Peroxidases are involved in biosynthesis and biodegradation of β-thujaplicin in fungal elicitor-treated Cupressus lusitanica cell cultures

Brassinosteroids regulate root growth by controlling reactive oxygen species homeostasis and dual effect on ethylene synthesis in Arabidopsis

The brassinosteroids (BRs) represent a class of phytohormones, which regulate numerous aspects of growth and development. Here, a det2-9 mutant defective in BR synthesis was identified from an EMS mutant screening for defects in root length, and was used to investigate the role of BR in root development in Arabidopsis. The det2-9 mutant displays a short-root phenotype, which is result from the reduced cell number in root meristem and decreased cell size in root maturation zone. Ethylene synthesis is highly increased in the det2-9 mutant compared with the wild type, resulting in the hyper-accumulation of ethylene and the consequent inhibition of root growth. The short-root phenotype of det2-9 was partially recovered in the det2-9/acs9 double mutant and det2-9/ein3/eil1-1 triple mutant which have defects either in ethylene synthesis or ethylene signaling, respectively. Exogenous application of BR showed that BRs either positively or negatively regulate ethylene biosynthesis in a concentration-dependent manner. Different from the BR induced ethylene biosynthesis through stabilizing ACSs stability, we found that the BR signaling transcription factors BES1 and BZR1 directly interacted with the promoters of ACS7, ACS9 and ACS11 to repress their expression, indicating a native regulation mechanism under physiological levels of BR. In addition, the det2-9 mutant displayed over accumulated superoxide anions (O2-) compared with the wild-type control, and the increased O2- level was shown to contribute to the inhibition of root growth. The BR-modulated control over the accumulation of O2- acted via the peroxidase pathway rather than via the NADPH oxidase pathway. This study reveals an important mechanism by which the hormone cross-regulation between BRs and ethylene or/and ROS is involved in controlling root growth and development in Arabidopsis.

Reactive oxygen species, nitric oxide, and their interactions play different roles in Cupressus lusitanica cell death and phytoalexin biosynthesis

Beta-thujaplicin Is a natural troponoid with strong antifungal, antiviral, and anticancer activities. Beta-thujaplicin production in yeast elicitor-treated Cupressus lusitanica cell culture and its relationships with reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) production and hypersensitive cell death were investigated. Superoxide anion radical (O2*-) induced cell death and inhibited beta-thujaplicin accumulation, whereas hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) induced beta-thujaplicin accumulation but did not significantly affect cell death. Both elicitor and O2*- induced programmed cell death, which can be blocked by protease inhibitors, protein kinase inhibitors, and Ca2+ chelators. Elicitor-induced NO generation was nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-dependent. Inhibition of NO generation by NOS inhibitors and NO scavenger partly blocked the elicitor-induced beta-thujaplicin accumulation and cell death, and NO donors strongly induced cell death. Interaction among NO, H2O2, and O2*- shows that NO production and H2O2 production are interdependent, but NO and O2*- accumulation were negatively related because of coconsumption of NO and O2*-. NO- and O2*- -induced cell death required each other, and both were required for elicitor-induced cell death. A direct interaction between NO and O2*- was implicated in the production of a potent oxidant peroxynitrite, which might mediate the elicitor-induced cell death.

Hydrodynamic stress induces monoterpenoid oxindole alkaloid accumulation byUncaria tomentosa (Willd) D. C. cell suspension cultures via oxidative burst

Uncaria tomentosa cell suspension cultures were grown in a 2-L stirred tank bioreactor operating at a shear rate gamma(.)(avg)=86 s(-1). The cultures showed an early monophasic oxidative burst measured as H2O2 production (2.15 micromol H2O2 g(-1) dw). This response was followed by a transient production of monoterpenoid oxindole alkaloids (178 +/- 40 microg L(-1) at 24 h). At the stationary phase (144 h), the increase of the shear rate gamma(.)(avg) up to 150 s(-1) and/or oxygen tension up to 85% generated H2O2, restoring oxindole alkaloid production. U. tomentosa cells cultured in Erlenmeyer flasks also exhibited the monophasic oxidative burst but the H2O2 production was 16-fold lower and the alkaloids were not detected. These cells exposed to H2O2 generated in situ produced oxindole alkaloids reaching a maximum of 234 +/- 40 microg L(-1). A positive correlation was observed between the oxindole alkaloid production and the endogenous H2O2 level. On the other hand, addition of 1 microM diphenyleneiodonium (NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor) or 10 microM sodium azide (peroxidases inhibitor) reduced both H2O2 production and oxindole alkaloids build up, suggesting that these enzymes might play a role in the oxidative burst induced by the hydrodynamic stress.

