Catatonia in childhood and adolescence

Drug-related catatonia in youths: real-world insights from the WHO Safety Database

Catatonia is characterized by psychomotor alterations and reduced contact with the environment. Initially linked to schizophrenia, it also occurs in mood disorders or organic conditions. In children, catatonia remains poorly delineated, despite dramatically increasing the risk of premature death. As data on pediatric drug-induced catatonia bears many uncertainties, we aimed to characterize its age-dependent patterns, using real-world data from the WHO safety database (VigiBase®).VigiBase® was queried for all reports of catatonia registered up to December 8th 2022. Reports involving patients <18 years were classified into 3 groups: ≤23 months, 2-11 years, and 12-17 years. Disproportionality analyses relied on the Reporting Odds Ratio (ROR), and the positivity of the lower end of the 95% confidence interval of the Information Component (IC) was required to suspect a signal. Catatonia was evoked in 421 pediatric reports. In infants, vaccines were leading. In children, the main signals involved haloperidol (ROR 104.3; 95% CI 45.6-238.5), ondansetron (ROR 40.5; 95% CI 16.5-99.5), and ciclosporin (ROR 27.4; 95% CI 13.8-54.1). In adolescents, chlorpromazine (ROR 199.1; 95% CI 134.8-294.1), benzatropine (ROR 193; 95% CI 104.1-361.6), and olanzapine (ROR 135.7; 95% CI 104.6-175.9) reached the highest RORs. In infants, catatonia was related to vaccines, it was ascribed to multiple drugs in children, and mainly to psychotropic drugs in adolescents. Less suspected drugs, such as ondansetron, were highlighted. Despite limitations inherent in spontaneous reporting systems, this study supports that a careful anamnesis is warranted to separate catatonia associated with medical conditions from drug-induced catatonia in pediatric patients.

Case report: Co-occurring obsessive-compulsive disorder and affective psychotic disorder complicated by catatonia in an adolescent female patient

We present the case of a 16-year-old female patient who experienced the loss of her mother to suicide, leading to post-traumatic stress disorder and prominent mood symptoms. She developed catatonic features during her inpatient psychiatric hospitalization following her own suicide attempt. Over her hospital course, she began to demonstrate signs of co-occurring obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and affective psychotic disorder obfuscated by the severity of her catatonia. After initial workup including neurologic evaluation, laboratory tests, imaging (EEG, MRI), the patient was stabilized on a combination of benzodiazepines, antipsychotics, mood stabilizers, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The diagnostic challenges of disambiguating multiple concurrent diagnoses in the presence of a syndrome with unclear pathophysiology are discussed. Recommendations are made to thoroughly evaluate thought content during periods of catatonic remission to guide diagnosis and treatment.

Catatonia in neurodevelopmental disorders: assessing catatonic deterioration from baseline

Despite the inclusion of catatonia as a specifier of autism spectrum disorder in DSM-5, we-a team of child and adolescent neuropsychiatrists who specialise in paediatric catatonia and neurodevelopmental disorders-have identified a number of issues with the diagnosis and clinical management of catatonia in our patients. In this Personal View, we summarise the literature regarding catatonia in people with neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder, describe our concerns, and offer a novel approach to addressing important issues with current diagnostic and treatment paradigms. We emphasise the need for a measure to diagnose and monitor people with catatonia and their history of neurodevelopmental disorders. This measure should consider previous complex and underlying motor, medical, functional, and neurobehavioural symptoms. We propose two concepts for understanding catatonia that relate to the baseline status of an individual: the personalised score at baseline, an estimate of premorbid neurobehavioral and motor symptoms, and the catatonic deterioration from baseline, an estimate of current features that are due to catatonia rather than an underlying neurodevelopmental disorder. We hope this measure will provide a practical tool for clinicians and researchers working with this underserved and high-risk population.

Plasmapheresis for a Patient with Catatonia and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: A Case Report and Literature Review

Neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematous (NPSLE) encompasses various psychiatric and neurological manifestations that develop in patients with systemic lupus erythematous (SLE), secondary to the involvement of the central nervous system (CNS). Although neuropsychiatric manifestations are commonly described in NPSLE, catatonia has been less frequently reported in patients with SLE. The roles of benzodiazepines (BZDs), immunosuppression, therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE), and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) have all been reported in the management of catatonia. Furthermore, another research reported that catatonic symptoms associated with NPSLE were considerably improved by TPE. We, herein, report a case of catatonia in a patient with newly diagnosed NPSLE who exhibited a favorable prognosis through the early initiation of systemic immunosuppressants and TPE. Furthermore, we have reviewed the literature on the role of medication and plasmapheresis (PP), or TPE, in the treatment of catatonia that is associated with SLE.

Electroconvulsive Therapy in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review of Current Literature and Guidelines

ABSTRACT

There is a lack of studies regarding the efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in children and adolescents. In this study, we aimed to assess benefits and harms of ECT in children and adolescents with major psychiatric diseases. We conducted a systematic search in PubMed, EMBASE, and PsycINFO for peer-reviewed articles written in English regarding the use of ECT as treatment for major psychiatric diseases in children and adolescents. This study consists of 192 articles, mostly case studies (n = 50), reviews and overview articles (n = 52), and retrospective studies (n = 30). We present an overview of evidence for ECT in children and adolescents with mood disorders, catatonia, schizophrenia, intellectual disability, self-injurious behavior, and other indications. This article is also a summary of international guidelines regarding the use of ECT in children and adolescents. We evaluated the overall quality of evidence by using Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations and found the overall level of evidence to be of low quality. There are no absolute contra indications for ECT in children and adolescents. Fears regarding cognitive dysfunction have not been reproduced in studies. Electroconvulsive therapy should be considered in severe, treatment-resistant mood disorders, catatonia, and schizophrenia, especially in older adolescents. High-quality studies are warranted to assess the efficacy of ECT, especially in these potentially life-threatening diseases.

Use of Electroconvulsive Therapy in an Adolescent with Mental Retardation and Catatonia

Despite the availability of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and being one of the safest modalities of treatment, the use of ECT is still underused in patients with mental retardation with catatonia. However, the available limited literature suggests that ECT can be used safely with proper monitoring and assessment, especially in those presenting with catatonia in mental retardation. We treated a 17-year-old boy who presented to us with catatonia with mental retardation with a course of 12 ECT, with which the catatonia resolved completely. Review of the literature suggests that the occurrence of catatonia is rare in mental retardation. However, ECT can be used in a rare case with precautions.

