Parathyroidectomy Versus Cinacalcet Hydrochloride–Based Medical Therapy in the Management of Hyperparathyroidism in ESRD: A Cost Utility Analysis

Secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease: pathophysiology, Current treatments and investigational drugs

INTRODUCTION

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) is a common complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD). It begins as an adaptive increase in parathyroid hormone levels to prevent calcium and phosphate derangements. Over time, this condition becomes maladaptive and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Current therapies encompass phosphate-lowering strategies, vitamin D analogues, calcimimetics and parathyroidectomy. These approaches harbor inherent limitations, stimulating interest in the development of new drugs for SHPT to overcome these limitations and improve survival and quality of life among CKD patients.

AREAS COVERED

This review delves into the main pathophysiological mechanisms involved in SHPT, alongside the treatment options that are currently available and under active investigation. Data presented herein stem from a comprehensive search conducted across PubMed, Web of Science, ClinicalTrials.gov and International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) spanning from 2000 onwards.

EXPERT OPINION

The advancements in investigational drugs for SHPT hold significant promise for enhancing treatment efficacy while minimizing side effects associated with conventional therapies. Although several challenges still hinder their adoption in clinical practice, ongoing research will likely continue to expand the available therapeutic options, refine treatment strategies, and tailor them to individual patient profiles.

The Effects of Parathyroidectomy vs Medical Treatments for Secondary Hyperparathyroidism in Patients Undergoing Dialysis: A Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

The management of secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients undergoing dialysis is debated, with uncontrolled parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels becoming more common despite the expanded use of medical treatments like cinacalcet. This study examines the clinical benefits of parathyroidectomy vs medical treatment in reducing mortality and managing key laboratory parameters in patients undergoing dialysis.

METHODS

PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched for cohort studies or randomized controlled trials published before August 18, 2023. We included studies with comparative arms, specifically medical treatment vs surgical intervention. Patients with a history of kidney transplant were excluded. Outcomes were analyzed using hazard ratios (HRs) for mortality and weighted mean differences (WMD) for laboratory parameters.

RESULTS

Twenty-three studies involving 24 398 patients were analyzed. The pooled meta-analysis has shown a significant reduction in all-cause (HR, 0.47; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.35-0.61) and cardiovascular mortality (HR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.40-0.84) for parathyroidectomy vs medical treatments. Subgroup analysis showed that parathyroidectomy was associated with a greater reduction in mortality in patients with a PTH level over 585 pg/mL (HR, 0.37; 95% CI, 0.24-0.58). No mortality difference was found when all patients in the medical group received cinacalcet alongside standard medical treatment (HR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.49-2.11). Parathyroidectomy also led to a larger decrease in PTH (WMD, 1078 pg/mL; 95% CI, 587-1569), calcium (WMD, 0.86 mg/dL; 95% CI, 0.43-1.28), and phosphate (WMD, 0.74 mg/dL; 95% CI, 0.32-1.16).

CONCLUSION

Parathyroidectomy may offer a survival advantage compared to medical management in patients with severe secondary hyperparathyroidism.

Morbidity and long-term outcome of surgery for renal hyperparathyroidism: results from a prospective cohort

PURPOSES

Surgery remains an important treatment option for renal hyperparathyroidism (rHPT). The number of long-term outcome studies of parathyroidectomy is limited.

METHODS

All consecutive patients with a parathyroidectomy for rHPT between 09/2009 and 04/2021 in a Belgian tertiary referral hospital were prospectively enrolled. The main outcomes were (long-term) cured proportion and postoperative morbidity (hypocalcemia, recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) palsy, re-intervention for bleeding, and wound morbidity).

RESULTS

Sixty patients with a median age of 57 years were analyzed, including 23 patients before kidney transplantation, 23 patients without kidney transplantation, and 14 patients after kidney transplantation. Median time to transplant was 15 (6-24) months after parathyroidectomy. Morbidity was low with only two non-urgent returns to theatre (wound infection and non-compressive hematoma), two temporary RLN paralyses, and no 30-day mortality. Length of hospital stay was longer in patients with parathyroidectomy before kidney transplant, due to a more severe and prolonged need for calcium supplementation. After a median follow-up of 63 months, 37 patients (62%) were still alive, and 11 patients (18%) developed a recurrence.

CONCLUSIONS

This single-surgeon, single-center cohort with long-term follow-up confirms the safety and excellent 'cure' proportions of surgery for rHPT but stretches the importance of long-term follow-up.

Factors Associated With Persistent Post-transplant Hyperparathyroidism After Index Renal Transplantation

INTRODUCTION

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHP) is common in end-stage renal disease and may progress to persistent post-transplant hyperparathyroidism (PTHP) following renal transplantation (RT). We sought to describe the frequency and determine factors associated with the incidence of PTHP for patients undergoing RT at a single institution that restricts RT for patients with uncontrolled SHP with a parathyroid hormone (PTH) of >800pg/mL at time of initial transplant evaluation.

METHODS

We conducted a single-institution retrospective study of adults undergoing index RT from 2012 to 2020 who had a calcium and PTH level within 12 mo prior to RT and at least 6 mo following RT. PTHP was defined as calcium of >10 mg/dL with an elevated PTH > 88pg/mL at six or more months following RT. Univariate analysis and multivariable logistic regression were performed for factors associated with developing PTHP.

RESULTS

We identified 1110 patients with RT, 65 were excluded for prior RT, 549 did not have a pre-RT and post-RT calcium, and PTH laboratories for inclusion, yielding 496 for analysis. Following RT, 39 patients (7.9%) developed PTHP, compared to those who did not develop PTHP; these patients had significantly higher pre-RT PTH, pre-RT calcium, and frequency of calcimimetic therapy. In multivariable logistic regression factors significantly associated with PTHP were pre-RT calcium of more than 10 mg/dL with an odds ratio (OR) of 3.57 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.52-8.39, P = 0.003) and pre-RT calcimimetic therapy with an OR 1.30 (95% CI 1.06-2.85, P = 0.041). Compared with patients who had a pre-RT PTH of less than 200 pg/mL, a PTH of 200-399 pg/mL increased risk of PTHP with an OR of 4.52 (95% CI 1.95-21.5, P = 0.048) and a PTH of > 400 pg/mL increased risk of PTHP with an OR of 7.17 (95% CI 1.47-34.9, P = 0.015). In this cohort, 11 patients (28.2%) with PTHP underwent parathyroidectomy (PTx) at a mean of 1.4 y post-RT (standard deviation 0.87).

CONCLUSIONS

For patients required to have a PTH < 800pg/mL for initial transplant candidacy, the subsequent incidence of PTHP is relatively low at 7.9%. Risk factors for PTHP include higher pre-RT calcium and PTH levels and pre-RT calcimimetic therapy. PTx remains underused in the treatment of PTHP. Further study is warranted to determine the optimal PTH cutoff for transplant candidacy and recommendation for PTx in patients requiring calcimimetic therapy for SHP.

