The Efficacy of Lactobacillus-Containing Probiotic Supplementation in Hemodialysis Patients: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Workplace food purchases, dietary intake, and gut microbial metabolites in a secondary analysis of the ChooseWell 365 study

BACKGROUND

Dietary choices can affect human health through alterations in gut microbial metabolism, and gut microbial metabolites could serve as biomarkers for disease risk conferred by dietary intake. However, self-reported dietary intake may not reflect true intake.

OBJECTIVES

We identified circulating metabolites, including gut microbiome-related metabolites, associated with adherence to a healthy diet in the ChooseWell 365 study. In this randomized clinical trial, the dietary choices of hospital employees were assessed over 24 mo using not only 24-h dietary recalls but also electronic records of hospital cafeteria purchases.

METHODS

Plasma metabolites were profiled from 470 participants. Two targeted metabolomics methods were developed and implemented to expand detection coverage for metabolites related to gut microbial activity. Linear regression models were used to associate metabolites with Healthy Purchasing Scores (HPSs) derived from cafeteria purchases and Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-15) scores derived from dietary recalls.

RESULTS

Fourteen metabolites were concordantly associated with the HPS and HEI-15 scores in multivariable models adjusted for age, gender, and race, including the gut microbiome-related metabolites indole-3-propionic acid (HPS, β: 0.16, 95% CI: 0.07, 0.26, P = 7.32 × 10-4; HEI-15, β: 0.16, 95% CI: 0.07, 0.25, P = 6.79 × 10-4), hippuric acid (HPS, β: 0.11, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.21, P = 1.97 × 10-2; HEI-15, β: 0.10, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.19, P = 3.14 × 10-2), and indoxyl sulfate (HPS, β = -0.13, 95% CI: -0.23, -0.03, P = 8.21 × 10-3; HEI-15, β: -0.12, 95% CI: -0.22, -0.03, P = 8.50 × 10-3). These gut microbial metabolites were associated with the intake of specific food groups, such as whole fruits. These metabolites were also associated with clinical variables, including blood pressure, diabetes or prediabetes, and body mass index.

CONCLUSIONS

In a secondary analysis of the ChooseWell 365 study, associations between circulating gut microbiome-related metabolites and a healthy diet were confirmed using both objective and subjective measures of consumption. Accurate identification of diet-associated metabolites may help guide dietary or microbiome-based interventions aimed at disease prevention.

Exploring the Preventive and Therapeutic Mechanisms of Probiotics in Chronic Kidney Disease through the Gut-Kidney Axis

Gut dysbiosis contributes to deterioration of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Probiotics are a potential approach to modulate gut microbiota and gut-derived metabolites to alleviate CKD progression. We aim to provide a comprehensive view of CKD-related gut dysbiosis and a critical perspective on probiotic function in CKD. First, this review addresses gut microbial alterations during CKD progression and the adverse effects associated with the changes in gut-derived metabolites. Second, we conduct a thorough examination of the latest clinical trials involving probiotic intervention to unravel critical pathways via the gut-kidney axis. Finally, we propose our viewpoints on limitations, further considerations, and future research prospects of probiotic adjuvant therapy in alleviating CKD progression. Enhancing our understanding of host-microbe interactions is crucial for gaining precise insights into the mechanisms through which probiotics exert their effects and identifying factors that influence the effectiveness of probiotics in developing strategies to optimize their use and enhance clinical outcomes.

The Anti-Inflammatory and Curative Exponent of Probiotics: A Comprehensive and Authentic Ingredient for the Sustained Functioning of Major Human Organs

Several billion microorganisms reside in the gastrointestinal lumen, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and yeast. Among them, probiotics were primarily used to cure digestive disorders such as intestinal infections and diarrhea; however, with a paradigm shift towards alleviating health through food, their importance is large. Moreover, recent studies have changed the perspective that probiotics prevent numerous ailments in the major organs. Probiotics primarily produce biologically active compounds targeting discommodious pathogens. This review demonstrates the implications of using probiotics from different genres to prevent and alleviate ailments in the primary human organs. The findings reveal that probiotics immediately activate anti-inflammatory mechanisms by producing anti-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-11, and IL-13, and hindering pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-α by involving regulatory T cells (Tregs) and T helper cells (Th cells). Several strains of Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus reuteri, Bifidobacterium longum, and Bifidobacterium breve have been listed among the probiotics that are excellent in alleviating various simple to complex ailments. Therefore, the importance of probiotics necessitates robust research to unveil the implications of probiotics, including the potency of strains, the optimal dosages, the combination of probiotics, their habitat in the host, the host response, and other pertinent factors.

