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Banerjee D, Feng J, Sellke FW. Strategies to attenuate maladaptive inflammatory response associated with cardiopulmonary bypass. Front Surg 2024; 11:1224068. [PMID: 39022594 PMCID: PMC11251955 DOI: 10.3389/fsurg.2024.1224068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) initiates an intense inflammatory response due to various factors: conversion from pulsatile to laminar flow, cold cardioplegia, surgical trauma, endotoxemia, ischemia-reperfusion injury, oxidative stress, hypothermia, and contact activation of cells by the extracorporeal circuit. Redundant and overlapping inflammatory cascades amplify the initial response to produce a systemic inflammatory response, heightened by coincident activation of coagulation and fibrinolytic pathways. When unchecked, this inflammatory response can become maladaptive and lead to serious postoperative complications. Concerted research efforts have been made to identify technical refinements and pharmacologic interventions that appropriately attenuate the inflammatory response and ultimately translate to improved clinical outcomes. Surface modification of the extracorporeal circuit to increase biocompatibility, miniaturized circuits with sheer resistance, filtration techniques, and minimally invasive approaches have improved clinical outcomes in specific populations. Pharmacologic adjuncts, including aprotinin, steroids, monoclonal antibodies, and free radical scavengers, show real promise. A multimodal approach incorporating technical, circuit-specific, and pharmacologic strategies will likely yield maximal clinical benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Frank W. Sellke
- Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, Brown University/Rhode Island Hospital, Providence, RI, United States
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Bierer J, Stanzel R, Henderson M, Sett S, Sapp J, Andreou P, Marshall JS, Horne D. Novel inflammatory mediator profile observed during pediatric heart surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass and continuous ultrafiltration. J Transl Med 2023; 21:439. [PMID: 37408044 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04255-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) is associated with systemic inflammation, featuring increased levels of circulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. Intra-operative ultrafiltration extracts fluid and inflammatory factors potentially dampening inflammation-related organ dysfunction and enhancing post-operative recovery. This study aimed to define the impact of continuous subzero-balance ultrafiltration (SBUF) on circulating levels of major inflammatory mediators. METHODS Twenty pediatric patients undergoing cardiac surgery, CPB and SBUF were prospectively enrolled. Blood samples were collected prior to CPB initiation (Pre-CPB Plasma) and immediately before weaning off CPB (End-CPB Plasma). Ultrafiltrate effluent samples were also collected at the End-CPB time-point (End-CPB Effluent). The concentrations of thirty-nine inflammatory factors were assessed and sieving coefficients were calculated. RESULTS A profound increase in inflammatory cytokines and activated complement products were noted in plasma following CBP. Twenty-two inflammatory mediators were detected in the ultrafiltrate effluent. Novel mediators removed by ultrafiltration included cytokines IL1-Ra, IL-2, IL-12, IL-17A, IL-33, TRAIL, GM-CSF, ET-1, and the chemokines CCL2, CCL3, CCL4, CXCL1, CXCL2 and CXCL10. Mediator extraction by SBUF was significantly associated with molecular mass < 66 kDa (Chi2 statistic = 18.8, Chi2 with Yates' correction = 16.0, p < 0.0001). There was a moderate negative linear correlation between molecular mass and sieving coefficient (Spearman R = - 0.45 and p = 0.02). Notably, the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was not efficiently extracted by SBUF. CONCLUSIONS CPB is associated with a burden of circulating inflammatory mediators, and SBUF selectively extracts twenty of these pro-inflammatory factors while preserving the key anti-inflammatory regulator IL-10. Ultrafiltration could potentially function as an immunomodulatory therapy during pediatric cardiac surgery. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05154864. Registered retrospectively on December 13, 2021. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT05154864 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Bierer
- Division of Cardiac Surgery, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada.