Treatment for secondary hyperparathyroidism focusing on parathyroidectomy

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) is a major problem for patients with chronic kidney disease and can cause many complications, including osteodystrophy, fractures, and cardiovascular diseases. Treatment for SHPT has changed radically with the advent of calcimimetics; however, parathyroidectomy (PTx) remains one of the most important treatments. For successful PTx, removing all parathyroid glands (PTGs) without complications is essential to prevent persistent or recurrent SHPT. Preoperative imaging studies for the localization of PTGs, such as ultrasonography, computed tomography, and 99mTc-Sestamibi scintigraphy, and intraoperative evaluation methods to confirm the removal of all PTGs, including, intraoperative intact parathyroid hormone monitoring and frozen section diagnosis, are useful. Functional and anatomical preservation of the recurrent laryngeal nerves can be confirmed via intraoperative nerve monitoring. Total or subtotal PTx with or without transcervical thymectomy and autotransplantation can also be performed. Appropriate operative methods for PTx should be selected according to the patients' need for kidney transplantation. In the case of persistent or recurrent SHPT after the initial PTx, localization of the causative PTGs with autotransplantation is challenging as causative PTGs can exist in the neck, mediastinum, or autotransplanted areas. Additionally, the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of calcimimetics and PTx are increasingly being discussed. In this review, medical and surgical treatments for SHPT are described.

The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons Guidelines for the Definitive Surgical Management of Secondary and Tertiary Renal Hyperparathyroidism

OBJECTIVE

To develop evidence-based recommendations for safe, effective, and appropriate treatment of secondary (SHPT) and tertiary (THPT) renal hyperparathyroidism.

BACKGROUND

Hyperparathyroidism is common among patients with chronic kidney disease, end-stage kidney disease, and kidney transplant. The surgical management of SHPT and THPT is nuanced and requires a multidisciplinary approach. There are currently no clinical practice guidelines that address the surgical treatment of SHPT and THPT.

METHODS

Medical literature was reviewed from January 1, 1985 to present January 1, 2021 by a panel of 10 experts in SHPT and THPT. Recommendations using the best available evidence was constructed. The American College of Physicians grading system was used to determine levels of evidence. Recommendations were discussed to consensus. The American Association of Endocrine Surgeons membership reviewed and commented on preliminary drafts of the content.

RESULTS

These clinical guidelines present the epidemiology and pathophysiology of SHPT and THPT and provide recommendations for work-up and management of SHPT and THPT for all involved clinicians. It outlines the preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative management of SHPT and THPT, as well as related definitions, operative techniques, morbidity, and outcomes. Specific topics include Pathogenesis and Epidemiology, Initial Evaluation, Imaging, Preoperative and Perioperative Care, Surgical Planning and Parathyroidectomy, Adjuncts and Approaches, Outcomes, and Reoperation.

CONCLUSIONS

Evidence-based guidelines were created to assist clinicians in the optimal management of secondary and tertiary renal hyperparathyroidism.

Risk factors for hypocalcemia in dialysis patients with refractory secondary hyperparathyroidism after parathyroidectomy: a meta-analysis

Objective

Hypocalcemia after parathyroidectomy (PTX) results in tetany, diarrhea, cardiac arrhythmia, and even sudden death. However, a meta-analysis or systematic evaluation of risk factors with the occurrence and development of hypocalcemia in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) after PTX has never been performed.

Methods

A thorough search of electronic databases, including PubMed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, and EMBASE, was performed to retrieve relevant studies from database inception to June 2021. Quality of the included studies was assessed by two independent reviewers using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale. Review Manager 5.3 and Stata 16.0 were used for meta-analysis. The random-effects model was adopted to calculate the 95% CIs (I²> 50% or p < 0.05) of the combined effect size and the corresponding homogeneous data. Otherwise, a fixed-effects model was used.

Results

Thirteen studies including 2990 participants who met the inclusion criteria were enrolled in the present meta-analysis. The overall quality of the enrolled studies had a score of >7 points. Risk factors significantly related to hypocalcemia in patients with SHPT after PTX were preoperative serum calcium (OR 0.19, 95%CI 0.11–0.31), preoperative alkaline phosphatase (ALP) (OR 1.01, 95% CI 1.01–1.02), and preoperative intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) (OR 1.38, 95%CI 1.20–1.58). Meanwhile, age (OR 0.97, 95%CI 0.87–1.10) was not significantly correlated with hypocalcemia after PTX.

Conclusions

Based on the current evidence, preoperative serum calcium, preoperative ALP, and preoperative iPTH were significant predictors of hypocalcemia in patients with SHPT after PTX. More attention should be given to patients with these risk factors for the prevention of postoperative hypocalcemia.

Parathyroidectomy for dialysis patients in the era of calcimimetics: The surgeons' point of view

Calcimimetics is a new drug for lowering serum parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcium and phosphate in patients with hyperparathyroidism (HPT) on long-term dialysis. It became available on market in 2006. The impact of calcimimetics on the treatment by parathyroidectomy (PTx) was reviewed from the surgeons' point of view. Cure of renal HPT by calcimimetics is not feasible, but calcimimetics can improve preoperative cardiac ventricle ejection fractions by lowering serum PTH. Heart failure is not necessarily a contraindication for PTx. PTx should be done before irreversible organ damage occurs. Limb gangrenes is an ominous sign and should be prevented by frequent checkup for peripheral arterial circulation. The impact of renal osteodystrophy on the quality of life and as indirect cause of mortality deserves more attention in patients with renal HPT. Delayed referral to PTx leads to more complicated patients. A consensus between nephrologists and surgeons about propitious timing for PTx is necessary. Future prospect on the surgical treatment of renal HPT is proposed. Supplemental figure; http://links.lww.com/ASAIO/A782.

Association Between Treatment of Secondary Hyperparathyroidism and Posttransplant Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) affects nearly all patients on maintenance dialysis therapy. SHPT treatment options have considerably evolved over the past 2 decades but vary in degree of improvement in SHPT. Therefore, we hypothesize that the risks of adverse outcomes after kidney transplantation (KT) may differ by SHPT treatment.

METHODS

Using the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients and Medicare claims data, we identified 5094 adults (age ≥18 y) treated with cinacalcet or parathyroidectomy for SHPT before receiving KT between 2007 and 2016. We quantified the association between SHPT treatment and delayed graft function and acute rejection using adjusted logistic models and tertiary hyperparathyroidism (THPT), graft failure, and death using adjusted Cox proportional hazards; we tested whether these associations differed by patient characteristics.

RESULTS

Of 5094 KT recipients who were treated for SHPT while on dialysis, 228 (4.5%) underwent parathyroidectomy, and 4866 (95.5%) received cinacalcet. There was no association between treatment of SHPT and posttransplant delayed graft function, graft failure, or death. However, compared with patients treated with cinacalcet, those treated with parathyroidectomy had a lower risk of developing THPT (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.56; 95% confidence interval, 0.35-0.89) post-KT. Furthermore, this risk differed by dialysis vintage (Pinteraction = 0.039). Among patients on maintenance dialysis therapy for ≥3 y before KT (n = 3477, 68.3%), the risk of developing THPT was lower when treated with parathyroidectomy (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.43; 95% confidence interval, 0.24-0.79).