Investigating the Efficacy of Kidney-Protective Lactobacillus Mixture-Containing Pet Treats in Feline Chronic Kidney Disease and Its Possible Mechanism

Microbiota-based strategies are a novel auxiliary therapeutic and preventative way of moderating chronic kidney disease (CKD). Lactobacillus mixture (Lm) was previously demonstrated to exert a renal-protective function in the CKD mice model. The efficacy of probiotics in pet foods is a relatively new area of study, and thus verifying the potential health benefits is necessary. This study evaluated the efficacy of Lm treats in feline CKD and elucidated the mechanisms underlying host-microbe interactions. CKD cats (2 and 3 stages) were administrated probiotic pet treats daily (10 g) for 8 weeks. The results demonstrated that during the eight weeks of Lm administration, creatinine was reduced or maintained in all cats with CKD. Similarly, gut-derived uremic toxin (GDUT), indoxyl sulfate (IS), were potential clinical significance in IS after Lm treatment (confidence intervals = 90%). The life quality of the cats also improved. Feline gut microbiome data, metabolic functional pathway, and renal function indicator analyses revealed the possible mechanisms involved in modulating CKD feline microbial composition. Further regulation of the microbial functions in amino acid metabolism after Lm administration contributed to downregulating deleterious GDUTs. The current study provides potential adjuvant therapeutic insights into probiotic pet foods or treats for pets with CKD.

Synbiotics, prebiotics and probiotics for people with chronic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major public health problem affecting 13% of the global population. Prior research has indicated that CKD is associated with gut dysbiosis. Gut dysbiosis may lead to the development and/or progression of CKD, which in turn may in turn lead to gut dysbiosis as a result of uraemic toxins, intestinal wall oedema, metabolic acidosis, prolonged intestinal transit times, polypharmacy (frequent antibiotic exposures) and dietary restrictions used to treat CKD. Interventions such as synbiotics, prebiotics, and probiotics may improve the balance of the gut flora by altering intestinal pH, improving gut microbiota balance and enhancing gut barrier function (i.e. reducing gut permeability).

OBJECTIVES

This review aimed to evaluate the benefits and harms of synbiotics, prebiotics, and probiotics for people with CKD.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Register of Studies up to 9 October 2023 through contact with the Information Specialist using search terms relevant to this review. Studies in the Register are identified through searches of CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and EMBASE, conference proceedings, the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) Search Portal and ClinicalTrials.gov.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) measuring and reporting the effects of synbiotics, prebiotics, or probiotics in any combination and any formulation given to people with CKD (CKD stages 1 to 5, including dialysis and kidney transplant). Two authors independently assessed the retrieved titles and abstracts and, where necessary, the full text to determine which satisfied the inclusion criteria.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data extraction was independently carried out by two authors using a standard data extraction form. Summary estimates of effect were obtained using a random-effects model, and results were expressed as risk ratios (RR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) for dichotomous outcomes, and mean difference (MD) or standardised mean difference (SMD) and 95% CI for continuous outcomes. The methodological quality of the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Data entry was carried out by one author and cross-checked by another. Confidence in the evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach.