Case of paediatric catatonia precipitated by antipsychotic withdrawal in a child with autism spectrum disorder

A 13-year-old girl with moderate intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was admitted to the paediatric high-dependency unit following an 8-week history of altered mental status and motor behaviour. Her symptoms emerged followed shortly after discontinuation of risperidone, an atypical antipsychotic previously commenced to manage disruptive behaviour associated with ASD. On physical examination, the patient presented with negativism, grimacing, automatic obedience, waxy flexibility and ambitendency. Blood tests, neuroimaging and lumbar puncture failed to reveal an acute infectious or neurological precipitant. She responded immediately to a trial of intramuscular lorazepam titrated to a total daily dose of 12 mg. This case presents challenges of accurately diagnosing and managing catatonic symptoms in adolescent patients with ASD. We also discuss the potential risk of precipitating catatonia following the discontinuation of antipsychotic treatment that has been prescribed for a prolonged duration.

Catatonia in a 10-year-old boy with early childhood neglect and disruptive behaviours in psychiatric residential treatment

Catatonia is a rare medical condition that can be fatal in paediatric patients if left untreated. It is often misdiagnosed or underdiagnosed. There are no published cases of catatonia in traumatised children living in long-term psychiatric care. However, there is some evidence that childhood maltreatment in its variant forms may be a risk for the development of catatonia in children and adolescents. In this case, a 10-year-old boy with intrauterine exposure to alcohol and multiple drugs and early childhood deprivation, developed neuroleptic-induced catatonia in an intensive psychiatric residential treatment centre approximately 24 hours after receiving a first-time intramuscular injection of haloperidol 5 mg for acute agitation. He had no known predisposing factors for catatonia such as psychosis, autism, neurological or general medical problems. This 10-year-old child's early childhood trauma should be considered as a predisposing factor for catatonia.

Diagnostic and Therapeutic Challenges of Catatonia in an Adolescent With High Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Case Report

Catatonia is a psychomotor syndrome with specific clusters of speech, behavioral and motor features. Although potentially life-threatening, especially in its malignant form accompanied with autonomic dysregulation and medical complications, it is a treatable condition, when promptly identified. For a long time catatonia was considered a marker of schizophrenia, thus limiting the possibility of diagnosis and treatment. Due to growing awareness and studies on the subject, it is now known that catatonia can occur in the context of a number of diseases, including psychotic, affective and neurodevelopmental disorders. In recent years, there's been a renewed interest in the recognition and definition of catatonia in neurodevelopmental disorders, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), where the differential diagnosis poses great challenges, given the considerable overlapping of signs and symptoms between the conditions. We present the case of a 15 year old boy with High Functioning ASD with a sudden onset of severe catatonic symptoms and the co-existence of psychotic symptoms, whose complex clinical course raises many questions on the differentiation and relation of said disorders.

Case Report: A Case of Pediatric Catatonia: Role of the Lorazepam Challenge Test

A case of a 12-year-old boy who developed catatonia is presented. He had no previous psychiatric history but has a family history of affective disorder. An extensive medical workup was negative. Despite a negative lorazepam challenge test, lorazepam was titrated up to 24 mg/day, with resolution of most catatonic symptoms. The case highlights an important point in the management of catatonia that may be a source of confusion, i.e., a positive lorazepam challenge test corroborates the diagnosis of catatonia; however, a negative lorazepam challenge test does not negate the diagnosis of catatonia, and subsequent focused benzodiazepine treatment may still be effective.

Neuropsychiatric decompensation in adolescents and adults with Phelan-McDermid syndrome: a systematic review of the literature

Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS) is caused by haploinsufficiency of the SHANK3 gene on chromosome 22q13.33 and is characterized by intellectual disability, hypotonia, severe speech impairments, and autism spectrum disorder. Emerging evidence indicates that there are changes over time in the phenotype observed in individuals with PMS, including severe neuropsychiatric symptoms and loss of skills occurring in adolescence and adulthood. To gain further insight into these phenomena and to better understand the long-term course of the disorder, we conducted a systematic literature review and identified 56 PMS cases showing signs of behavioral and neurologic decompensation in adolescence or adulthood (30 females, 25 males, 1 gender unknown). Clinical presentations included features of bipolar disorder, catatonia, psychosis, and loss of skills, occurring at a mean age of 20 years. There were no apparent sex differences in the rates of these disorders except for catatonia, which appeared to be more frequent in females (13 females, 3 males). Reports of individuals with point mutations in SHANK3 exhibiting neuropsychiatric decompensation and loss of skills demonstrate that loss of one copy of SHANK3 is sufficient to cause these manifestations. In the majority of cases, no apparent cause could be identified; in others, symptoms appeared after acute events, such as infections, prolonged or particularly intense seizures, or changes in the individual's environment. Several individuals had a progressive neurological deterioration, including one with juvenile onset metachromatic leukodystrophy, a severe demyelinating disorder caused by recessive mutations in the ARSA gene in 22q13.33. These reports provide insights into treatment options that have proven helpful in some cases, and are reviewed herein. Our survey highlights how little is currently known about neuropsychiatric presentations and loss of skills in PMS and underscores the importance of studying the natural history in individuals with PMS, including both cross-sectional and long-term longitudinal analyses. Clearer delineation of these neuropsychiatric symptoms will contribute to their recognition and prompt management and will also help uncover the underlying biological mechanisms, potentially leading to improved interventions.

Comparative study of symptom profile of catatonia in patients with psychotic disorders, affective disorders and organic disorders

AIM

To compare the symptom profile of catatonia among patients with affective, psychotic and organic disorders.

METHODOLOGY

A 46 item catatonia rating scale prepared by combining items from 3 catatonia rating scales, i.e., Bush Francis Catatonia Rating Scale(BFCRS), North off catatonia rating scale and Catatonia rating scale was used.

RESULTS

Study included 53, 45 and 42 patients with psychotic disorders, affective disorders and organic catatonia respectively. No significant difference was seen in the prevalence and severity of various catatonic symptoms between patients with psychotic and affective disorders. Compared to participants in the organicity group, participants in the psychotic group had significantly higher prevalence and severity of posturing. There was no difference in the affective and organicity group in terms of frequency and severity of catatonic symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with organic catatonia do not differ from those with catatonia due to affective and psychotic disorders in terms of prevalence and severity of signs and symptoms of catatonia except for posturing. The present study suggests that catatonic symptoms in patients with various disorders are not just limited to BFCRS and extend beyond the same.

Catatonia in children and adolescents: New perspectives

INTRODUCTION

Catatonia is a rare and severe psychomotor condition in children and adolescents. In the current report, we aimed to review the recent literature.

METHOD

Using a PRISMA approach, we searched MEDLINE between 1982 and 2017 using the keywords 'CATATONIA' and 'CHILD' or 'ADOLESCENT'. In total, we reviewed 130 reports (controlled study, N=4; clinical chart, N=23; case report, N=54; and editorial/review, N=42).

