [PMID: 16127729 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200401210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the development of the malaria parasite within the mosquito vector at the molecular level should provide novel targets for interrupting parasitic life cycle and subsequent transmission. Availability of the complete genomic sequence of the major African malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae, allows discovery of such targets through experimental as well as computational methods. In the female mosquito, the salivary gland tissue plays an important role in the maturation of the infective form of the malaria parasite. Therefore, we carried out a proteomic analysis of salivary glands from female An. gambiae mosquitoes. Salivary gland extracts were digested with trypsin using two complementary approaches and analyzed by LC-MS/MS. This led to identification of 69 unique proteins, 57 of which were novel. We carried out a functional annotation of all proteins identified in this study through a detailed bioinformatics analysis. Even though a number of cDNA and Edman degradation-based approaches to catalog transcripts and proteins from salivary glands of mosquitoes have been published previously, this is the first report describing the application of MS for characterization of the salivary gland proteome. Our approach should prove valuable for characterizing proteomes of parasites and vectors with sequenced genomes as well as those whose genomes are yet to be fully sequenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dário E Kalume
- McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine and Department of Biological Chemistry, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Waniek PJ, Hendgen-Cotta UB, Stock P, Mayer C, Kollien AH, Schaub GA. Serine proteinases of the human body louse (Pediculus humanus): sequence characterization and expression patterns. Parasitol Res 2005; 97:486-500. [PMID: 16211415 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-005-1463-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2005] [Accepted: 07/01/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
After the previous characterization of one trypsin gene (Try1) of the human body louse Pediculus humanus, genes encoding a second trypsin (Try2) and a chymotrypsin (Chy1) have been cloned using degenerate serine proteinase primers and 5'- and 3'-RACE, and sequenced. The deduced 259 and 267 amino acid sequences of Try2 and Chy1 show an identity of 33%-40% to trypsinogens and chymotrypsinogens of other insects. Considering previously published partial sequences, P. humanus possesses at least one Try1 gene, five variants/isoforms of Try2 and six variants/isoforms of Chy1. The genomic DNA of Try2 contains three introns and Chy1 contains five introns. Using whole mount in situ hybridization, gene expression of Try1, Try2 and Chy1 has been localized not only in the distensible anterior region of the midgut of lice but sometimes also in the area following the distensible region. The Try2 gene was always expressed at much lower levels than Try1 or Chy1. This lower expression, the constitutive expression of Try1 and Chy1 at 1, 2, 6, 12 and 24 h after feeding of adults and the regional differences have been verified in quantitative real-time PCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Waniek
- Department of Special Zoology, Ruhr-University, 44780 Bochum, Germany
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Marinotti O, Nguyen QK, Calvo E, James AA, Ribeiro JMC. Microarray analysis of genes showing variable expression following a blood meal in Anopheles gambiae. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 14:365-73. [PMID: 16033430 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2005.00567.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
A microarray analysis of 14 900 genes of the malaria vector mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, shows that as many as 33% (4924) of their corresponding transcription products vary in abundance within 24 h after a blood meal. Approximately half (2388) of these products increase in their accumulation and the remainder (2536) decrease. Expression dynamics of 80% of the genes analysed by expressed sequence tag (EST) projects reported previously are consistent with the observations from this microarray analysis. Furthermore, the microarray analysis is more sensitive in detecting variation in abundance of gene products expressed at low levels and is more sensitive overall in that a greater number of regulated genes are detected. Major changes in transcript abundance were seen in genes encoding proteins involved in digestion, oogenesis and locomotion. The microarray data and an electronic hyperlinked version of all tables are available to the research community at http://www.angagepuci.bio.uci.edu/1/.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Marinotti
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 92697, USA.