MAIN RESULTS

Forty-five studies (2266 randomised participants) were included in this review. Study participants were adults (two studies in children) with CKD ranging from stages 1 to 5, with patients receiving and not receiving dialysis, of whom half also had diabetes and hypertension. No studies investigated the same synbiotic, prebiotic or probiotic of similar strains, doses, or frequencies. Most studies were judged to be low risk for selection bias, performance bias and reporting bias, unclear risk for detection bias and for control of confounding factors, and high risk for attrition and other biases. Compared to prebiotics, it is uncertain whether synbiotics improve estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) at four weeks (1 study, 34 participants: MD -3.80 mL/min/1.73 m², 95% CI -17.98 to 10.38), indoxyl sulfate at four weeks (1 study, 42 participants: MD 128.30 ng/mL, 95% CI -242.77 to 499.37), change in gastrointestinal (GI) upset (borborymgi) at four weeks (1 study, 34 participants: RR 15.26, 95% CI 0.99 to 236.23), or change in GI upset (Gastrointestinal Symptom Rating Scale) at 12 months (1 study, 56 participants: MD 0.00, 95% CI -0.27 to 0.27), because the certainty of the evidence was very low. Compared to certain strains of prebiotics, it is uncertain whether a different strain of prebiotics improves eGFR at 12 weeks (1 study, 50 participants: MD 0.00 mL/min, 95% CI -1.73 to 1.73), indoxyl sulfate at six weeks (2 studies, 64 participants: MD -0.20 μg/mL, 95% CI -1.01 to 0.61; I² = 0%) or change in any GI upset, intolerance or microbiota composition, because the certainty of the evidence was very low. Compared to certain strains of probiotics, it is uncertain whether a different strain of probiotic improves eGFR at eight weeks (1 study, 30 participants: MD -0.64 mL/min, 95% CI -9.51 to 8.23; very low certainty evidence). Compared to placebo or no treatment, it is uncertain whether synbiotics improve eGFR at six or 12 weeks (2 studies, 98 participants: MD 1.42 mL/min, 95% CI 0.65 to 2.2) or change in any GI upset or intolerance at 12 weeks because the certainty of the evidence was very low. Compared to placebo or no treatment, it is uncertain whether prebiotics improves indoxyl sulfate at eight weeks (2 studies, 75 participants: SMD -0.14 mg/L, 95% CI -0.60 to 0.31; very low certainty evidence) or microbiota composition because the certainty of the evidence is very low. Compared to placebo or no treatment, it is uncertain whether probiotics improve eGFR at eight, 12 or 15 weeks (3 studies, 128 participants: MD 2.73 mL/min, 95% CI -2.28 to 7.75; I² = 78%), proteinuria at 12 or 24 weeks (1 study, 60 participants: MD -15.60 mg/dL, 95% CI -34.30 to 3.10), indoxyl sulfate at 12 or 24 weeks (2 studies, 83 participants: MD -4.42 mg/dL, 95% CI -9.83 to 1.35; I² = 0%), or any change in GI upset or intolerance because the certainty of the evidence was very low. Probiotics may have little or no effect on albuminuria at 12 or 24 weeks compared to placebo or no treatment (4 studies, 193 participants: MD 0.02 g/dL, 95% CI -0.08 to 0.13; I² = 0%; low certainty evidence). For all comparisons, adverse events were poorly reported and were minimal (flatulence, nausea, diarrhoea, abdominal pain) and non-serious, and withdrawals were not related to the study treatment.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We found very few studies that adequately test biotic supplementation as alternative treatments for improving kidney function, GI symptoms, dialysis outcomes, allograft function, patient-reported outcomes, CVD, cancer, reducing uraemic toxins, and adverse effects. We are not certain whether synbiotics, prebiotics, or probiotics are more or less effective compared to one another, antibiotics, or standard care for improving patient outcomes in people with CKD. Adverse events were uncommon and mild.