RESULTS

Several aspects seem to be age specific: (1) although the clinical presentation resembles that in adults, some symptoms are important in children and adolescents (e.g., psychomotor regression). (2) Associated disorders are similar to that found in adults; however, schizophrenia is more frequently observed than mood disorder. Additionally, a history of neurodevelopmental disorders maybe encountered. (3) Morbidity and mortality are among the worst in child psychiatry. (4) Underlying organic conditions are highly prevalent (>20% of the cases), and their search is warranted because some diagnoses may result in specific treatments (e.g., immune-suppressor therapy for autoimmune conditions). (5) Symptomatic approaches - high dose of benzodiazepines and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) - are as efficient in children or adolescents as they are in adults, but this finding needs to be acknowledged because a resistance against the use of ECT or high-dose medication exists among child psychiatrists.

DISCUSSION

Recent advances in child and adolescent catatonia research have offered major improvements in understanding catatonia and in new therapeutic opportunities. The syndrome is rare, but these advances need to be acknowledged in order to direct patients to centers that have developed a specific expertise.

Pediatric Catatonia: A Case Series-Based Review of Presentation, Evaluation, and Management

BACKGROUND

Pediatric catatonia is believed to be a rare condition, but challenges in recognition and variability in presentation may lead to underdiagnosis. Early identification and effective treatment of pediatric catatonia is critical given the significant morbidity and mortality associated with the condition. Given the widespread shortage of child and adolescent psychiatrists, at times consultation-liaison (C-L) psychiatrists without child training may be the frontline specialty providers asked to guide treatment of these pediatric patients.

OBJECTIVE

To review the literature on pediatric catatonia using clinical cases to illustrate unique aspects of its presentation, evaluation, and management.

METHODS

We describe the presentation and management of 6 adolescents with catatonia on an inpatient pediatric service at a general hospital and use these cases as a focal point for a review of the literature.

CONCLUSION

Pediatric catatonia is a potentially lethal disease entity that can be effectively treated if accurately identified early in its course. Psychiatrists working in a C-L setting may encounter this syndrome and should be aware of its presentation, evaluation, and management.

The Differential Diagnosis and Treatment of Catatonia in Children and Adolescents

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After participating in this activity, learners should be better able to:• Assess the etiologies associated with catatonia in children and adolescents• Evaluate the differential diagnosis of pediatric catatonia• Interpret the literature regarding the treatment of children and adolescents with catatonia OBJECTIVE: Pediatric catatonia is associated with many medical and psychiatric conditions. Mortality is high, and proper treatment can be lifesaving. Catatonia is increasingly recognized in pediatric populations, in which about 20% of cases are related to underlying medical conditions. To minimize morbidity, clinicians must rule out underlying disorders while simultaneously managing symptoms and causes. In our review we discuss (1) recommendations to aid rapid decision making, both diagnostic and therapeutic, (2) emergent conditions and management, (3) disorders associated with pediatric catatonia, including developmental, acquired, idiopathic, and iatrogenic etiologies, (4) available treatments, and (5) medicolegal considerations.

METHODS

Initial PubMed search without date constraints using MeSH terms related to pediatric catatonia, with subsequent searches on pertinent subtopics using PubMed and Google Scholar.

RESULTS

Pediatric catatonia is a dangerous but treatable neuropsychiatric condition. Psychiatrists need to be aware of differential diagnoses and to be able determine appropriate treatment within a short time frame. With prompt diagnosis and treatment, outcomes can be optimized.

CONCLUSION

Pediatric catatonia is underdiagnosed and requires rapid evaluation and management.

Adverse Childhood Experiences Among Inpatient Youths with Severe and Early-Onset Psychiatric Disorders: Prevalence and Clinical Correlates

This study aimed to determine the prevalence and the clinical correlates of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) among 158 inpatient youths with two types of severe psychiatric disorders. ACEs were retrospectively collected with the ACEs scale and the List of Threatening Experiences Questionnaire in 77 patients hospitalized for a catatonic syndrome (average age 15.2 years) and 81 for a manic or mixed episode (average age 15.7 years). ACEs were frequent in youths suffering from bipolar disorder type I (BD-I) (58 %) and from catatonia (57 %), with around one quarter exposed to severe abuse (i.e., physical/sexual/emotional abuse or physical/emotional neglect). Youths with BD-I were more likely to be exposed to family violence compared to those with catatonia. Youths who had been exposed to ACEs did not exhibit a more severe presentation or a poorer response to treatment compared to others, either in the bipolar group or in the catatonic group.

Catatonia and Autoimmune Conditions in Children and Adolescents: Should We Consider a Therapeutic Challenge?

OBJECTIVE

Catatonia as a result of autoimmune conditions offers new therapeutic opportunities for patients that child and adolescent psychiatrists should consider. However, the diagnosis is sometimes challenging when an autoimmune signature is not identified.

METHODS

In this study, we aim to summarize seven cases from a 20-year series of 84 youths with catatonia, including three cases that represented a diagnostic challenge because of the absence of positive autoimmune testing.

RESULTS

Immunosuppressive/modulatory treatment improved catatonic and psychotic features in all cases.

CONCLUSION

To facilitate treatment decision-making, we propose a causality assessment score and a treatment algorithm, which may help clinicians consider whether an autoimmune condition is associated with catatonia.

Validation of the Pediatric Catatonia Rating Scale (PCRS)

INTRODUCTION

Despite the increased recognition of catatonia in children and adolescents, no specific assessment instrument has been validated in this population.

METHOD

Within the context of a prospective study on catatonia, we developed the Pediatric Catatonia Rating Scale (PCRS, maximum score=60), adapted from the Bush and Francis Catatonia Rating Scale for its use in child and adolescent inpatients. We assessed the psychometric properties of the PCRS by measuring its internal consistency, construct validity, and factor structure. Bivariate analyses were performed to compare the different diagnostic patient groups across the extracted factors.

RESULTS

Internal consistency was moderate (Cronbach's α for total score=0.67) suggesting multidimensionality. Multiple factors underlie the PCRS items, as revealed by factor analysis. Four distinct dimensions of catatonic symptoms were identified and accounted for 44% of total variance: a "negative withdrawal" factor (with mutism, negativism, and social withdrawal), a "catalepsy" factor (with posturing and waxy flexibility), an "abnormal movements" factor (with mannerisms and stereotypes) and an "echo phenomenon" factor (with echolalia and echopraxia). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis showed that the PCRS performance in discriminating individuals with catatonia vs. those without catatonia was excellent for a threshold≥9 (Area Under the Curve=0.983) in this sample.