| | - Roger Stanzel
- Department of Clinical Perfusion, Nova Scotia Health Authority, Halifax, Canada
| | - Mark Henderson
- Department of Clinical Perfusion, Nova Scotia Health Authority, Halifax, Canada
| | - Suvro Sett
- Division of Cardiac Surgery, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - John Sapp
- Division of Cardiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Pantelis Andreou
- Department of Community Health & Epidemiology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - Jean S Marshall
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
| | - David Horne
- Division of Cardiac Surgery, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada
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Thompson CP, Jagdale A, Walcott G, Iwase H, Foote JB, Cron RQ, Hara H, Cleveland DC, Cooper DKC. A perspective on the potential detrimental role of inflammation in pig orthotopic heart xenotransplantation. Xenotransplantation 2021; 28:e12687. [PMID: 33786912 DOI: 10.1111/xen.12687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
There is a critical shortage of deceased human donor organs for transplantation. The need is perhaps most acute in neonates and infants with life-threatening congenital heart disease, in whom mechanical support devices are largely unsuccessful. If orthotopic (life-supporting) heart transplantation (OHTx) were consistently successful in the genetically engineered pig-to-nonhuman primate (NHP) model, a clinical trial of bridging with a pig heart in such patients might be justified. However, the results of pig OHTx in NHPs have been mixed and largely poor. We hypothesise that a factor is the detrimental effects of the inflammatory response that is known to develop (a) during any surgical procedure that requires cardiopulmonary bypass, and (b) immediately after an NHP recipient is exposed to a pig xenograft. We suggest that the combination of these two inflammatory responses has a direct detrimental effect on pig heart graft function, but also, and possibly of more importance, on recipient baboon pulmonary function, which further impacts survival of the pig heart graft. In addition, the inflammatory response almost certainly adversely impacts the immune response to the graft. If our hypothesis is correct, the potential steps that could be taken to reduce the inflammatory response or its effects (with varying degrees of efficacy) include (a) white blood cell filtration, (b) complement depletion or inactivation, (c) immunosuppressive therapy, (d) high-dose corticosteroid therapy, (e) cytokine/chemokine-targeted therapy, (f) ultrafiltration or CytoSorb hemoperfusion, (g) reduction in the levels of endogenous catecholamines, (h) triiodothyronine therapy and (i) genetic engineering of the organ-source pig. Prevention of the inflammatory response, or attenuation of its effects, by judicious anti-inflammatory therapy may contribute not only to early survival of the recipient of a genetically engineered pig OHTx, but also to improved long-term pig heart graft survival. This would open the possibility of initiating a clinical trial of genetically engineered pig OHTx as a bridge to allotransplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles P Thompson
- Xenotransplantation Program, Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Abhijit Jagdale
- Xenotransplantation Program, Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Gregory Walcott
- Department of Medicine/Cardiovascular Diseases, the University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Hayato Iwase
- Xenotransplantation Program, Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Jeremy B Foote
- Department of Microbiology and Animal Resources Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Randall Q Cron
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Hidetaka Hara
- Xenotransplantation Program, Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - David C Cleveland
- Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Children's Hospital of Alabama, and Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - David K C Cooper
- Xenotransplantation Program, Division of Transplantation, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Atan R, Crosbie DCA, Bellomo R. Techniques of extracorporeal cytokine removal: a systematic review of human studies. Ren Fail 2013; 35:1061-70. [PMID: 23866032 DOI: 10.3109/0886022x.2013.815089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Hypercytokinemia is believed to be harmful and reducing cytokine levels is considered beneficial. Extracorporeal blood purification (EBP) techniques have been studied for the purpose of cytokine reduction. We aimed to study the efficacy of various EBP techniques for cytokine removal as defined by technical measures. METHOD We conducted a systematic search for human clinical trials which focused on technical measures of cytokine removal by EBP techniques. We identified 41 articles and analyzed cytokine removal according to clearance (CL), sieving coefficient (SC), ultrafiltrate (UF) concentration and percentage removed. RESULTS We identified the following techniques for cytokine removal: standard hemofiltration, high volume hemofiltration (HVHF), high cut-off (HCO) hemofiltration, plasma filtration techniques, and adsorption techniques, ultrafiltration (UF) techniques relating to cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), extracorporeal liver support systems and hybrid techniques including combined plasma filtration adsorption. Standard filtration techniques and UF techniques during CPB were generally poor at removing cytokines (median CL for interleukin 6 [IL-6]: 1.09 mL/min, TNF-alpha 0.74 mL/min). High cut-off techniques consistently offered moderate cytokine removal (median CL for IL-6: 26.5 mL/min, interleukin 1 receptor antagonist [IL-1RA]: 40.2 mL/min). Plasma filtration and extracorporeal liver support appear promising but data are few. Only one paper studied combined plasma filtration and adsorption and found low rates of removal. The clinical significance of the cytokine removal achieved with more efficacious techniques is unknown. CONCLUSION Human clinical trials indicate that high cut-off hemofiltration techniques, and perhaps plasma filtration and extracorporeal liver support techniques are likely more efficient in removing cytokines than standard techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafidah Atan