Genetically engineered Lactobacillus paracasei rescues colonic angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and attenuates hypertension in female Ace2 knock out rats

Engineered gut microbiota represents a new frontier in medicine, in part serving as a vehicle for the delivery of therapeutic biologics to treat a range of host conditions. The gut microbiota plays a significant role in blood pressure regulation; thus, manipulation of gut microbiota is a promising avenue for hypertension treatment. In this study, we tested the potential of Lactobacillus paracasei, genetically engineered to produce and deliver human angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (Lacto-hACE2), to regulate blood pressure in a rat model of hypertension with genetic ablation of endogenous Ace2 (Ace2-/- and Ace2-/y). Our findings reveal a sex-specific reduction in blood pressure in female (Ace2-/-) but not male (Ace2-/y) rats following colonization with the Lacto-hACE2. This beneficial effect of lowering blood pressure was aligned with a specific reduction in colonic angiotensin II, but not renal angiotensin II, suggesting the importance of colonic Ace2 in the regulation of blood pressure. We conclude that this approach of targeting the colon with engineered bacteria for delivery of ACE2 represents a promising new paradigm in the development of antihypertensive therapeutics.

Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics for Patients on Dialysis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

OBJECTIVE

The current systematic review and meta-analysis investigated the effects of probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotic administration on inflammation, metabolic parameters, nutritional status, and uremic toxin in dialysis patients.

METHODS

Up to June 2021, publications were searched in Cochrane Library, PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science databases. The protocol was submitted to the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews and was approved.

RESULTS

This meta-analysis included 18 randomized controlled trials which were eligible. This meta-analysis discovered that probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotic supplements could reduce C-reactive protein (standardized mean difference (SMD), -0.38; 95% confidence interval (CI), -0.68 to -0.08; P = .01), interleukin 6 (SMD, -0.48; 95% CI, -0.76 to -0.20; P = .00), and indoxyl sulfate (SMD, -0.24; 95% CI, -0.48 to -0.01; P = .045) and increase high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (SMD, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.03 to 0.46; P = .025) compared with the control group but had no significant influence on tumor necrosis factor α, albumin, hemoglobin, triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, calcium, phosphorus, uric acid, or p-cresyl sulfate in dialysis patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotic administration could reduce C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, and indoxyl sulfate and increase high-density lipoprotein cholesterol in dialysis patients. To better examine the impact, large-scale, long-term, controlled diets and well-designed randomized controlled trials are needed.

The Medium Cut-Off Membrane Does Not Lower Protein-Bound Uremic Toxins

The accumulation of protein-bound uremic toxins (PBUT) is associated with increased cardiovascular outcomes in patients on dialysis. However, the efficacy of PBUT removal for a medium-cutoff (MCO) membrane has not been clarified. This study was designed to assess the efficacy of PBUT clearance according to dialysis modalities. In this prospective and cross-over study, we enrolled 22 patients who received maintenance hemodiafiltration (HDF) thrice weekly from three dialysis centers. The dialysis removal of uremic toxins, including urea, beta 2-microglobulin (B2MG), lambda free light chain (λ-FLC), indoxyl sulfate (IS), and p-cresyl sulfate (pCS), was measured in the 22 patients on high-flux HD (HF-HD), post-dilution online HDF (post-OL-HDF), and MCO-HD over 3 weeks. The average convection volume in post-OL-HDF was 21.4 ± 1.8 L per session. The reduction rate (RR) of B2MG was higher in post-OL-HDF than in MCO-HD and HF-HD. The RR of λ-FLC was the highest in MCO-HD, followed by post-OL-HDF and HF-HD. The dialysate albumin was highest in MCO-HD, followed by post-OL-HDF and HF-HD. Post-dialysis plasma levels of IS and pCS were not statistically different across dialysis modalities. The total solute removal and dialytic clearance of IS and pCS were not significantly different. The clearance of IS and pCS did not differ between the HF-HD, post-OL-HDF, and MCO-HD groups.

Tissue Factor, Thrombosis, and Chronic Kidney Disease

Coagulation abnormalities are common in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Tissue factor (TF, factor III) is a master regulator of the extrinsic coagulation system, activating downstream coagulation proteases, such as factor Xa and thrombin, and promoting fibrin formation. TF and coagulation proteases also activate protease-activated receptors (PARs) and are implicated in various organ injuries. Recent studies have shown the mechanisms by which thrombotic tendency is increased under CKD-specific conditions. Uremic toxins, such as indoxyl sulfate and kynurenine, are accumulated in CKD and activate TF and coagulation; in addition, the TF-coagulation protease-PAR pathway enhances inflammation and fibrosis, thereby exacerbating renal injury. Herein, we review the recent research studies to understand the role of TF in increasing the thrombotic risk and CKD progression.