DISCUSSION

These results support the validity of the PCRS among children and adolescent inpatients. With regard to such analyses, the internal structure of catatonic syndrome in children and adolescents is roughly comparable with the adult form, except the lack of a "hyperactive/excitement" dimension.

Resignation Syndrome: Catatonia? Culture-Bound?

Resignation syndrome (RS) designates a long-standing disorder predominately affecting psychologically traumatized children and adolescents in the midst of a strenuous and lengthy migration process. Typically a depressive onset is followed by gradual withdrawal progressing via stupor into a state that prompts tube feeding and is characterized by failure to respond even to painful stimuli. The patient is seemingly unconscious. Recovery ensues within months to years and is claimed to be dependent on the restoration of hope to the family. Descriptions of disorders resembling RS can be found in the literature and the condition is unlikely novel. Nevertheless, the magnitude and geographical distribution stand out. Several hundred cases have been reported exclusively in Sweden in the past decade prompting the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare to recognize RS as a separate diagnostic entity. The currently prevailing stress hypothesis fails to account for the regional distribution and contributes little to treatment. Consequently, a re-evaluation of diagnostics and treatment is required. Psychogenic catatonia is proposed to supply the best fit with the clinical presentation. Treatment response, altered brain metabolism or preserved awareness would support this hypothesis. Epidemiological data suggests culture-bound beliefs and expectations to generate and direct symptom expression and we argue that culture-bound psychogenesis can accommodate the endemic distribution. Last, we review recent models of predictive coding indicating how expectation processes are crucially involved in the placebo and nocebo effect, delusions and conversion disorders. Building on this theoretical framework we propose a neurobiological model of RS in which the impact of overwhelming negative expectations are directly causative of the down-regulation of higher order and lower order behavioral systems in particularly vulnerable individuals.

Clinical & diagnostic issues in catatonia

The concept of catatonia was formulated in the 1860s by Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum. He coined and gave the name catatonia to the syndromic entity in which the mood symptoms (depression and mania) were primary, and motor symptoms (mutism, negativism, stereotypies, catalepsy and verbigeration) the most characteristic. Although the name has remained stable, this concept has changed in the last century concerning the details of its definition until the current integrative approach in DSM 5. Catatonic phenomena are main components of the ‘motor abnormalities’ domain in psychiatric, neurologic and general medical disorders and they have to be evaluated in the context of a full psychopatological and neurological examination. In this article, we make a review about clinical and diagnostic issues in catatonia. Catatonic phenomena comprise both state and trait characteristics and have prognostic validity in psychosis. Moreover, providing that motor abnormalities are closer to neurobiological underpinnings than other psychotic symptoms (e.g., positive symptoms of schizophrenia), catatonic phenomena should be studied specifically as targets for neurobiological research.

Catatonia in Children Following Systemic Illness

BACKGROUND

The term catatonia was first introduced in 1874 and several etiologies, both organic and psychiatric have been attributed to the clinical phenotype of catatonia. The interesting feature is their response to lorazepam irrespective of their etiology.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Four patients admitted with verbal and motor unresponsiveness following febrile illness were evaluated for infective and metabolic causes. Those who qualified for catatonia as per Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition criteria and Bush-Francis Catatonia Screening Instrument screening tool and rating scale were evaluated in detail and reported.

OBSERVATIONS

Catatonia occurs in clusters, females are more affected than males. Electroencephalogram can be abnormal based on the precipitating symptom. Minor changes in serum total iron and transferrin saturation and nonspecific elevation of viral antibody titers are seen in some patients. Lorazepam challenge always gives the diagnosis.

RESULT

All patients where females and had preceeding systemic or CNS infection. Three out of the Four patients where independent at the end of one month.

CONCLUSION

Catatonia should be considered as a differential diagnosis in all children with verbal and motor unresponsiveness, which have no other explanation. Early initiation of treatment is very rewarding at least during short term follow-up.

Catatonia in Older Adult Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities

Catatonia has been described in children with intellectual disabilities (IDs). These are the first three published cases of catatonia in adults older than 50 years of age with IDs. They were followed using the KANNER scale and, in one case, creatinine phosphokinase (CPK) monitoring. Case 1 is a 67-year-old Caucasian who probably had been having intermittent episodes of undiagnosed catatonia withdrawal for many years. His episodes of agitation and withdrawal behavior responded to lorazepam up to 8 mg/day. Case 2 is a 63-year-old Caucasian male who had probably had undiagnosed catatonic episodes since age 25. An agitation episode that rated 88 on Part 2 of the KANNER scale ended within minutes after he received 1 mg of intramuscular lorazepam. He had no symptom relapses for 4 years after getting stable oral lorazepam doses (3-8.5 mg/day). Case 3 is a 55-year-old African-American male with severe ID and bradycardia (with a pacemaker). He had been "institutionalized" since age 22 and his undiagnosed catatonic episodes appeared to have been intermittently present for at least the last ten years. As he became tolerant and experienced symptom relapse, oral lorazepam was slowly increased (1.5-18 mg/day). Electroconvulsive therapy was ruled out due to his pacemaker.

Treatment use in a prospective naturalistic cohort of children and adolescents with catatonia

We aimed to (1) describe the treatment used in a large sample of young inpatients with catatonia, (2) determine which factors were associated with improvement and (3) benzodiazepine (BZD) efficacy. From 1993 to 2011, 66 patients between the ages of 9 and 19 years were consecutively hospitalized for a catatonic syndrome. We prospectively collected sociodemographic, clinical and treatment data. In total, 51 (77%) patients underwent a BZD trial. BZDs were effective in 33 (65%) patients, who were associated with significantly fewer severe adverse events (p = 0.013) and resulted in fewer referrals for electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) (p = 0.037). Other treatments included ECT (N = 12, 18%); antipsychotic medications, mostly in combination; and treatment of an underlying medical condition, when possible. For 10 patients, four different trials were needed to achieve clinical improvement. When all treatments were combined, there was a better clinical response in acute-onset catatonia (p = 0.032). In contrast, the response was lower in boys (p = 0.044) and when posturing (p = 0.04) and mannerisms (p = 0.008) were present as catatonic symptoms. The treatment response was independent of the underlying psychiatric or systemic medical condition. As in adults, BZDs should be the first-line symptomatic treatment for catatonia in young patients, and ECT should be a second option. Additionally, the absence of an association between the response to treatment and the underlying psychiatric condition suggests that catatonia should be considered as a syndrome.