CONCLUSIONS

Parathyroidectomy should be considered as treatment for SHPT, especially in KT candidates on maintenance dialysis for ≥3 y. Additionally, patients treated with cinacalcet for SHPT should undergo close surveillance for development of tertiary hyperparathyroidism post-KT.

Outcomes following parathyroidectomy for secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients with chronic kidney disease - a single-centre study

BACKGROUND

Surgical parathyroidectomy may be required for severe and refractory secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Parathyroidectomy is associated with long-term survival benefit despite an increase in short-term morbidity and mortality. Global variation in practice exists, with limited Australian data on outcomes following parathyroidectomy.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective study of patients who underwent parathyroidectomy for SHPT between January 2010 and December 2019 at a single tertiary referral centre in Melbourne, Australia. Biochemical markers and medications were assessed 12 months pre- and post-surgery. Clinical outcomes, including hospital readmission, cardiovascular events and mortality were assessed following surgery.

RESULTS

During the 10-year study period, 129 patients underwent parathyroidectomy for SHPT (mean age 50.7 ± 15 years, 109 (85%) on dialysis). Significant immediate post-operative complications were seen in eight patients (6%), requiring admission to the intensive care unit (n = 6) or return to theatre (n = 2). Within the first 6 months, 24 patients (19%) required hospital readmission. Within 12 months post-parathyroidectomy, 100 (78%) and 103 patients (80%) experienced at least one episode of hypercalcaemia (corrected calcium >2.6 mmol/L) or hypocalcaemia (corrected calcium <2.1 mmol/L) respectively. Over a 12-month period there were six deaths (5%), and eight patients (6%) experienced a major cardiovascular event.

CONCLUSION

Significant fluctuations in serum calcium levels are common post-parathyroidectomy, however long-term morbidity and mortality in our cohort were lower than previously reported, highlighting that parathyroidectomy in a carefully selected cohort is safe for severe SHPT refractory to medical treatment. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Paricalcitol versus Calcitriol + Cinacalcet for the Treatment of Secondary Hyperparathyroidism in Chronic Kidney Disease in China: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

Background: Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is a global chronic disease with increasing prevalence in recent years, particularly CKD accompanied by Secondary Hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) leads to reduced quality of life, increased mortality, a considerable economic burden for patients and society. The aim of this study was to investigate the cost-effectiveness analysis of paricalcitol vs. calcitriol + cinacalcet for CKD patients with SHPT in China in 2020.

Methods: A Markov model was conducted employing data derived from published literature, clinical trials, official sources, and tertiary public hospital data in China, based on a 10-year horizon from the perspective of the healthcare system. Calcitriol + Cinacalcet was used as the reference group. CKD stage 5 (CKD-5) dialysis patients suffering from SHPT were included in the study. Effectiveness was measured in quality-adjusted life years (QALYs). The discount rate (5%) was applied to costs and effectiveness. Sensitivity analysis was performed to confirm the robustness of the findings.

Results: The base case analysis demonstrated that Patients treated with paricalcitol could gain an increase in utility (0.183 QALYs) and require fewer expenditures (6925.612 yuan). One-way sensitivity analysis was performed to showed that impact factors were the price of cinacalcet, the hospitalization costs of patients with paricalcitol and calcitriol, the costs and utilities of hemodialysis and the costs of calcitriol, the costs of paricalcitol regardless of period. Probabilistic simulation analysis displayed when willingness-to-pay was ¥217113, the probability that Paricalcitol was dominant is 96.20%.

Conclusion: The results showed that paricalcitol administrated to treat patients diagnosed with Secondary hyperparathyroidism in Chronic Kidney Disease, compared to calcitriol and cinacalcet, might be dominant in China.

Practice variation in the treatment of patients with renal hyperparathyroidism: a survey-based study in the Netherlands

Background

Renal hyperparathyroidism is a disease entity that is complex and poorly understood. Although there are guidelines regarding how to manage this patient group, evidence is scarce. Therefore, this survey-based study aims to map the physicians’ attitude in terms of preference for management of renal hyperparathyroidism and the influence of patient and respondent factors.

Methods

A survey was sent to Dutch societies of nephrology, endocrinology, and surgeons with interest in endocrine surgery. The survey consisted of eight case vignettes of renal hyperparathyroidism patients who were on hemodialysis and suitable for kidney transplantation, and varied in one of three patient variables import for decision making: age (40 vs. 65 years), parathyroid hormone (40 vs. 90 pmol/L), and serum calcium level (2.25 vs. 2.8 mmol/L). For each case, respondents could choose between maintaining conservative treatment (active vitamin D metabolites), calcimimetics, or subtotal parathyroidectomy as their treatment of choice. Categorical multilevel logistic models were used to investigate the association of patient and respondent variables with treatment preference. The influence of patient variables was determined independently of each other and by means of logistic regression the probabilities of treatment choice were calculated.

Results

In total, 115 surveys were included in the analysis. In 6 out of 8 cases, less than two-thirds of respondents agreed on the most favoured treatment. Among patient characteristics, the main disincentive for respondents not to choose conservative therapy was an elevated serum calcium level (subtotal parathyroidectomy vs conservative OR 93.1, 95%-CI: 48.39–179.07 and calcimimetics vs conservative OR 31.2 95%-CI: 18.58–52.30). Additionally, the most significant treatment differences were found between medical specialties and the experience of the respondents, expressed as the amount of cases the physician was involved in during the past year.

Conclusions

Elevated serum calcium levels were widely recognized and the prime reason for respondents to abandon conservative treatment. However, considerable disagreement in treatment preferences remained throughout the cases, demonstrating the current literature available being inconclusive in guiding physicians. Therefore, a high-quality trial comparing subtotal parathyroidectomy to medical treatment is needed to determine optimal treatment.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12882-021-02361-7.

Surgery for Renal Hyperparathyroidism in the Era of Cinacalcet: A Single-Center Experience

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

There are only few data on the influence of cinacalcet on the outcome of parathyroidectomy in patients with renal hyperparathyroidism. Indication and timing of surgery have changed since its introduction, especially with regard to kidney transplantation. Therefore, we retrospectively analyzed patients undergoing parathyroidectomy for renal hyperparathyroidism in our institution.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Between 2008 and 2015, 196 consecutive operations in 191 patients were analyzed. About 80 operations (41%) were performed in patients receiving cinacalcet compared with 116 operations (59%) in patients without cinacalcet. Clinical data, preoperative medication, pre- and postoperative laboratory values, type and details of surgery including complications, as well as cardiovascular complications and kidney transplantation with graft function were recorded.