Effects of Microbiota-Driven Therapy on Circulating Indoxyl Sulfate and P-Cresyl Sulfate in Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Indoxyl sulfate (IS) and p-cresyl sulfate (PCS), protein-bound uremic toxins, exacerbate the deterioration of renal function and increase the risk of cardiovascular events in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. The effects of microbiota-driven therapy (probiotics, prebiotics, or synbiotics) on decreasing circulating IS and PCS concentrations are controversial; thus, we performed the present systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the effects of microbiota-driven therapy on circulating IS and PCS concentrations in CKD patients. PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases were systematically searched from inception to 22 July, 2021, and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of microbiota-driven therapy on circulating IS and PCS concentrations in CKD patients were included. In all, 14 RCTs with 513 participants were eligible for the meta-analysis. The effects of microbiota-driven therapy on the circulating IS and PCS concentrations were evaluated with weighted mean differences (WMDs) measured by a fixed-effects model or a random-effects model. Compared with placebo, microbiota-driven therapy had no statistically significant effect on the circulating IS concentration (WMD: -1.64 mg/L; 95% CI: -3.46, 0.18 mg/L; P = 0.077) but it decreased the circulating PCS concentration (WMD: -2.42 mg/L; 95% CI: -3.81, -1.04 mg/L; P = 0.001). In the subgroup analyses, prebiotic (n = 6) and synbiotic (n = 3) supplementation significantly decreased the circulating PCS concentration, whereas probiotic (n = 3) supplementation did not. Meta-regression showed that the effects of microbiota-driven therapy were not associated with the supplementation time or the year of publication. Moreover, there was no significant evidence of publication bias. This review found that microbiota-driven therapy decreased the circulating PCS concentration in CKD patients. Additional large, well-designed RCTs with improved methodology and reporting are necessary to assess the effects of microbiota-driven therapy on circulating IS and PCS concentrations in the long term. This systematic review was registered at www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/ as CRD42021269146.

Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics Improve Uremic, Inflammatory, and Gastrointestinal Symptoms in End-Stage Renal Disease With Dialysis: A Network Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Background

Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics are three different supplements to treat end stage renal disease (ESRD) patients by targeting gut bacteria. The comprehensive comparison of the effectiveness of different supplements are lacking.

Objectives

The purpose of this network meta-analysis (NMA) is to assess and rank the efficacy of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics on inflammatory factors, uremic toxins, and gastrointestinal symptoms (GI symptoms) in ESRD patients undergoing dialysis.

Methods

Randomized clinical trials were searched from the PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Register of Controlled Trials databases, from their inception until 4 September 2021. Random-effect model were used to obtain all estimated outcomes in network meta-analysis (NMA). Effect estimates were presented as mean differences (Mean ± SD) with 95% confidence interval (CI). The comprehensive effects of all treatments were ranked by the surface under the cumulative ranking (SUCRA) probabilities.

Results

Twenty-five studies involved 1,106 participants were included. Prebiotics were superior in decreasing Interleukin-6 (IL-6; SMD –0.74, 95% CI [–1.32, –0.16]) and tumor-necrosis factor-α (TNF-α; SMD –0.59, 95% CI [–1.09, –0.08]), synbiotics were more effective in declining C-reactive protein (CRP; SMD –0.69, 95% CI [–1.14, –0.24]) and endotoxin (SMD –0.83, 95% CI [–1.38, –0.27]). Regarding uremic toxins, prebiotics ranked highest in reducing indoxyl sulfate (IS; SMD –0.43, 95% CI [–0.81, –0.05]), blood urea nitrogen (BUN; SMD –0.42, 95% CI [–0.78, –0.06]), and malondialdehyde (MDA; SMD –1.88, 95% CI [–3.02, –0.75]). Probiotics were rated as best in alleviating GI symptoms (SMD: –0.52, 95% CI [–0.93, –0.1]).