Catatonia in DSM-5

Although catatonia has historically been associated with schizophrenia and is listed as a subtype of the disorder, it can occur in patients with a primary mood disorder and in association with neurological diseases and other general medical conditions. Consequently, catatonia secondary to a general medical condition was included as a new condition and catatonia was added as an episode specifier of major mood disorders in DSM-IV. Different sets of criteria are utilized to diagnose catatonia in schizophrenia and primary mood disorders versus neurological/medical conditions in DSM-IV, however, and catatonia is a codable subtype of schizophrenia but a specifier for major mood disorders without coding. In part because of this discrepant treatment across the DSM-IV manual, catatonia is frequently not recognized by clinicians. Additionally, catatonia is known to occur in several conditions other than schizophrenia, major mood disorders, or secondary to a general medical condition. Four changes are therefore made in the treatment of catatonia in DSM-5. A single set of criteria will be utilized to diagnose catatonia across the diagnostic manual and catatonia will be a specifier for both schizophrenia and major mood disorders. Additionally, catatonia will also be a specifier for other psychotic disorders, including schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder, brief psychotic disorder, and substance-induced psychotic disorder. A new residual category of catatonia not otherwise specified will be added to allow for the rapid diagnosis and specific treatment of catatonia in severely ill patients for whom the underlying diagnosis is not immediately available. These changes should improve the consistent recognition of catatonia across the range of psychiatric disorders and facilitate its specific treatment.

A Case of Catatonia in a 14-Year-Old Girl with Schizophrenia Treated with Electroconvulsive Therapy

This article presents a case of a 14-year-old female twin with schizophrenia who developed severe catatonia following treatment with olanzapine. Under a combined treatment with amantadine, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and (currently) ziprasidone alone she improved markedly. Severity and course of catatonia including treatment response were evaluated with the Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale (BFCRS). This case report emphasizes the benefit of ECT in the treatment of catatonic symptoms in an adolescent patient with schizophrenic illness.

A case of pervasive refusal syndrome: a diagnostic conundrum

A case is presented of an 11-year-old girl with pervasive refusal syndrome (PRS) who ultimately recovered acutely and completely after an 18-month paediatric hospitalisation. There was an apparent absence of previously proposed important aetiological factors in PRS, such as family pathology and markedly traumatic or abusive experiences, and her recovery was sudden and complete. The authors consider the differential diagnoses of PRS paying particular attention to the possibility of a conversion disorder or catatonia, given the absence of PRS in the North American literature. Consideration of catatonia is important as it has a diagnostic test and responds rapidly to appropriate treatment, in contrast to conventional treatment for PRS and conversion disorder.

[Follow-up of a 16-year-old adolescent with early-onset schizophrenia and catatonic symptoms]

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to underline the need of a systematic monitoring (1) of atypical antipsychotics and (2) of catatonic symptoms in child psychiatry. We present in this paper the clinical history of a 16-year-old adolescent inpatient needing a prescription of atypical antipsychotic drug. We present the most relevant results of our clinical monitoring over 7 months.

CASE REPORT

A 16-year-old Caucasian male adolescent, by the name of Paul, was admitted in August 2009 to an Adolescent University Psychiatry Unit for an acute psychotic disorder. On admission, he presented paranoid delusion, auditory hallucinations and impulsive movements. The score on the Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale (BFCRS) was 17 (the threshold score for the diagnosis of catatonic symptoms is 2). Laboratory tests showed the lack of blood toxic levels, creatine phosphokinase (CPK) level was 684 IU/L. Paul was treated with clonazepam (0.05 mg/kg/d). This particular day was considered to be day #1 of the clinical drug monitoring. Immediately after, regular follow-up of catatonic symptoms was performed. On day #15, the CPK level returned to normal with improvement of clinical catatonia but with still a score of 4 on the BFCRS scale. Auditory hallucinations and delusion persisted. Risperidone treatment was begun (1mg/d and 1.5mg/d after 24 hours), associated with oral clonazepam (0.05 mg/kg/d). On day #17, after 48 hours of improvement of delusion, the catatonic symptoms rapidly worsened. Risperidone was stopped; Paul was transferred to intensive care where he was treated with clonazepam IV (0.1mg/kg/d). The score on BFCRS scale was 20, Paul presented no fever and the CPK level was below 170 IU/L. The diagnosis was a relapse of the catatonic episode, which was caused by the administration of risperidone. On day #24, no improvement in the state of catatonia was obtained. The treatment was changed with the following combination of medicine: clonazepam (0.1mg/kg/d)-lorazepam (5mg/d)-carbamazepine (10mg/kg/d). With this combination, the state of catatonia improved quickly and on day #31, he was transferred to the adolescent psychiatry unit. However, delusion and hallucinations persisted; a treatment with olanzapine was started at 5mg/d and then progressively increased to 20mg/d for 10 days. On day #115, after 3 months with olanzapine, no improvement of the hallucinatory and delusional symptoms was observed; the diagnosis of early-onset refractory schizophrenia was established. The Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) confirmed the good compliance; clozapine was introduced and progressively increased up to 250 mg/d. On day #199, after 3 months under clozapine (250 mg/d), the speech was coherent and delusion was rare. During this period, no relapse of the catatonic state was observed.

DISCUSSION

In this case, the BFCRS scale was sensitive to catatonic symptom diagnosis. CPK levels vary differently for each atypical antipsychotic and are not a specific complication indicator. In complex cases, the TDM seems useful when choosing atypical antipsychotics.

CONCLUSION

The association of two benzodiazepines (clonazepam-lorazepam) with carbamazepin allowed the improvement of catatonic symptoms. Plasma levels of atypical antipsychotics helped the practitioner in deciding the type of care required: plasma levels confirmed the patient's treatment adherence and thus reinforced the choice of clozapine.

Medical and developmental risk factors of catatonia in children and adolescents: a prospective case-control study

CONTEXT

Rare diseases have been associated with more and more genetic and non genetic causes and risk factors. But this has not been systematically assessed in catatonia, one of the psychiatric syndromes, that is most frequently associated with medical condition.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to assess the medical and developmental risk factors of catatonia in children and adolescents.

METHODS

From 1993 to 2009, 58 youths aged 10 to 18 years were prospectively admitted for catatonia and were followed up after discharge. A multidisciplinary approach assessed patients' medical condition and developmental history. A causality assessment scored medical risk (maximum score=10; κ=0.91). We compared the prevalence of catatonia in these patients to that of 80 inpatients with bipolar I disorder admitted from 1993 to 2003 who were also followed up.

RESULTS

We found that 13 (22.4%) patients had medical conditions and 18 (31%) had a history of developmental disorder in the catatonia group, whereas 1 (1.3%) and 17 (22.6%) patients had the same conditions in the bipolar group (p<0.001; p=0.17, respectively). Medical conditions associated with catatonia included auto-immune encephalitis (systemic lupus erythematosus [N=3] and anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis [N=1]), seizures (N=1), ciclosporin encephalitis (N=1), post hypoglycaemic coma encephalitis (N=1), and genetic or metabolic conditions (chorea [N=2], 5HT cerebrospinal fluid deficit [N=1], storage disease [N=1], fatal familial insomnia [FFI; N=1], and PRODH mutations [N=1]). Six patients responded to a specific treatment approach related to their medical condition (e.g., plasma exchange in the case of auto-immune encephalitis).