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Aguilar R, Jedlicka AE, Mintz M, Mahairaki V, Scott AL, Dimopoulos G. Global gene expression analysis of Anopheles gambiae responses to microbial challenge. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 35:709-19. [PMID: 15894188 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2005.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/11/2005] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Anopheles gambiae transcript responses to experimental challenge with heat inactivated Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus and Beauveria bassiana have been analyzed with an Affymetrix GeneChip comprising the entire predicted mosquito transcriptome. Significant up- or down-regulation (greater than 2-fold) can be assayed for approximately 2% of the mosquito transcriptome and affected genes represent a variety of functional classes that include immunity, apoptosis, stress response, detoxification, metabolism, blood digestion, olfaction and others. Transcript responses to the 3 microbial elicitors exhibit an exceptionally high degree of specificity and only a few genes are significantly regulated by more than 1 of the tested elicitors. This study identifies several transcripts that have not been linked directly to immune response in A. gambiae previously; their infection responsiveness and sequence features do however suggest implication in defence reactions; examples are genes encoding leucine-rich repeat domain proteins, cuticle domain proteins and proteins containing immunoglobulin and fibronectin domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Aguilar
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 615 North Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205-2179, USA
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31
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Okuda K, Caroci A, Ribolla P, Marinotti O, de Bianchi AG, Bijovsky AT. Morphological and enzymatic analysis of the midgut of Anopheles darlingi during blood digestion. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 51:769-76. [PMID: 15890356 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2005.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2004] [Revised: 03/09/2005] [Accepted: 03/14/2005] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The midgut of adult female Anopheles darlingi is comprised of narrow anterior and dilated posterior regions, with a single layered epithelium composed by cuboidal digestive cells. Densely packed apical microvilli and an intricate basal labyrinth characterize each cell pole. Before blood feeding, apical cytoplasm contains numerous round granules and whorled profiles of rough endoplasmic reticulum. Engorgement causes a great distension of midgut. This provokes the flattening of digestive cells and their nuclei. Simultaneously, apical granules disappear, the whorls of endoplasmic reticulum disassemble and 3h post bloodmeal (PBM), nucleoli enlarge manyfold. An intense absorptive process takes place during the first 24 h PBM, with the formation of large glycogen inclusions, which persist after the end of the digestive process. Endoproteases activities are induced after bloodmeal and attain their maximum values between 10 and 36 h PBM. At least two different aminopeptidases seem to participate in the digestive process, with their maximum activity values at 36 and 48 h PBM, respectively. Coarse electrondense aggregates, possibly debris from digested erythrocytes, begin to appear on the luminal face of the peritrophic membrane from 18 h PBM and persist during all the digestive process, and are excreted at its end. We suggest that these aggregates could contain some kind of insoluble form of haem, in order of neutralize its toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kendi Okuda
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, CEP 05508-900, Brazil
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Gong M, Shen B, Gu Y, Tian H, Ma L, Li X, Yang M, Hu Y, Sun Y, Hu X, Li J, Zhu C. Serine proteinase over-expression in relation to deltamethrin resistance in Culex pipiens pallens. Arch Biochem Biophys 2005; 438:53-62. [PMID: 15876421 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2005.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2005] [Revised: 03/29/2005] [Accepted: 03/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Two serine proteinase genes were isolated from Culex pipiens pallens as significantly up-regulated genes in a deltamethrin-resistant strain through a combination of suppression substractive hybridization and gene expression profiling by macroarrays. These two genes were found to be expressed at least threefold higher in the resistant strain than in the susceptible one. By using rapid amplification of cDNA ends to screen the constructed cDNA library, we cloned these two sequences. There were 909 bp with an open reading frame of 786 bp in the sequence of trypsin cDNA (GenBank/NCBI AF468495), the deduced protein had 261 amino acids, which was most similar to the trypsin gene of Anopheles gambiae. There were 992 bp with an open reading frame of 816 bp in the chymotrypsin cDNA (GenBank/NCBI AY034060), and its deduced amino acid sequence had 271 amino acids, which was most similar to the chymotrypsin-like protein from Aedes aegypti. The two genes were stably expressed in mosquito C6/36 cells, and the expected 29 and 30 kDa bands were shown with Western blot, respectively. In these cells, after deltamethrin treatment, they had protective effects on the viability. The results indicate that trypsin and chymotrypsin were more highly expressed in the deltamethrin-resistant strain, and was related to insecticide resistance in mosquitoes, Cx. pipiens pallens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maoqing Gong