Signal transduction and metabolic flux of β-thujaplicin and monoterpene biosynthesis in elicited Cupressus lusitanica cell cultures

beta-Thujaplicin is an antimicrobial tropolone derived from geranyl pyrophosphate(GPP) and monoterpene intermediate. Yeast elicitor-treated Cupressus lusitanica cell cultures accumulate high levels of beta-thujaplicin at early stages and other monoterpenes at later stages post-elicitation. The different regulation of beta-thujaplicin and monoterpene biosynthesis and signal transduction directing metabolic flux to beta-thujaplicin firstly and then shifting metabolic flow from beta-thujaplicin to other monoterpene biosynthesis were investigated. The earlier rapid induction of beta-thujaplicin accumulation and a later stimulation of monoterpene biosynthesis by yeast elicitor are in well agreement with elicitor-induced changes in activity of three monoterpene biosynthetic enzymes including isopentenyl pyrophosphate isomerase, GPP synthase, and monoterpene synthase. Yeast elicitor induces an earlier and stronger beta-thujaplicin production and monoterpene biosynthetic enzyme activity than methyl jasmonate (MeJA) does. Profiling all monoterpenes produced by C. lusitanica cell cultures under different conditions reveals that beta-thujaplicin biosynthesis parallels with other monoterpenes and competes for common precursor pools. Yet beta-thujaplicin is produced pre-dominantly at early stage of elicitation whereas other monoterpenes are mainly accumulated at late stage while beta-thujaplicin is metabolized. It is suggested that yeast elicitor-treated C. lusitanica cells preferentially accumulate beta-thujaplicin as a primary defense and other monoterpenes as a secondary defense. Inhibitor treatments suggest that immediate production of beta-thujaplicin post-elicitation largely depends on pre-existing enzymes and translation of pre-existing transcripts as well as recruitment of precursor pools from both the cytosol and plastids. The later beta-thujaplicin and other monoterpene accumulation strictly depends on active transcription and translation. Induction of beta-thujaplicin production and activation of monoterpene biosynthetic enzymes by elicitor involves similar signaling pathways, which may activate early beta-thujaplicin production and later monoterpene biosynthesis and induce a metabolic flux shift from beta-thujaplicin to monoterpene accumulation.

Elicitor signal transduction leading to production of plant secondary metabolites

Plant secondary metabolites are unique sources for pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavors, and other industrial materials. Accumulation of such metabolites often occurs in plants subjected to stresses including various elicitors or signal molecules. Understanding signal transduction paths underlying elicitor-induced production of secondary metabolites is important for optimizing their commercial production. This paper summarizes progress made on several aspects of elicitor signal transduction leading to production of plant secondary metabolites, including: elicitor signal perception by various receptors of plants; avirulence determinants and corresponding plant R proteins; heterotrimeric and small GTP binding proteins; ion fluxes, especially Ca2+ influx, and Ca2+ signaling; medium alkalinization and cytoplasmic acidification; oxidative burst and reactive oxygen species; inositol trisphosphates and cyclic nucleotides (cAMP and cGMP); salicylic acid and nitric oxide; jasmonate, ethylene, and abscisic acid signaling; oxylipin signals such as allene oxide synthase-dependent jasmonate and hydroperoxide lyase-dependent C12 and C6 volatiles; as well as other lipid messengers such as lysophosphatidylcholine, phosphatidic acid, and diacylglycerol. All these signal components are employed directly or indirectly by elicitors for induction of plant secondary metabolite accumulation. Cross-talk between different signaling pathways is very common in plant defense response, thus the cross-talk amongst these signaling pathways, such as elicitor and jasmonate, jasmonate and ethylene, and each of these with reactive oxygen species, is discussed separately. This review also highlights the integration of multiple signaling pathways into or by transcription factors, as well as the linkage of the above signal components in elicitor signaling network through protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Some perspectives on elicitor signal transduction and plant secondary metabolism at the transcriptome and metabolome levels are also presented.

Involvement of cAMP signaling in elicitor-induced phytoalexin accumulation in Cupressus lusitanica cell cultures

•  An increasing body of evidence on plant electrophysiology, biochemistry, and molecular biology shows that cAMP exists in higher plants and plays a role in several physiological processes by affecting potassium (K⁺ ) or calcium (Ca²⁺ ) fluxes. Our study here reports that cAMP is involved in elicitor-induced accumulation of a phytoalexin, β-thujaplicin, in Cupressus lusitanica cell cultures. •  Treatment of C. lusitanica cultured cells with cAMP or its analogues stimulated β-thujaplicin accumulation. Cholera toxin and forskolin, activators of adenylyl cyclase, also stimulated β-thujaplicin accumulation. Enzyme immunoassay showed that after elicitor treatment, cAMP level in the elicited cells quickly increased to about three- to five-fold over the control. Cholera toxin and forskolin also stimulated cAMP accumulation in the absence of elicitor. •  However, K⁺ and Ca²⁺ channel blockers inhibited the β-thujaplicin accumulation induced by cAMP analogues, suggesting that the cAMP-stimulated β-thujaplicin accumulation may involve Ca²⁺ and K⁺ fluxes. Several ionophores mimicked cAMP induction of β-thujaplicin accumulation. •  Cross-talk between cAMP treatment and the ethylene signaling pathway was also observed to work in the cell cultures via Ca²⁺ signaling. The study also indicates an involvement of protein kinase cascades in cAMP signaling processes, leading to both phytoalexin and ethylene production.