RESULTS

Demographical data were similar in patients with or without cinacalcet treatment. A total of 54% of patients received a kidney graft before or after parathyroidectomy. Pre- and postoperative parathormone levels were similar in both groups (preoperatively 755 vs 742 ng/L, postoperatively 50 vs 46 ng/L, p > 0.10), whereas patients with cinacalcet showed significantly lower calcium levels preoperatively (2.28 vs 2.41 mmol/L, p = 0.0002). There was no difference in recurrence or persistence of hyperparathyroidism, duration of surgery, hospital stay, or complication rate. Creatinine levels in patients with tertiary hyperparathyroidism were similar after 1-year follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Cinacalcet did not influence outcome of patients with parathyroidectomy for renal hyperparathyroidism and can be safely offered to patients not responding to medical treatment.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of cinacalcet for haemodialysis patients with moderate-to-severe secondary hyperparathyroidism in China: evaluation based on the EVOLVE trial

OBJECTIVE

As the cost-effectiveness evaluation of cinacalcet and conventional therapy in China has not been reported, the objective of this study was to make a pharmacoeconomic evaluation of cinacalcet specific to the Chinese healthcare setting in patients with moderate-to-severe secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) undergoing dialysis.

DESIGNS

Data from Evaluation of Cinacalcet Therapy to Lower Cardiovascular Events trial were used for this analysis. A semi-Markov model was constructed to estimate quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) and lifetime costs in cinacalcet plus conventional therapy (cinacalcet strategy) compared with conventional therapy (standard strategy), in patients with moderate-to-severe SHPT undergoing dialysis. Treatment effect estimates from the unadjusted intent-to-treat (ITT) analysis and covariate-adjusted ITT analysis were used as the main analyses. Model sensitivity to variations in individual inputs and overall decision uncertainty were assessed through probabilistic sensitivity analyses.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) as measured by cost per QALY gained.

RESULTS

The ICER for cinacalcet strategy was US$44 400 per QALY gained using the covariate-adjusted ITT analysis. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis suggested a 46.2% chance of the ICER being below a willingness-to-pay threshold of US$26 508. Treatment effects from unadjusted ITT analysis yielded an ICER of US$87 210 per QALY. The model was most sensitive to the treatment effect on mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Existing evidence does not support the cost-effectiveness of cinacalcet strategy in patients with moderate-to-severe SHPT undergoing dialysis when applying a willingness-to-pay threshold of US$26 508 per QALY, whether it is using the treatment effect from covariate-adjusted ITT analysis or unadjusted ITT analysis.

Canadian Society of Nephrology Commentary on the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes 2017 Clinical Practice Guideline Update for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, Prevention, and Treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder

Purpose of review:

(1) To provide commentary on the 2017 update to the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) 2017 Clinical Practice Guideline Update for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, Prevention, and Treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD); (2) to apply the evidence-based guideline update for implementation within the Canadian health care system; (3) to provide comment on the care of children with chronic kidney disease (CKD); and (4) to identify research priorities for Canadian patients.

Sources of information:

The KDIGO 2017 Clinical Practice Guideline Update for the Diagnosis, Evaluation, Prevention, and Treatment of CKD-MBD.

Methods:

The commentary committee co-chairs selected potential members based on their knowledge of the Canadian kidney community, aiming for wide representation from relevant disciplines, academic and community centers, and different geographical regions.

Key findings:

We agreed with many of the recommendations in the clinical practice guideline on the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of CKD-MBD. However, based on the uncommon occurrence of abnormalities in calcium and phosphate and the low likelihood of severe abnormalities in parathyroid hormone (PTH), we recommend against screening and monitoring levels of calcium, phosphate, PTH, and alkaline phosphatase in adults with CKD G3. We suggest and recommend monitoring these parameters in adults with CKD G4 and G5, respectively. In children, we agree that monitoring for CKD-MBD should begin in CKD G2, but we suggest measuring ionized calcium, rather than total calcium or calcium adjusted for albumin. With regard to vitamin D, we suggest against routine screening for vitamin D deficiency in adults with CKD G3-G5 and G1T-G5T and suggest following population health recommendations for adequate vitamin D intake. We recommend that the measurement and management of bone mineral density (BMD) be according to general population guidelines in CKD G3 and G3T, but we suggest against routine BMD testing in CKD G4-G5, CKD G4T-5T, and in children with CKD. Based on insufficient data, we also recommend against routine bone biopsy in clinical practice for adults with CKD or CKD-T, or in children with CKD, although we consider it an important research tool.

Limitations:

The committee relied on the evidence summaries produced by KDIGO. The CSN committee did not replicate or update the systematic reviews.

Timing of parathyroidectomy for tertiary hyperparathyroidism with end-stage renal disease: A cost-effectiveness analysis

BACKGROUND

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism associated with end-stage renal disease is characterized by progression from secondary hyperparathyroidism to an autonomous overproduction of parathyroid hormone that leads to adverse health outcomes. Rates of parathyroidectomy (PTX) have decreased with the use of calcimimetics. Optimal timing of PTX in relation to kidney transplant remains controversial. We aimed to identify the most cost-effective strategy for patients with tertiary hyperparathyroidism undergoing kidney transplant.

METHODS

We constructed a patient level state transition microsimulation to compare 3 management schemes: cinacalcet with kidney transplant, cinacalcet with PTX before kidney transplant, or cinacalcet with PTX after kidney transplant. Our base case was a 55-year-old on dialysis with tertiary hyperparathyroidism awaiting kidney transplant. Outcomes, including quality-adjusted life years, surgical complications, and mortality, were extracted from the literature, and costs were estimated using Medicare reimbursement data.

RESULTS

Our base case analysis demonstrated that cinacalcet with PTX before kidney transplant was dominant, with a lesser cost of $399,287 and greater quality-adjusted life years of 10.3 vs $497,813 for cinacalcet with PTX after kidney transplant (quality-adjusted life years 9.4) and $643,929 for cinacalcet with kidney transplant (quality-adjusted life years 7.4).

CONCLUSION

Cinacalcet alone with kidney transplant is the least cost-effective strategy. Patients with end-stage renal disease-related tertiary hyperparathyroidism should be referred for PTX, and it is most cost-effective if performed prior to kidney transplant.

Clinical outcomes of parathyroidectomy versus cinacalcet in the clinical management of secondary hyperparathyroidism

Parathyroidectomy (PTX) is the standard treatment for secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT); however, the administration of cinacalcet has gained prominence as a noninvasive treatment. We aimed to determine whether PTX or cinacalcet is more effective in preventing morbidity and mortality through reviewing follow-up data concerning surgical management of SHPT. We retrospectively analyzed and divided 209 patients with SHPT into two treatment groups: PTX (n = 78) and cinacalcet (n = 131) groups. We compared clinical features, the over-the-target range rate during pre- and post-intervention periods, new cardiovascular events, and all-cause mortality between both groups. Almost all biochemical parameters were well controlled in the post-intervention period, and were within the recommended target range for the PTX group but not for the cinacalcet group. A significant difference was observed in the over-the-target range rate during the post-intervention period between the groups. PTX and cinacalcet interventions significantly lowered the over-the-target range rates for serum intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) (>300 pg/mL), corrected calcium (>10.5 mg/mL), serum phosphorus (>5.5 mg/dL), and calcium-phosphorus product (>55) in both groups (p = 0.001). PTX reduced the risk of new cardiovascular events by 86% compared to cinacalcet (p = 0.001); however, all-cause mortality did not differ significantly (14.1% vs. 7.6%, p = 0.132). For patients with SHPT, PTX helps prevent cardiovascular events through normalizing biochemical variables, according to recommended guidelines. PTX should be considered before cinacalcet treatment to prevent new cardiovascular events. Early PTX for appropriate patients can help prevent immediate postoperative complications and mortality.