CONCLUSION

Catatonia in children and adolescents is associated with a high prevalence of medical conditions. This needs to be acknowledged as it may greatly delay the treatment of catatonia and the diagnosis of medically related catatonia. Tragically, this may deny patients treatment opportunities.

Electroconvulsive therapy in adolescents with the catatonia syndrome: efficacy and ethics

OBJECTIVES

In child and adolescent psychiatry, catatonia is infrequent, but it is one of the most severe syndromes, characterized by the coexistence of psychic and motor symptoms. In this report, we explore the therapeutic experience with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in adolescents with catatonia.

METHODS

We review the literature (1985-2009) to clarify issues related to the use of ECT in child and adolescent patients with catatonia.

RESULTS

Electroconvulsive therapy is used as second-line management after high-dose benzodiazepine trials. Electroconvulsive therapy is an effective, safe, and useful procedure in the treatment of catatonic youngsters as reported in 59 patients. Ethical issues regarding the use of ECT are analyzed and their implications briefly discussed in the light of general medical ethics.

CONCLUSIONS

Electroconvulsive therapy is a safe and effective treatment for catatonia in children and adolescents.

Etiopathogenesis of catatonia: generalizations and working hypotheses

Catatonia has been rediscovered over the last 2 decades as a unique syndrome that consists of specific motor signs with a characteristic and uniform response to benzodiazepines and electroconvulsive therapy. Further inquiry into its developmental, environmental, psychological, and biological underpinnings is warranted. In this review, medical catatonia models of motor circuitry dysfunction, abnormal neurotransmitters, epilepsy, genetic risk factors, endocrine dysfunction, and immune abnormalities are discussed. Developmental, environmental, and psychological risk factors for catatonia are currently unknown. The following hypotheses need to be tested: neuroleptic malignant syndrome is a drug-induced form of malignant catatonia; Prader-Willi syndrome is a clinical GABAergic genetic-endocrine model of catatonia; Kleine-Levin syndrome represents a periodic form of adolescent catatonia; and anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis is an autoimmune type of catatonia.

Catatonia is hidden in plain sight among different pediatric disorders: a review article

Over the past two decades, catatonia has been better demarcated in adult psychiatry as a unique syndrome that consists of specific motor signs with a characteristic response to benzodiazepines and electroconvulsive therapy. Pediatric catatonia is considered rare, but may be underdiagnosed, and hence undertreated. Discussed here are the current diagnostic criteria of catatonia in individual cases of children and adolescents diagnosed with childhood disintegrative disorder, Kleine-Levin syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, tic disorder, and autoimmune encephalitis, and the effects of benzodiazepines and electroconvulsive therapy. In these cases, catatonia resolved safely once it was recognized and treated properly. Children and adolescents presenting with these disorders should be systematically assessed for catatonia; when the presence of catatonia is confirmed, the use of benzodiazepines and electroconvulsive therapy should be considered. The occurrence of catatonia in such a wide range of child and adolescent disorders supports the view that pediatric catatonia is not so rare, that there are shared elements in the etiology, psychopathology, and pathophysiology of these disorders, and that catatonia is best classified as a unique neurobiologic syndrome.

Lorazepam, fluoxetine and packing therapy in an adolescent with pervasive developmental disorder and catatonia

Packing therapy is an adjunct symptomatic treatment used for autism and/or catatonia. Here, we report the case of a 15-year-old boy with pervasive developmental disorder who developed catatonia. At admission, catatonic symptoms were severe and the patient required a feeding tube. Lorazepam up to 15 mg/day moderately improved the catatonic symptoms. On day 36 we added fluoxetine and on day 62 we added packing therapy (twice per week, 10 sessions). After three packing sessions, the patient showed a significant clinical improvement (P<0.001). At discharge (day 96), he was able to return to his special education program. Although we do not consider packing as a psychodynamic treatment, this case challenges the concept of embodied self that has opened new perspectives on a dialogue between psychoanalysis and neuroscience. Indeed, better body representation following packing sessions, as shown in patient's drawing, paralleled clinical improvement, and supports the concept of embodied self. This concept may serve as a link between psychoanalysis and attachment theory, developmental psychology with the early description of "sense of self", and cognitive neurosciences that more and more support the concept of embodied cognition. Further clinical studies are necessary to clarify the efficacy and underlying mechanism of packing treatment and to understand how patient's experience may illustrate the concept of embodied self.

Maintenance electroconvulsive therapy in autistic catatonia: a case series review

The usage of electroconvulsive therapy for the acute resolution of catatonia in autistic children and adults is a novel area that has received increased attention over the past few years. Reported length of the acute ECT course varies among these patients, and there is no current literature on maintenance ECT in autism. The maintenance ECT courses of three patients with autism who developed catatonia are presented. Clinical, research, legal, and administrative implications for ECT treatment in this special population are discussed.

Association of adolescent catatonia with increased mortality and morbidity: evidence from a prospective follow-up study

This paper examined outcomes among youth with catatonic syndrome and determined whether the characteristics suggesting the relevance of chronic catatonic schizophrenia (CCS) at index episode remained stable at follow-up. From 1993 to 2004, 35 individuals aged 12 to 18 years were prospectively admitted for management of catatonic syndrome and followed up after discharge. Mean duration from discharge to follow-up was 3.9 years (range 1-10). Four patients were lost to follow-up. Among the remaining 31 subjects (mean age=19.5 years, range 15-26), life-time diagnosis using the Diagnostic Interview for Genetic Studies was unchanged in 28 patients, and included schizophrenia (all subtypes; N=20), major depressive episode (N=5), bipolar disorder type I (N=4) and brief psychotic episode (N=2). Mortality (all-cause Standardized Mortality Ratio=6266; 95% CI=1181-18,547) and morbidity were severe, with 3 deaths (including 2 suicides), 6 patients presenting with a causal organic condition and 14 subjects needing continuous psychiatric care. All males in the study (N=8) who had chronic catatonic schizophrenia at the index episode still had chronic catatonic signs at follow-up. Catatonia is one of the most severe psychiatric syndromes in adolescents. It is associated with a 60-fold increased risk of premature death, including suicide, when compared to the general population of same sex and age. This increased risk of premature death remains higher than the one measured in former adolescent psychiatric patients (all-cause SMR=221; 95% CI=156-303; Engqvist and Rydelius, 2006), or in schizophrenia irrespective to age and subtype (all-cause SMR=157; 95% CI=153-160; Harris and Barraclough, 1998).