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
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Saitoh M, Tsuchida M, Koike T, Satoh K, Haga M, Aoki T, Toyabe SI, Hayashi JI. Ultrafiltration attenuates cardiopulmonary bypass-induced acute lung injury in a canine model of single-lung transplantation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2007; 132:1447-54. [PMID: 17140974 PMCID: PMC7127439 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2006.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2006] [Revised: 07/19/2006] [Accepted: 08/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of cardiopulmonary bypass and ultrafiltration on graft function in a canine single-lung transplantation model. METHODS Fifteen left single-lung transplantations were done in weight-mismatched canine pairs. The animals were divided into 3 groups: group 1, in which transplantation was done without cardiopulmonary bypass; group 2, in which transplantation was done with cardiopulmonary bypass and in which the cardiopulmonary bypass flow was decreased slowly with controlled pulmonary artery pressure; and group 3, in which transplantation was done with cardiopulmonary bypass and ultrafiltration. Hemodynamic parameters and lung function were monitored for 6 hours after reperfusion. The grafts were harvested for histologic studies, myeloperoxidase assay, and real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction of mRNA encoding interleukin 6. RESULTS The hemodynamic parameters were similar among the 3 groups. In group 1 PaO2 and alveolar to arterial gradient for O2 levels were excellent throughout the 6-hour observation period, but in group 2 they progressively deteriorated. However, ultrafiltration significantly (P = .02) improved the PaO2 level in group 3. On histology, interstitial edema and polynuclear cell infiltration were most marked in group 2 and significantly worse than in groups 1 and 3. Myeloperoxidase assay and real-time quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed increased myeloperoxidase activity and interleukin 6 gene expression in group 2 grafts compared with group 1 grafts. Myeloperoxidase activity and interleukin 6 gene expression were suppressed with ultrafiltration. CONCLUSIONS Cardiopulmonary bypass had negative effects on the graft, but ultrafiltration attenuated acute lung dysfunction by reducing the inflammatory response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Saitoh
- Division of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata City, Japan
| | - Masanori Tsuchida
- Division of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata City, Japan
- Address for reprints: Masanori Tsuchida, MD, Division of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, 1-757 Asahimachi-dori, Niigata City 951-8510, Japan.
| | - Terumoto Koike
- Division of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata City, Japan
| | - Koichi Satoh
- Division of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata City, Japan
| | - Manabu Haga
- Division of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata City, Japan
| | - Tadashi Aoki
- Division of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata City, Japan
| | - Shin-ichi Toyabe
- Department of Medical Informatics, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata City, Japan
| | - Jun-ichi Hayashi
- Division of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Niigata University Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Niigata City, Japan
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Raja SG, Dreyfus GD. Modulation of systemic inflammatory response after cardiac surgery. Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann 2006; 13:382-95. [PMID: 16304234 DOI: 10.1177/021849230501300422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac surgery and cardiopulmonary bypass initiate a systemic inflammatory response largely determined by blood contact with foreign surfaces and the activation of complement. It is generally accepted that cardiopulmonary bypass initiates a whole-body inflammatory reaction. The magnitude of this inflammatory reaction varies, but the persistence of any degree of inflammation may be considered potentially harmful to the cardiac patient. The development of strategies to control the inflammatory response following cardiac surgery is currently the focus of considerable research efforts. Diverse techniques including maintenance of hemodynamic stability, minimization of exposure to cardiopulmonary bypass circuitry, and pharmacologic and immunomodulatory agents have been examined in clinical studies. This article briefly reviews the current concepts of the systemic inflammatory response following cardiac surgery, and the various therapeutic strategies being used to modulate this response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahzad G Raja
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Yorkhill NHS Trust, Dalnair Street, Glasgow G3 8SJ, Scotland, United Kingdom.