- Department of Parasitology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 210029, PR China
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Xu X, Dong Y, Abraham EG, Kocan A, Srinivasan P, Ghosh AK, Sinden RE, Ribeiro JMC, Jacobs-Lorena M, Kafatos FC, Dimopoulos G. Transcriptome analysis of Anopheles stephensi-Plasmodium berghei interactions. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2005; 142:76-87. [PMID: 15907562 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2005.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2004] [Revised: 02/23/2005] [Accepted: 02/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Simultaneous microarray-based transcription analysis of 4987 Anopheles stephensi midgut and Plasmodium berghei infection stage specific cDNAs was done at seven successive time points: 6, 20 and 40h, and 4, 8, 14 and 20 days after ingestion of malaria infected blood. The study reveals the molecular components of several Anopheles processes relating to blood digestion, midgut expansion and response to Plasmodium-infected blood such as digestive enzymes, transporters, cytoskeletal and structural components and stress and immune responsive factors. In parallel, the analysis provide detailed expression patterns of Plasmodium genes encoding essential developmental and metabolic factors and proteins implicated in interaction with the mosquito vector and vertebrate host such as kinases, transcription and translational factors, cytoskeletal components and a variety of surface proteins, some of which are potent vaccine targets. Temporal correlation between transcription profiles of both organisms identifies putative gene clusters of interacting processes, such as Plasmodium invasion of the midgut epithelium, Anopheles immune responses to Plasmodium infection, and apoptosis and expulsion of invaded midgut cells from the epithelium. Intriguing transcription patterns for highly variable Plasmodium surface antigens may indicate parasite strategies to avoid recognition by the mosquito's immune surveillance system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojin Xu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Imperial College, London SW7 2AZ, UK
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34
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Lavazec C, Bonnet S, Thiery I, Boisson B, Bourgouin C. cpbAg1 encodes an active carboxypeptidase B expressed in the midgut of Anopheles gambiae. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 14:163-174. [PMID: 15796749 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2004.00541.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
We previously used differential display to identify several Anopheles gambiae genes, whose expression in the mosquito midgut was regulated upon ingestion of Plasmodium falciparum. Here, we report the characterization of one of these genes, cpbAg1, which codes for the first zinc-carboxypeptidase B identified in An. gambiae and in any insect. Expression of cpbAg1 in baculovirus gave rise to an active enzyme, and determination of the N-terminal amino acids confirmed that CPBAg1 contains a signal peptide and a pro-peptide, typical features of digestive zinc carboxypeptidases. cpbAg1 mRNA was mainly produced in the mosquito midgut, where it accumulated in unfed females and was rapidly down-regulated upon blood feeding. Annotation of the An. gambiae genome predicts twenty-three sequences coding for zinc-carboxypeptidases of which only two (cpbAg1 and cpbAg2) are expressed at a significant level in the mosquito midgut.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lavazec
- Unité de Biologie et Génétique du Paludisme, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Gene expression patterns associated with blood-feeding in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae. BMC Genomics 2005; 6:5. [PMID: 15651988 PMCID: PMC546002 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-6-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2004] [Accepted: 01/14/2005] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Blood feeding, or hematophagy, is a behavior exhibited by female mosquitoes required both for reproduction and for transmission of pathogens. We determined the expression patterns of 3,068 ESTs, representing ~2,000 unique gene transcripts using cDNA microarrays in adult female Anopheles gambiae at selected times during the first two days following blood ingestion, at 5 and 30 min during a 40 minute blood meal and at 0, 1, 3, 5, 12, 16, 24 and 48 hours after completion of the blood meal and compared their expression to transcript levels in mosquitoes with access only to a sugar solution. Results In blood-fed mosquitoes, 413 unique transcripts, approximately 25% of the total, were expressed at least two-fold above or below their levels in the sugar-fed mosquitoes, at one or more time points. These differentially expressed gene products were clustered using k-means clustering into Early Genes, Middle Genes, and Late Genes, containing 144, 130, and 139 unique transcripts, respectively. Several genes from each group were analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR in order to validate the microarray results. Conclusion The expression patterns and annotation of the genes in these three groups (Early, Middle, and Late genes) are discussed in the context of female mosquitoes' physiological responses to blood feeding, including blood digestion, peritrophic matrix formation, egg development, and immunity.