Calcimimetics and Bundled Reimbursement

Since 2011, the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services has provided reimbursement for renal dialysis services furnished to Medicare beneficiaries through a bundled payment system known as the Prospective Payment System. Medications that have no injectable equivalent, known as "oral-only medications," are currently excluded from the bundle and are paid separately through Medicare Part D. Thus, before the development of etelcalcetide, the first injectable calcimimetic, calcimimetics were reimbursed outside the bundle. Etelcalcetide's introduction and approval for use in Medicare triggered a transition payment for a minimum of 2 years that will eventually result in the incorporation of calcimimetics into the dialysis bundle. Consequently, providers may face incentives to reduce calcimimetic use when the transition period has expired. The complexity of bone-mineral management in conjunction with the paucity of evidence-based recommendations in this area makes it difficult to predict the impact of this transition. Because these medications are expensive, a poor transition could have financial ramifications for dialysis organizations and potentially patient health. To ensure that patients are not adversely affected, it is critical that Medicare incorporate these medications into the bundle carefully, with close monitoring of outcomes.

Parathyroidectomy versus cinacalcet for tertiary hyperparathyroidism; a retrospective analysis

Introduction

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism (tHPT), i.e., persistent HPT after kidney transplantation, affects 17–50% of transplant recipients. Treatment of tHPT is mandatory since persistently elevated PTH concentrations after KTx increase the risk of renal allograft dysfunction and osteoporosis. The introduction of cinacalcet in 2004 seemed to offer a medical treatment alternative to parathyroidectomy (PTx). However, the optimal management of tHPT remains unclear.

Methods

A retrospective analysis was performed on patients receiving a kidney transplantation (KT) in two academic centers in the Netherlands. Thirty patients undergoing PTx within 3 years of transplantation and 64 patients treated with cinacalcet 1 year after transplantation for tHPT were included. Primary outcomes were serum calcium and PTH concentrations 1 year after KT and after PTx.

Results

Serum calcium normalized in both the cinacalcet and the PTx patients. PTH concentrations remained above the upper limit of normal (median 22.0 pmol/L) 1 year after KT, but returned to within the normal range in the PTx group (median 3.7 pmol/L). Side effects of cinacalcet were difficult to assess; minor complications occurred in three patients. Re-exploration due to persistent tHPT was performed in three (10%) patients.

Conclusion

In patients with tHPT, cinacalcet normalizes serum calcium, but does not lead to a normalization of serum PTH concentrations. In contrast, PTx leads to a normalization of both serum calcium and PTH concentrations. These findings suggest that PTx is the treatment of choice for tHPT.

Safety and efficacy of subtotal or total parathyroidectomy for patients with secondary or tertiary hyperparathyroidism in four academic centers in the Netherlands

Purpose

Hyperparathyroidism (HPT) is a common abnormality in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Since the introduction of cinacalcet in 2004, a shift from surgery toward predominantly medical treatment has occurred. Surgery is thought to be associated with more complications than oral medication. The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate 30-day outcomes and effectiveness of parathyroidectomy (PTx) in ESRD patients in the Netherlands.

Methods

A national database containing data from four academic medical centers in the Netherlands of patients with ESRD-related HPT, who had undergone PTx and kidney transplantation between 1994 and 2015, was established. Primary endpoints were 30-day mortality and complication rate. Secondary endpoints were biochemical measurements.

Results

We identified 187 HPT patients undergoing PTx, with a median age of 46 years. Median preoperative PTH level was 866 pg/mL (interquartile range [IQR] 407–1547 pg/mL). At 3 months, the median PTH drop from baseline was 93% (IQR, 71–98%) to a median of 61 pg/mL (IQR, 23–148 pg/mL, p < 0.001). Over the 25-year inclusion period, 13 patients (7.0%) required re-exploration for persistent or recurrent disease. Thirty-day mortality and complication rate were 0.0% and 7.9% respectively. Median serum calcium levels improved significantly postoperatively from 2.6 (2.4–2.8) mmol/L to 2.3 (2.1–2.5) mmol/L (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

PTx is a safe and effective procedure in the frail ESRD population. These data show that there should be no reluctance for surgical intervention and when indicated, nephrologists can safely refer these patients for PTx.

Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disorders in the Renal Transplant Recipient

Kidney transplantation is the current treatment of choice for patients with end-stage renal disease. Innovations in transplantation and immunosuppression regimens have greatly improved the renal allograft survival. Based on recently published data from the Scientific Registry of Transplant recipients, prevalence of kidney transplants is steadily rising in the United States. Over 210,000 kidney transplant recipients were alive with a functioning graft in mid-2016, which is nearly twice as many as in 2005. While successful renal transplantation corrects most of the electrolyte and mineral abnormalities seen in advanced renal failure, the abnormalities seen in the post-transplant period are surprisingly different from those seen in chronic kidney disease. Multiple factors contribute to the high prevalence of these abnormalities that include level of allograft function, use of immunosuppressive medications and metabolic changes in the post-transplant period. Electrolyte disturbances are common in patients after renal transplantation, and several studies have tried to determine the clinical significance of these disturbances. In this manuscript we review the key aspects of the most commonly found post-transplant electrolyte abnormalities. We focus on their epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and available treatment approaches.

Targeted surgical parathyroidectomy in end-stage renal disease patients and long-term metabolic control: A single-center experience in the current era

BACKGROUND

The long-term results of surgical parathyroidectomy (PTX) in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients are less well known in the modern era of newer activated vitamin-D analogs, calcimimetics and intraoperative monitoring of parathyroid hormone (PTH).

METHODS

We performed a retrospective chart review of all ESRD patients undergoing PTX at the University of Mississippi Medical Center between January 2005 and August 2011, with follow-up data as available up to 4 years. All PTXs were performed with intraoperative second-generation PTH monitoring and targeted gland size reduction.

RESULTS

The cohort (N = 37) was relatively young with a mean (±SD) age of 48.4 ± 13.9. 94.6% of the subjects were African American and 59.5% female. Preoperatively, 45.9% received cinacalcet (CNC) at a mean dose of 63.5 ± 20.9 mg. The size of the largest removed glands measured 1.7 ± 0.8 cm and almost all (94.6%) glands had hyperplasia on histology. The mean length of inpatient stay was 5.5 ± 2.4 days. Preoperative calcium/phosphorus measured 9.6 ± 1.2/6.6 ± 1.7 mg/dL with PTH concentrations of 1589 ± 827 pg/mL. Postoperative PTH values measured 145.4 ± 119.2 pg/mL. Preoperative PTH strongly correlated (P < 0.0001) with both alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels (r: 0.596) and the number of inpatient days (r: 0.545), but not with CNC administration. Independent predictors for the duration of hospitalization were preoperative ALP (beta 0.469; P = 0.001) and age (beta -0.401; P = 0.005) (R² 0.45); for postoperative hypocalcemia, age (beta: -0.321; P = 0.006) and preoperative PTH (beta: 0.431; P = 0.036) were significant in linear regression models with stepwise selection.