The successful use of right unilateral ultra-brief pulse electroconvulsive therapy in an adolescent with catatonia

Right unilateral ultra-brief electroconvulsive therapy (RUL UB ECT) has been shown to be efficacious with minimal cognitive adverse effects in adult patients with major depression. We present the case of a 14-year-old girl with major depressive disorder with catatonic and psychotic features whose symptoms remitted after 12 treatments of RUL UB ECT.

[Catatonia in a 14 year-old girl: treatment with clorazepam and carbamazepine, a 10-year follow-up]

INTRODUCTION

Child and adolescent catatonia has been poorly investigated. Moreover, diagnosis criteria only exist for adult psychiatry, and there are no therapeutic guidelines. The aim of this paper is to describe the case of a 14-year-old girl presenting an overlap between psychogenic and neuroleptic induced catatonia, acute treatment and ten year's follow-up.

CASE REPORT

A 14-year-old Caucasian French girl, Elsa, was admitted in February 1998 to a University adolescent mental health center with an acute psychotic disorder. She showed agitation, impulsivity (sudden engagement in inappropriate behaviour), paranoid delusions, visual and auditory hallucinations, diurnal and nocturnal urinary incontinence, lack of self-care, inadequate food intake because of fear of poisoning, and vomiting after meals leading to rapid weight loss of 5 kg. Clinical examination, laboratory tests, EEG and RMI were normal. Toxicological tests were negative. Her IQ, assessed six months before admission, was in the dull average range (70-75). Elsa was treated with loxapine 150 mg per day for one week without improvement and this was then replaced by haloperidol 30 mg per day. One week after the start of haloperidol her agitation, impulsivity, and hallucinatory symptoms decreased. Twenty four days after loxapine introduction and 17 days after the haloperidol, her condition deteriorated rapidly over less than 48 hours. She exhibited immobility, minimal response to stimuli, staring and catalepsy with waxy flexibility. The diagnosis of catatonia was established. Examination revealed tremulous extremities, tachychardia (110 pm) and apyrexia. Creatine phosphokinase levels were 106 UI/l (normal range 0-250). Human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis, listeria and Lyme serology were negative. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis was normal. Haloperidol was stopped and intravenous clonazepam 5mg/kg was begun. It was not possible to obtain signed consent from the two parents for Electroconvulsive therapy. The patient was transferred to a pediatric intensive care unit. The treatment was standard parenteral nutrition, nursing, intravenous clonazepam 0.05 mg/kg, with regular attendance by a child psychiatrist. Elsa stayed three weeks in this condition. She then began to notice the child psychiatrist, and a few days later she was able to carry out simple requests. Elsa was transferred to an adolescent psychiatric unit. As soon as she could eat by herself again, carbamazepine 400mg per day was begun. Her agitation reduced at a carbamazepine level of 7 mg/l. One month later her condition was stable. However, language difficulties persisted for a further six months. One year after the episode she scored 66 on a repeat IQ test and her RMI was normal. She exhibited no significant residual symptoms except some cognitive impairment. She integrated into a special education facility. These attempts to stop the carbamazepine were followed by depressed mood, aggressiveness and impulsivity; carbamazepine was finally stopped successfully after seven years. Ten years later, Elsa is the mother of two young children and is able to take care of them. She has never had a relapse of her psychotic disorder or catatonic state.

DISCUSSION

The etiopathogenic diagnosis is problematic. Some indices in the familial history may suggest a traumatic event. But one to the total residual amnesia it was never confirmed, and traumatic catatonia are extremely rare. Normal CPK levels, with autonomic disturbance limited to tachycardia and the lack of resolution after discontinuance of medication, argues against a diagnosis of neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). But CPK levels are non specific, and NMS without pyrexia has been described. The occurrence of the catatonic syndrome 21 days after the first dose of a neuroleptic could be diagnostic. This case involved a non organic catatonic psychosis followed by neuroleptic induced catatonia. Catatonia is described as a risk factor for the development of NMS and some consider NMS to be a variant of malignant catatonia. The interest of this report is (1) it reinforces the need to be cautious before prescribing neuroleptics in adolescents presenting with symptoms of catatonia; (2) the complete recovery from catatonia after treatment with intensive care and more than three weeks of intravenous clonazepam without the use of ECT and (3) the effectiveness of carbamazepine over a long period of follow-up. Although trials on carbamazepine in catatonia are published, there are no data available for the control of residual symptoms or the long term prognosis, especially in child and adolescent psychiatry.

[Severe catatonic schizophrenia in a 17-year-old adolescent]

OBJECTIVES

Catatonic symptoms in children and adolescents have not been well investigated and there are hardly any evaluated recommendations for treatment. The present report deals with the course of disease and the therapy of a severe case of catatonic schizophrenia.

METHODS

Reported is the case of a 17-year-old-girl suffering from severe, life-threatening catatonic schizophrenia.

RESULTS

Following unsuccessful pre-treatment, medication with clozapine markedly improved the pathology.

CONCLUSIONS

Further investigations and case reports about the course of disease and the therapy of the uncommon clinical picture of sever catatonic schizophrenia in children and adolescents are necessary.

Multidisciplinary approach of organic catatonia in children and adolescents may improve treatment decision making

Catatonia is an infrequent but severe condition in young people. Organic diseases may be associated and need to be investigated though no specific recommendations and guidelines are available. We extensively reviewed the literature of all the cases of organic catatonia in children and adolescents from January 1969 to June 2007. We screened socio-demographic characteristics, organic diagnosis, clinical characteristics and treatment. We found 38 cases of children and adolescents with catatonia due to an organic condition. The catatonic syndrome occurred in 21 (57%) females and 16 (43%) males. The mean age of patients was 14.5 years (+/-3.39) [range=7-18 years], and three died from their condition. The organic conditions included infectious diseases (N=10), neurological conditions (N=10), toxic induced states (N=12) and genetic conditions including inborn errors of metabolism (N=6). The onset was dominantly acute, and the clinical presentation most frequently stuporous. Although benzodiazepines were recommended as primary symptomatic treatment, they were rarely prescribed. In several cases, therapeutic approach was related to organic cause (e.g., plasma exchange in lupus erythematosus; copper chelators in Wilson's disease). Based on this review and on our own experience of catatonia in youth, we proposed a consensual and multidisciplinary diagnostic strategy to help practitioners to identify underlying organic diseases.

Does catatonia influence the phenomenology of childhood onset schizophrenia beyond motor symptoms?