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Nirmala X, Marinotti O, James AA. The accumulation of specific mRNAs following multiple blood meals in Anopheles gambiae. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 14:95-103. [PMID: 15663779 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2005.00535.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
One approach to genetic control of transmission of the parasites that cause human malaria is based on expressing effector genes in mosquitoes that disable the pathogens. Endogenous mosquito promoter and other cis-acting DNA sequences are needed to direct the optimal tissue-, stage- and sex-specific expression of the effector molecules. The mRNA accumulation profiles of eight different genes expressed specifically in the midgut, salivary glands or fat body tissues of the malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae, were characterized as a measure of their suitability to direct the expression of effector molecules designed to disable specific stages of the parasites. RT-PCR techniques were used to determine the abundance of the gene products and their duration following multiple blood meals. Transcription from the midgut-expressed carboxypeptidase-encoding gene, AgCP, follows a cyclical, blood-inducible expression pattern with maximum accumulation every 3 h post blood meal. Other midgut-expressed genes encoding a trypsin and chymotrypsin, Antryp2 and Anchym1, respectively, and the fat body-expressed genes, Vg1 and Cathepsin, also show a blood-inducible pattern of expression with maximum accumulation 24 h after every blood meal. Expression of the Lipophorin gene in the fat body and apyrase and D7-related genes (AgApy and D7r2) in the salivary glands is constitutive and not significantly affected by blood meals. Promoters of the midgut- and fat body-expressed genes may lead to maximum accumulation of antiparasite effector molecule transcripts after multiple blood meals. The multiple feeding behaviour of An. gambiae thus can be an advantage to express high levels of antiparasite effector molecules to counteract the parasites throughout most of adult development.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Nirmala
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-3900, USA
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Kvamme BO, Frost P, Nilsen F. The cloning and characterisation of full-length trypsins from the salmon louse Lepeophtheirus salmonis. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2004; 136:303-7. [PMID: 15478809 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2003.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bjørn Olav Kvamme
- Department of Aquaculture, Institute of Marine Research, P.O. Box 1870, Nordnes, Bergen N-5817, Norway.
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Miyoshi T, Tsuji N, Islam MK, Kamio T, Fujisaki K. Cloning and molecular characterization of a cubilin-related serine proteinase from the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 34:799-808. [PMID: 15262284 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2004.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2003] [Accepted: 04/27/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Serine proteinases are one of the largest proteolytic families of enzymes, and have diverse cellular activities in mammalian tissues. We report here the cloning and molecular characterization of a cDNA encoding the serine proteinase of the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis (HlSP). The HlSP cDNA is 1570 bp long and the deduced precursor protein consists of 464 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 50.4 kDa and a pI of 8.2. The preprotein, consisting of 443 amino acids, was predicted to include a complement C1r/C1s, Uegf, and bone morphogenic protein-1 domain, a low-density lipoprotein receptor class A domain, and a catalytic domain. HlSP sequence analysis showed high similarity to serine proteinases reported from arthropods and vertebrate animal species. Two-dimensional immunoblot analysis revealed endogenous HlSP in adult tick extracts at 50 kDa. Endogenous HlSP was also expressed in all lifecycle stages of H. longicornis. Immunohistochemical studies detected the endogenous enzyme in the midgut epithelial cells of an adult tick. The Escherichia coli-expressed recombinant HlSP was demonstrated to degrade bovine serum albumin and hydrolyze the substrate Bz-L-Arg-pNA at the rate of 30.2 micromol/min/mg protein. Further, HlSP expression was up-regulated during a blood-feeding process, indicating its involvement in the digestion of host blood components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeharu Miyoshi
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Agricultural Research Organization, National Institute of Animal Health, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
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Williamson AL, Lecchi P, Turk BE, Choe Y, Hotez PJ, McKerrow JH, Cantley LC, Sajid M, Craik CS, Loukas A. A Multi-enzyme Cascade of Hemoglobin Proteolysis in the Intestine of Blood-feeding Hookworms. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:35950-7. [PMID: 15199048 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m405842200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood-feeding pathogens digest hemoglobin (Hb) as a source of nutrition, but little is known about this process in multicellular parasites. The intestinal brush border membrane of the canine hookworm, Ancylostoma caninum, contains aspartic proteases (APR-1), cysteine proteases (CP-2), and metalloproteases (MEP-1), the first of which is known to digest Hb. We now show that Hb is degraded by a multi-enzyme, synergistic cascade of proteolysis. Recombinant APR-1 and CP-2, but not MEP-1, digested native Hb and denatured globin. MEP-1, however, did cleave globin fragments that had undergone prior digestion by APR-1 and CP-2. Proteolytic cleavage sites within the Hb alpha and beta chains were determined for the three enzymes, identifying a total of 131 cleavage sites. By scanning synthetic combinatorial peptide libraries with each enzyme, we compared the preferred residues cleaved in the libraries with the known cleavage sites within Hb. The semi-ordered pathway of Hb digestion described here is surprisingly similar to that used by Plasmodium to digest Hb and provides a potential mechanism by which these hemoglobinases are efficacious vaccines in animal models of hookworm infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela L Williamson