Conclusion

Our research indicated prebiotics were more effective in declining IL-6, TNF-α, IS, MDA, and BUN, synbiotics lowering CRP and endotoxin significantly, and probiotics were beneficial for alleviating GI symptoms, which may contribute to better clinical decisions. This study was registered in PROSPERO (Number: CRD42021277056).

Systematic Review Registration

[http://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO], identifier [CRD42021277056].

The Microbiome and Uremic Solutes

Uremic retention solutes, especially the protein-bound compounds, are toxic metabolites, difficult to eliminate with progressive renal functional decline. They are of particular interest because these uremic solutes are responsible for the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and chronic kidney diseases. Evidence suggests that the relation between uremic toxins, the microbiome, and its host is altered in patients with chronic kidney disease, with the colon’s motility, epithelial integrity, and absorptive properties also playing an important role. Studies found an alteration of the microbiota composition with differences in species proportion, diversity, and function. Since uremic toxins precursors are generated by the microbiota, multiple therapeutic options are currently being explored to address dysbiosis. While an oral adsorbent can decrease the transport of bacterial metabolites from the intestinal lumen to the blood, dietary measures, supplements (prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics), and antibiotics aim to target directly the gut microbiota composition. Innovative approaches, such as the modulation of bacterial enzymes, open new perspectives to decrease the plasma level of uremic toxins.

Effects of Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics on Uremic Toxins, Inflammation, and Oxidative Stress in Hemodialysis Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

The dysbiosis of gut microbiota may cause many complications in patients with end-stage renal disease, which may be alleviated by probiotic, prebiotic, and synbiotic supplementation. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess the effects of these supplementations on circulatory uremic toxins, biomarkers of inflammation, and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients. We searched the EMBASE, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases until 8 August 2021. Randomized controlled trials evaluating adult patients receiving hemodialysis were included. The pooled results from 23 studies with 931 hemodialysis patients indicated that interventions significantly decreased the circulating levels of p-cresyl sulfate (standardized mean difference (SMD): 0.38; 95% CI: -0.61, -0.15; p = 0.001), endotoxins (SMD: -0.58; 95% CI: -0.99, -0.18; p = 0.005), malondialdehyde (SMD: -1.16; 95% CI: -1.81, -0.52; p = 0.0004), C-reactive proteins (CRP) (SMD: -0.61; 95% CI: -0.99, -0.23; p = 0.002), and interleukin 6 (SMD: -0.92; 95% CI: -1.51, -0.33; p = 0.002), and improved the total antioxidant capacity (SMD: 0.89; 95% CI: 0.49, 1.30; p < 0.0001) and glutathione (SMD: 0.40; 95% CI: 0.14, 0.66; p = 0.003) when compared to the placebo group. Our results suggest that treatment with probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics may help alleviate uremic toxin levels, oxidative stress, and the inflammatory status in hemodialysis patients.

Chronic Kidney Disease-Associated Itch (CKD-aI) in Children-A Narrative Review

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a condition of widespread epidemiology and serious consequences affecting all organs of the organism and associated with significant mortality. The knowledge on CKD is rapidly evolving, especially concerning adults. Recently, more data is also appearing regarding CKD in children. Chronic itch (CI) is a common symptom appearing due to various underlying dermatological and systemic conditions. CI may also appear in association with CKD and is termed chronic kidney disease-associated itch (CKD-aI). CKD-aI is relatively well-described in the literature concerning adults, yet it also affects children. Unfortunately, the data on paediatric CKD-aI is particularly scarce. This narrative review aims to describe various aspects of CKD-aI with an emphasis on children, based on the available data in this population and the data extrapolated from adults. Its pathogenesis is described in details, focusing on the growing role of uraemic toxins (UTs), as well as immune dysfunction, altered opioid transmission, infectious agents, xerosis, neuropathy and dialysis-associated aspects. Moreover, epidemiological and clinical aspects are reviewed based on the few data on CKD-aI in children, whereas treatment recommendations are proposed as well, based on the literature on CKD-aI in adults and own experience in managing CI in children.