Childhood onset schizophrenia (COS) and catatonia (C) are rare and severe psychiatric disorders. The aim of this study was to compare the phenomenology of COS with and without catatonia. We examined 33 cases consecutively referred to two major public university hospitals in Paris. There were 18 cases of COS (age=15.9+/-0.8 years) and 15 of COS+C (age=15.4+/-1.4 years). Patients were referred over the course of 3 and 9 years, respectively. Psychiatric assessment included socio-demographic, clinical and psychometric variables: the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), the Scales for the Assessment of Positive (SAPS) and Negative Symptoms (SANS), and a catatonia rating scale. Patients with COS+C appeared to be more severely ill at admission and discharge compared with COS in nearly all clinical scores. They also exhibited significantly longer episode duration (50.8 weeks+/-4.8 vs 20.6+/-19.5). On the basis of multivariate logistic regression, the only clinical measure which significantly predicted group membership was the SANS Affective Flattening score (odds ratio=1.24; 95% CI=1.06-1.43). Our findings strongly suggest that catatonic COS differs from COS in ways that extend beyond motor symptoms. The SANS and SAPS scales, commonly used in schizophrenia, are not detailed enough to accurately describe catatonia in COS. The use of a catatonia rating scale is recommended to enhance recognition of and research into COS with catatonia.

Treatment of catatonia with electroconvulsive therapy in an 11-year-old girl

OBJECTIVE

To report the case of an 11-year-old girl who presented with acute onset of psychotic symptoms with catatonic features treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

METHOD

Described herein is the case of an 11-year-old, prepubertal girl who represented with catatonic symptoms unresponsive to conventional medical treatment. After thorough clinical investigation and obtaining a second opinion we gained consent from her parents to perform ECT as a life saving procedure.

RESULTS

Six ECT treatments were administered with clinical improvement, the patient did develop hypomanic symptoms as a side-affect of ECT.

CONCLUSION

The patient exhibited potentially life-threatening self-harming behaviour secondary to catatonic and psychotic symptoms. Her behaviour and symptoms responded to ECT. The patient developed hypomania that responded to mood stabilization. ECT was a safe and effective treatment for catatonia in this prepubescent girl.

Accidental seizure with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation

Accidental induction of convulsions by using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has been reported to have occurred in 6 normal voluntary subjects, in 1 patient with depression and in 1 patient who had temporal lobe epilepsy, with secondary generalization. In addition, 3 other cases have been published relating its use with seizure induction and in 1 case, using 1-Hz stimulation. In this paper, we report a patient who was participating in a protocol for the use of rTMS in chronic pain, with stimulation in the motor cortex, who developed a generalized seizure in the fifth application. Intertrain interval was within safety guidelines, but the combination of 10 Hz for 10 seconds was excessive and must be considered the main cause for the episode. No further complication has been noted after she was withdrawn from the study protocol.

The Importance of Catatonia and Stereotypies in Autistic Spectrum Disorders

Motor disturbances are often observed in individuals with autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) and recognized as diagnostic features of these disorders. The movement disorders characteristically associated with autism include stereotypies and self-injurious behavior. Yet, individuals with ASD may also be at the risk for catatonia. Although not as frequent as stereotypies, up to 17% of older adolescents and adults with autistic disorder may have severe catatonic-like symptoms. Catatonia may be a comorbid risk factor of autism that warrants further empirical and clinical evaluations. Clinicians may need to be attentive to more subtle signs of catatonic-like symptoms in individuals diagnosed with ASDs, especially as they enter adolescence and young adulthood. Stress has been implicated as a possible precursor for symptoms; however, its role has not been empirically proven as a potential risk factor. Clinicians might also need to assess for signs of significant declines in motor movements, as this appears to be a useful diagnostic indicator of catatonic-like symptoms. The literature on stereotypies and autism is more extensive than for catatonia and ASDs, probably because of the higher rate of stereotypies with autism. Explanations for the occurrence of stereotypies range from genetic to behavioral contingencies, with evidence for a multifactor explanation. Assessment measures often include items that assess for stereotypies to aid with diagnosing these symptoms in individuals with autism. Treatment for stereotypies is largely behavioral at the present time and requires consistent reinforcement of treatment gains to manage the symptoms successfully. An important area of future research in autism is the relation among different types of motor abnormalities, including stereotypies and catatonia.

Towards a valid nosography and psychopathology of catatonia in children and adolescents

Paraphrasing Taylor and Fink (2003), catatonia needs "a home of its own" in child and adolescent psychiatry. Limited but expanding literature supports that catatonia in children and adolescent can be identified reliably among other childhood conditions, is sufficiently common, treatable with the same specific treatments as adult catatonia (e.g., sedative drugs and electroconvulsive therapy), and can be worsened by other treatments (e.g., antipsychotics). Other findings in child and adolescent catatonia suggest that sex ratio and associated disorders may differ, and the proposed classification of Taylor and Fink (2003) needs modification. Adopting a broader diagnostic schedule may accommodate both child, adolescent, and adult catatonia. A psychomotor automatism variant should be included as a diagnosis, as well as specifiers for associated disorders such as acute nonpsychotic anxious state and pervasive developmental disorder. Duration of illness should be specified as acute or chronic. Regardless of associated psychiatric disorders, this chapter describes a new psychopathological model. Three main modalities of movement dysfunction in catatonic subjects are listed: (1) adherence to delusional ideas leading to a psychomotor automatism (De Clérambault, 1927); (2) resistance to delusional thinking or conviction; and finally (3) hyperanxious states. Case-vignettes illustrate the model, and future research directions are identified.

Catatonia in Autistic Spectrum Disorders: A Medical Treatment Algorithm

Autism is a developmental syndrome with an unknown biology and inadequate therapeutics. Assessing the elements of the syndrome for the presence of depression, psychosis, mania, or catatonia, offers opportunities for systematic intervention. Since almost all descriptions of autism highlight the presence of motor symptoms that characterize catatonia, an assessment for this eminently treatable syndrome is recommended for all patients considered to be autistic. A minimum examination includes a catatonia rating scale and for those patients with defined catatonia, a lorazepam test. For those whose catatonia responds to lorazepam, high dose lorazepam therapy is recommended. If this fails, electroconvulsive therapy is recommended. The assessment and treatment of catatonia offers positive medical therapy for the victims of autism and their families.

A16-year-old girl with excited catatonia treated with low-dose oral Lorazepam

A 16-year-old girl, who carried a diagnosis of schizoaffective disorder, presented with symptoms consistent with excited catatonia/delirious mania. We believe this is the first report of excited catatonia in a child under the age of 18. Her catatonic symptoms responded to low-dose oral lorazepam (higher doses led to worsening of her clinical status). This case highlights the importance of considering catatonia in the differential diagnosis of agitated delirium, even in pediatric populations, and it underscores the need for more data about the pathogenesis and treatment of catatonia.