CONCLUSION

Gland-sparing PTX achieved acceptable control of ESRD-associated hyperparathyroidism in most patients from a socioeconomically challenged, underserved population of the United States.

Parathyroid Nodular Hyperplasia and Responsiveness to Drug Therapy in Renal Secondary Hyperparathyroidism: An Open Question

The goal of the pharmacological therapy in secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) is to reduce serum levels of parathyroid hormone and phosphorus, to correct those of calcium and vitamin D, to arrest or reverse the parathyroid hyperplasia. However, when nodular hyperplasia or an autonomous adenoma develops, surgery may be indicated. We reviewed the literature with the aim of defining if the echographic criteria predictive of unresponsiveness of SHPT to calcitriol therapy are valid also in the cinacalcet era and if drug therapy may reverse nodular hyperplasia of parathyroid gland (PTG). The responsiveness to therapy and regression of the nodular hyperplasia of PTG remains an open question in the calcimimetic era as well as the cutoff between medical and surgical therapy. Prospective studies are needed in order to clarify if an earlier use of cinacalcet in moderate SHPT might arrest the progression of parathyroid growth and stabilize SHPT.

Systematic review of surgical and medical treatment for tertiary hyperparathyroidism

BACKGROUND

A significant proportion of patients with chronic kidney disease and secondary hyperparathyroidism (HPT) remain hyperparathyroid after kidney transplantation, a state known as tertiary HPT. Without treatment, tertiary HPT can lead to diminished kidney allograft and patient survival. Parathyroidectomy was commonly performed to treat tertiary HPT until the introduction of the calcimimetic drug, cinacalcet. It is not known whether surgery or medical treatment is superior for tertiary HPT.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed and medical literature databases were searched for studies on the treatment of tertiary HPT that were published after the approval of cinacalcet.

RESULTS

A total of 1669 articles were identified, of which 47 were included in the review. Following subtotal and total parathyroidectomy, initial cure rates were 98·7 and 100 per cent respectively, but in 7·6 and 4 per cent of patients tertiary HPT recurred. After treatment with cinacalcet, 80·8 per cent of the patients achieved normocalcaemia. Owing to side-effects, 6·4 per cent of patients discontinued cinacalcet treatment. The literature regarding graft function and survival is limited; however, renal graft survival after surgical treatment appears comparable to that obtained with cinacalcet therapy.

CONCLUSION

Side-effects and complications of both treatment modalities were mild and occurred in a minority of patients. Surgical treatment for tertiary HPT has higher cure rates than medical therapy.

Treatment of secondary hyperparathyroidism: the clinical utility of etelcalcetide

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT), a very frequent, severe, and worsening complication of chronic kidney disease, is characterized by high serum parathyroid hormone (PTH), parathyroid gland hyperplasia, and disturbances in mineral metabolism. Clinically, SHPT shows renal osteodystrophy, vascular calcification, cardiovascular damage, and fatal outcome. Calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) is the main physiological regulator of PTH secretion; its activation by calcium rapidly inhibits PTH. Another important player in regulating mineral metabolism is vitamin D receptor (VDR), which is under the influence of vitamin D and influences the intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphate, PTH gene expression, and bone calcium mobilization. Serum phosphate levels influence fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) production, a phosphatonin that modulates serum phosphate reabsorption, PTH synthesis, and vitamin D production. Current therapeutic approaches consist of 1) phosphate intake control by diet or phosphate binders, 2) vitamin D by VDR activation, and 3) calcimimetic agents that activate CaSR. Recently, a new long-acting peptide (etelcalcetide) belonging to the calcimimetics class was approved for intravenous use in hemodialysis patients with SHPT. Etelcalcetide binds directly to CaSR, by a sulfide bond, inhibiting the production and secretion of PTH by parathyroid glands. After intravenous administration in rats, etelcalcetide is quickly distributed to the tissues and eliminated by kidneys, while in uremic animals the nonrenal excretion is only 1.2%. In hemodialysis patients, the treatment itself is the main route of elimination. Etelcalcetide in hemodialysis patients with SHPT was more effective than placebo and cinacalcet, with a PTH reduction of >30% in 76% of patients with etelcalcetide versus 10% with placebo. Particular attention was paid to the safety of the drug; the most common adverse event was asymptomatic blood calcium reduction, similar to cinacalcet, while gastrointestinal symptoms were less frequent. This promising new drug available for better control of SHPT will, together with drugs already in use, optimize the treatment to normalize the biochemical parameters.

Retrospective Study Looking at Cinacalcet in the Management of Hyperparathyroidism after Kidney Transplantation

Objectives. The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the use of cinacalcet in the management of hyperparathyroidism in kidney transplant recipients. The secondary objective is to identify baseline factors that predict cinacalcet use after transplantation. Methods. In this single-center retrospective study, we conducted a chart review of all patients having been transplanted from 2003 to 2012 and having received cinacalcet up to kidney transplantation and/or thereafter. Results. Twenty-seven patients were included with a mean follow-up of 2.9 ± 2.4 years. Twenty-one were already taking cinacalcet at the time of transplantation. Cinacalcet was stopped within the first month in 12 of these patients of which 7 had to restart therapy. The main reason for restarting cinacalcet was hypercalcemia. Length of treatment was 23 ± 26 months. There were only 3 cases of mild hypocalcemia. There was no statistically significant association between baseline factors and cinacalcet status a year later. Conclusions. Discontinuing cinacalcet within the first month of kidney transplantation often leads to hypercalcemia. Cinacalcet appears to be an effective treatment of hypercalcemic hyperparathyroidism in kidney transplant recipients. Further studies are needed to evaluate safety and long-term benefits.

Impact of the Introduction of Calcimimetics on Timing of Parathyroidectomy in Secondary and Tertiary Hyperparathyroidism

BACKGROUND

Hyperparathyroidism (HPT), both secondary and tertiary, is common in patients with end-stage renal disease, and is associated with severe bone disorders, cardiovascular complications, and increased mortality. Since the introduction of calcimimetics in 2004, treatment of HPT has shifted from surgery to predominantly medical therapy.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of this change of management on the HPT patient population before undergoing (sub-)total parathyroidectomy (PTx).

METHODS

Overall, 119 patients with secondary or tertiary HPT undergoing PTx were included in a retrospective, single-center cohort. Group A, who underwent PTx before January 2005, was compared with group B, who underwent PTx after January 2005. Patient characteristics, time interval between HPT diagnosis and PTx, and postoperative complications were compared.