- Department of Microbiology and Tropical Medicine, The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20037, USA
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Talman AM, Domarle O, McKenzie FE, Ariey F, Robert V. Gametocytogenesis: the puberty of Plasmodium falciparum. Malar J 2004; 3:24. [PMID: 15253774 PMCID: PMC497046 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-3-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2004] [Accepted: 07/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan Plasmodium falciparum has a complex life cycle in which asexual multiplication in the vertebrate host alternates with an obligate sexual reproduction in the anopheline mosquito. Apart from the apparent recombination advantages conferred by sex, P. falciparum has evolved a remarkable biology and adaptive phenotypes to insure its transmission despite the dangers of sex. This review mainly focuses on the current knowledge on commitment to sexual development, gametocytogenesis and the evolutionary significance of various aspects of gametocyte biology. It goes further than pure biology to look at the strategies used to improve successful transmission. Although gametocytes are inevitable stages for transmission and provide a potential target to fight malaria, they have received less attention than the pathogenic asexual stages. There is a need for research on gametocytes, which are a fascinating stage, responsible to a large extent for the success of P. falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur M Talman
- Groupe de Recherche sur le Paludisme, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, B.P.1274 Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
- Department of Biological Sciences, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, SW7 2AZ London, UK
| | - Olivier Domarle
- Groupe de Recherche sur le Paludisme, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, B.P.1274 Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
| | - F Ellis McKenzie
- Fogarty International Centre, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Frédéric Ariey
- Groupe de Recherche sur le Paludisme, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, B.P.1274 Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
| | - Vincent Robert
- Groupe de Recherche sur le Paludisme, Institut Pasteur de Madagascar, B.P.1274 Antananarivo 101, Madagascar
- UR 77 Paludisme Afro-tropical, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Madagascar
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41
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de Almeida RW, Tovar FJ, Ferreira II, Leoncini O. Chymotrypsin genes in the malaria mosquitoes Anopheles aquasalis and Anopheles darlingi. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2003; 33:307-315. [PMID: 12609516 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(02)00245-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Four closely related chymotrypsin genes were identified in Anopheles aquasalis and Anopheles darlingi (Anachy1, Anachy2, Andchy1 and Andchy2). The deduced amino-acid sequences were compared to other chymotrypsin sequences. These sequences were used to infer phylogenetic relationships among the different species. Genomic cloning revealed that, in contrast to An. aquasalis and A. gambiae, the chymotrypsin genomic locus in An. darlingi had a short intergenic region that accompanied the inverted position of the genes, suggesting inversion mechanisms in this species related to transposable elements. Alignments of the sequences upstream of the transcription start sites of Anachy1, Anachy2, Andchy1 and Andchy2 revealed areas with high similarity containing palindromic sequences. Northern analysis from An. aquasalis indicated that the transcription of chy 1 and 2 are induced by blood feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- R W de Almeida
- Instituto de Biologia, Departamento de Genética, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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42
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Ramalho-Ortigão JM, Kamhawi S, Rowton ED, Ribeiro JMC, Valenzuela JG. Cloning and characterization of trypsin- and chymotrypsin-like proteases from the midgut of the sand fly vector Phlebotomus papatasi. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2003; 33:163-171. [PMID: 12535675 DOI: 10.1016/s0965-1748(02)00187-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Trypsin and chymotrypsin serine proteases are the main digestive proteases in Diptera midguts and are also involved in many aspects of the vector-parasite relationship. In sand flies, these proteases have been shown to be a potential barrier to Leishmania growth and development within the midgut. Here we describe the sequence and partial characterization of six Phlebotomus papatasi midgut serine proteases: two chymotrypsin-like (Ppchym1 and Ppchym2) and four trypsin-like (Pptryp1-Pptryp4). All six enzymes show structural features typical to each type, including the histidine, aspartic acid, and serine (H/D/S) catalytic triad, six conserved cysteine residues, and other amino acid residues involved in substrate specificity. They also show a high degree of homology (40-60% identical residues) with their counterparts from other insect vectors, such as Anopheles gambiae and Aedes aegypti. The mRNA expression profiles of these six proteases vary considerably: two trypsin-like proteases (Pptryp1 and Pptryp2) are downregulated and one (Pptryp4) upregulated upon blood feeding. The two chymotrypsin-like enzymes display expression behavior similar to that of the early and late trypsins from Ae. aegypti.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Ramalho-Ortigão
- Intracellular Parasite Biology Section, Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 4 Center Drive, Building 4, Room 126, MSC-0425, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-0425, USA
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