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Brancaccio G, Villa E, Girolami E, Michielon G, Feltri C, Mazzera E, Costa D, Isacchi G, Iannace E, Amodeo A, Di Donato RM. Inflammatory cytokines in pediatric cardiac surgery and variable effect of the hemofiltration process. Perfusion 2005; 20:263-8. [PMID: 16231622 DOI: 10.1191/0267659105pf816oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) elicits an inflammatory response and has a multitude of biological consequences, ranging from subclinical organ dysfunction to severe multiorgan failure. Pediatric patients are more prone to have a reaction that can jeopardize their outcome. Cytokines are supposed to be important mediators in this response: limiting their circulating levels is, therefore, appealing. We investigated the pattern of cytokine release during pediatric operation for congenital heart anomalies in 20 patients, and the effect of hemofiltration. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) was elevated after anesthesia induction and showed significant decrease during CPB. Hemofiltration reduced its concentration, but the effect disappeared on the following day. Interleukin-1 (IL-1) increased slowly at the end of CPB and hemofiltration had no effect. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) showed a tendency toward augmentation during rewarming and hemofiltration did not significantly affect the course. Soluble interleukin-6 receptor (sIL-6r) had a pattern similar to TNF-alpha, but hemofiltration had no effect. On the other hand, interleukin-8 (IL-8) behaved like IL-6. Our findings suggest that baseline clinical status, anesthetic drugs, and maneuvers before incision may elicit a cytokine response, whereas rewarming is a critical phase of CPB. Hemofiltration is effective in removal of TNF-alpha, but its role is debatable for the control of IL-1, IL-6, sIL-6r and IL-8 levels.
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Sutton SW, Patel AN, Chase VA, Schmidt LA, Hunley EK, Yancey LW, Hebeler RF, Cheung EH, Henry AC, Meyers TP, Wood RE. Clinical benefits of continuous leukocyte filtration during cardiopulmonary bypass in patients undergoing valvular repair or replacement. Perfusion 2005; 20:21-9. [PMID: 15751667 DOI: 10.1191/0267659105pf781oa] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Valve operations in the form of repair or replacement make up a significant population of patients undergoing surgical procedures in the USA annually with the use of cardiopulmonary bypass. These patients experience a wide range of complications that are considered to be mediated by activation of complement and leukocytes. The extracorporeal perfusion circuit consists of multiple synthetic artificial surfaces. The biocompatibility of the blood contact surfaces is a variable that predisposes patients to an increased risk of complement mediation and activation. This can result in an inflammatory process, causing leukocytes to proliferate and sequester in the major organ systems. The purpose of this study was to determine whether filtration of activated leukocytes improved clinical outcomes following surgical intervention for valve repair or replacement. In this paper, we report a retrospective matched cohort study of 700 patients who underwent valve procedures from June 1999 to December 2002. The control group (CG) consisted of patients who had a conventional arterial line filter. In the study group (SG), patients had a conventional arterial line filter and a leukocyte arterial line filter (Pall Medical, NY). In the SG, blood diverted to the cardioplegia system was also leukocyte depleted to enhance myocardial preservation by adapting this device to the outflow port on the filter. Patient characteristics were similar for the SG and the CG, including 228 males and 122 females, mean age (62.4 versus 64.2 years), cardiopulmonary bypass time (127+/-64 versus 116+/-53 min), and aortic crossclamp time (84+/-23 versus 81+/-23 min). Our results demonstrate that the SG achieved statistically significant reduction in the time to extubation (p =0.03) and the number of patients with prolonged intubation in excess of 24 hours (p <0.04), in addition to improved postoperative oxygenation (p=0.01), and decreased length of hospital stay (p =0.03). We believe that leukocyte filters are clinically beneficial, as demonstrated by the results presented in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- S W Sutton
- Baylor University Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA.
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Evolving concepts of therapy for sepsis and septic shock and the use of hyperpermeable membranes. Curr Opin Crit Care 2000. [DOI: 10.1097/00075198-200012000-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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