RESULTS

Group A comprised 70 (58.8 %) patients and group B comprised 49 (41.2 %) patients. The median interval between HPT diagnosis and PTx was 27 (interquartile range [IQR] 12.5-48.0) and 49 (IQR 21.0-75.0) months for group A and B, respectively (p = 0.007). Baseline characteristics were similar among both groups. The median preoperative serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) level was 936 pg/mL (IQR 600-1273) for group A versus 1091 pg/mL (IQR 482-1373) for group B (p = 0.38). PTx resulted in a dramatic PTH reduction (less than twofold the upper limit: A, 80.0 %; B, 85.4 %), and postoperative complication rates were low in both groups (A: 7.8 %; B: 10.2 %) [p = 0.66].

CONCLUSIONS

The introduction of calcimimetics in 2004 is associated with a significant 2-year delay of surgery with continuously elevated preoperative PTH levels, while parathyroid surgery, even in a fragile population, is considered a safe and effective procedure.

Evaluation of Parathyroidectomy for Secondary and Tertiary Hyperparathyroidism by the Parathyroid Surgeons' Society of Japan

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT) remains a serious complication in patients with chronic kidney disease, and some patients require parathyroidectomy. The Parathyroid Surgeons' Society of Japan (PSSJ) evaluated parathyroidectomy for SHPT and tertiary hyperparathyroidism (THPT) in Japan. The annual numbers of parathyroidectomies between 2004 and 2013 were evaluated using questionnaires. Since 2010, the PSSJ has registered the patients. In total, 826 patients from 42 institutions were registered. The annual number of parathyroidectomies for SHPT and THPT in Japan increased from 2004 to 2007 and then decreased markedly after 2007, with 296 operations performed in 2013. The number of women and men was almost equal (397/427). Median (interquartile range) age of these patients was 59.0 (24-87) years, the duration of hemodialysis before parathyroidectomy was 10.83 (0.0-38.7) years, and diabetic nephropathy was 87/826 (10.5%). Of these patients 59.6% were treated with cinacalcet at undergoing parathyroidectomy. In 75.3% of patients, a total parathyroidectomy with forearm autograft was performed. In 77.7% of patients, four or more parathyroid glands were removed during the initial operation. The incidences of husky voice and wound hemorrhage were 2.9% and 1.1%, respectively. The number of parathyroidectomies for SHPT in Japan decreased markedly after the introduction of cinacalcet. Based on the evaluation of registered patients, parathyroidectomies have been successfully performed at the institutions participating in the PSSJ.

Value within otolaryngology: Assessment of the cost-utility analysis literature

Objective

To assess the characteristics and quality of cost utility analyses (CUA) related to otolaryngology within the CEA registry and to summarize their collective results.

Methods

All cost-utility analyses published between 1976 and 2011 contained in the Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Registry (CEA Registry) were evaluated. Topics that fall within the care of an otolaryngologist were included in the review regardless of the presence of an otolaryngologist author. Potential associations between various study characteristics and CEA registry quality scores were evaluated using the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient.

Results

Sixty-one of 2913 (2.1%) total CUA publications screened were related to otolaryngology. Eighteen of 61 (29.5%) publications included an otolaryngologist as an author. Fourteen studies agreed on the cost effectiveness of at least unilateral cochlear implantation and six of seven (85.7%) studies demonstrated the cost effectiveness of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Forty-six percent (28 of 61) of all manuscripts were published between 2008 and 2011. A more recent publication year was associated with a higher CEA registry quality score while the presence of an otolaryngologist author and journal impact factor had no significant correlation with the quality of the CUA.

Conclusion

Based on current evidence in the CEA registry, unilateral cochlear implantation for hearing loss and CPAP for OSA are both cost-effective therapeutic interventions. Although CUAs in otolaryngology have increased in quantity and improved in quality in more recent years, there is a relative lack of CUAs in otolaryngology in comparison to other subspecialties.

A Randomized Study Comparing Parathyroidectomy with Cinacalcet for Treating Hypercalcemia in Kidney Allograft Recipients with Hyperparathyroidism

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism is a common cause of hypercalcemia after kidney transplant. We designed this 12-month, prospective, multicenter, open-label, randomized study to evaluate whether subtotal parathyroidectomy is more effective than cinacalcet for controlling hypercalcemia caused by persistent hyperparathyroidism after kidney transplant. Kidney allograft recipients with hypercalcemia and elevated intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) concentration were eligible if they had received a transplant ≥6 months before the study and had an eGFR>30 ml/min per 1.73 m(2) The primary end point was the proportion of patients with normocalcemia at 12 months. Secondary end points were serum iPTH concentration, serum phosphate concentration, bone mineral density, vascular calcification, renal function, patient and graft survival, and economic cost. In total, 30 patients were randomized to receive cinacalcet (n=15) or subtotal parathyroidectomy (n=15). At 12 months, ten of 15 patients in the cinacalcet group and 15 of 15 patients in the parathyroidectomy group (P=0.04) achieved normocalcemia. Normalization of serum phosphate concentration occurred in almost all patients. Subtotal parathyroidectomy induced greater reduction of iPTH and associated with a significant increase in femoral neck bone mineral density; vascular calcification remained unchanged in both groups. The most frequent adverse events were digestive intolerance in the cinacalcet group and hypocalcemia in the parathyroidectomy group. Surgery would be more cost effective than cinacalcet if cinacalcet duration reached 14 months. All patients were alive with a functioning graft at the end of follow-up. In conclusion, subtotal parathyroidectomy was superior to cinacalcet in controlling hypercalcemia in these patients with kidney transplants and persistent hyperparathyroidism.

Economic Evaluation of Cinacalcet in the United States: The EVOLVE Trial

BACKGROUND

Previous economic evaluations of cinacalcet in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism (sHPT) relied on the combination of surrogate end points in clinical trials and epidemiologic studies.

OBJECTIVES

The objective was to conduct an economic evaluation of cinacalcet on the basis of the EValuation Of Cinacalcet HCl Therapy to Lower CardioVascular Events (EVOLVE) trial from a US payer perspective.

METHODS

We developed a semi-Markov model to assess the cost-effectiveness of cinacalcet in addition to conventional therapy, compared with conventional therapy alone, in patients with moderate-to-severe sHPT receiving hemodialysis. We used treatment effect estimates from the unadjusted intent-to-treat (ITT) analysis and prespecified covariate-adjusted ITT analysis as our main analyses. We assessed model sensitivity to variations in individual inputs and overall decision uncertainty through probabilistic sensitivity analyses.

RESULTS

The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) for cinacalcet was $61,705 per life-year and $79,562 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY) gained using the covariate-adjusted ITT analysis. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis suggested a 73.2% chance of the ICER being below a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000. Treatment effects from unadjusted ITT analysis yielded an ICER of $115,876 per QALY. The model was most sensitive to the treatment effect on mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

In the unadjusted ITT analysis, cinacalcet does not represent a cost- effective use of health care resources when applying a willingness-to-pay threshold of $100,000 per QALY. When using the covariate-adjusted ITT treatment effect, which represents the least biased estimate, however, cinacalcet is a cost-effective therapy for patients with moderate-to-severe sHPT on hemodialysis.

Association between long-term efficacy of cinacalcet and parathyroid gland volume in haemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism

Purpose. Secondary hyperparathyroidism with nodular hyperplasia is resistant to medical therapies. Cinacalcet is an effective treatment for severe secondary hyperparathyroidism. This multicentre retrospective study was designed to determine the long-term efficacy of cinacalcet in patients with nodular hyperplasia, the advanced type of parathyroid hyperplasia. Subjects and methods. The study subjects were 20 haemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Patients with ultrasonographically confirmed large parathyroid glands (volume >0.5 cm(3)) were considered to have nodular hyperplasia (n = 8). Cinacalcet was started at the dose of 25 mg/day and titrated up to 100 mg/day to achieve the target intact-parathyroid hormone (iPTH) level of <250 pg/ml. Serum iPTH, corrected calcium, serum phosphorus, calcium × phosphorus product were measured and compared over the 48-week period of treatment with cinacalcet in all 20 patients and over 120 weeks in 6 of the patients (2 with nodular hyperplasia and 4 with non-nodular hyperplasia). We also examined the achievement rate of K/DOQI guideline treatment targets. The dosages of vitamin D preparation, sevelamer hydrochloride and calcium- containing phosphate binder were adjusted for the above target values. Results. iPTH levels were significantly lower at 48 weeks in both groups. However, corrected calcium levels, serum phosphorus levels and calcium phosphorus products were within the target values in the non-nodular hyperplasia group (n = 12), while the target value could not be achieved in the nodular hyperplasia group. In the long-term follow-up group, the levels of iPTH, corrected calcium, serum phosphorus and calcium × phosphorus products were significantly higher in nodular hyperplasia than in non-nodular hyperplasia. Conclusion. Our study suggests that cinacalcet lacks long-term efficacy in nodular hyperplasia, especially for controlling serum calcium and phosphorus levels.

Clinical significance of parathyroid intervention on CKD-MBD management

Recently published ‘Guidelines for the management of secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic dialysis patients’ by the Japanese Society for Dialysis Therapy advocate that percutaneous ethanol injection into enlarged glands, which has been considered as the only alternative to parathyroidectomy (PTx), should be indicated in patients with a single enlarged parathyroid gland (estimated volume >500 mm³, or estimated major axis >10 mm), and that PTx should be recommended in patients with multiple enlarged glands. Cinacalcet cannot achieve optimal control of chronic kidney disease–mineral bone disorder in all patients, and parathyroid intervention will be required in a considerable number of patients with refractory secondary hyperparathyroidism.

Emerging drugs for secondary hyperparathyroidism

INTRODUCTION

Secondary hyperparathyroidism (SHPT), a common, serious, and progressive complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD), is characterized by elevated serum parathyroid hormone (PTH), parathyroid gland hyperplasia, and mineral metabolism abnormalities. These disturbances may result in CKD-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD), which is associated with poor quality of life and short life expectancy.

AREAS COVERED

The goal of SHPT treatment is to maintain PTH, calcium, and phosphorus within accepted targeted ranges. This review highlights the pathogenesis of SHPT and current SHPT therapeutic approaches, including the use of low-phosphate diets, phosphate binders, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) and its analogs, calcimimetics, and parathyroidectomy in addition to discussing emerging drugs in development for SHPT.

EXPERT OPINION

Numerous studies indicate that mineral abnormalities occur early in the course of CKD, are prevalent by the time patients enter dialysis, and foreshadow a risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. Several newly developed compounds may potentially overcome the limitations of current SHPT therapies. If emerging therapies can reduce PTH, normalize mineral metabolism, promote treatment adherence, and reduce the risk of side effects, they may provide the requisite features for improving long-term outcomes in patients with SHPT receiving dialysis and reduce the risks of CKD-MBD.

Clinical outcomes after parathyroidectomy in a nationwide cohort of patients on hemodialysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Patients receiving dialysis undergo parathyroidectomy to improve laboratory parameters in resistant hyperparathyroidism with the assumption that clinical outcomes will also improve. However, no randomized clinical trial data demonstrate the benefits of parathyroidectomy. This study aimed to evaluate clinical outcomes up to 1 year after parathyroidectomy in a nationwide sample of patients receiving hemodialysis.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

Using data from the US Renal Data System, this study identified prevalent hemodialysis patients aged ≥18 years with Medicare as primary payers who underwent parathyroidectomy from 2007 to 2009. Baseline characteristics and comorbid conditions were assessed in the year preceding parathyroidectomy; clinical events were identified in the year preceding and the year after parathyroidectomy. After parathyroidectomy, patients were censored at death, loss of Medicare coverage, kidney transplant, change in dialysis modality, or 365 days. This study estimated cause-specific event rates for both periods and rate ratios comparing event rates in the postparathyroidectomy versus preparathyroidectomy periods.

RESULTS

Of 4435 patients who underwent parathyroidectomy, 2.0% died during the parathyroidectomy hospitalization and the 30 days after discharge. During the 30 days after discharge, 23.8% of patients were rehospitalized; 29.3% of these patients required intensive care. In the year after parathyroidectomy, hospitalizations were higher by 39%, hospital days by 58%, intensive care unit admissions by 69%, and emergency room/observation visits requiring hypocalcemia treatment by 20-fold compared with the preceding year. Cause-specific hospitalizations were higher for acute myocardial infarction (rate ratio, 1.98; 95% confidence interval, 1.60 to 2.46) and dysrhythmia (rate ratio 1.4; 95% confidence interval1.16 to 1.78); fracture rates did not differ (rate ratio 0.82; 95% confidence interval 0.6 to 1.1).

CONCLUSIONS

Parathyroidectomy is associated with significant morbidity in the 30 days after hospital discharge and in the year after the procedure. Awareness of clinical events will assist in developing evidence-based risk/benefit determinations for the indication for parathyroidectomy.

Reforming medicare's dialysis payment policies: implications for patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate how expanding services covered by a "bundled payment" can also expand variation in the costs of treating patients under the bundle, using the Medicare dialysis program as an example.

DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING

Observational claims-based study of 197,332 Medicare hemodialysis beneficiaries enrolled for at least one quarter during 2006-2008.

STUDY DESIGN

We estimated how resource utilization (all health services, dialysis-related services, and medications) changes with intensity of secondary hyperparathyroidism (sHPT) treatment.

DATA EXTRACTION METHODS

Using Medicare claims, a patient-quarter level dataset was constructed, including a measure of sHPT treatment intensity.

PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Under the existing, narrow dialysis bundle, utilization of covered services is relatively constant across treatment intensity groups; under a broader bundle, it rises more rapidly with treatment intensity.

CONCLUSIONS

The broader Medicare dialysis bundle reimburses providers uniformly, even though patients treated more intensively for sHPT cost more to treat. Absent any payment adjustments or efforts to ensure quality, this flat payment schedule may encourage providers to avoid high-intensity patients or reduce their treatment intensity. The first incentive harms efficiency. The second may improve or worsen efficiency, depending on whether it reduces appropriate or inappropriate treatment.