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Skeletal Metastases of Unknown Primary: Biological Landscape and Clinical Overview. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:cancers11091270. [PMID: 31470608 PMCID: PMC6770264 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11091270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal metastases of unknown primary (SMUP) represent a clinical challenge in dealing with patients diagnosed with bone metastases. Management of these patients has improved significantly in the past few years. however, it is fraught with a lack of evidence. While some patients have achieved impressive gains, a more systematic and tailored treatment is required. Nevertheless, in real-life practice, the outlook at the beginning of treatment for SMUP is decidedly somber. An incomplete translational relevance of pathological and clinical data on the mortality and morbidity rate has had unsatisfactory consequences for SMUP patients and their physicians. We examined several approaches to confront the available evidence; three key points emerged. The characterization of the SMUP biological profile is essential to driving clinical decisions by integrating genetic and molecular profiles into a multi-step diagnostic work-up. Nonetheless, a pragmatic investigation plan and therapy of SMUP cannot follow a single template; it must be adapted to different pathophysiological dynamics and coordinated with efforts of a systematic algorithm and high-quality data derived from statistically powered clinical trials. The discussion in this review points out that greater efforts are required to face the unmet needs present in SMUP patients in oncology.
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Binder C, Matthes KL, Korol D, Rohrmann S, Moch H. Cancer of unknown primary-Epidemiological trends and relevance of comprehensive genomic profiling. Cancer Med 2018; 7:4814-4824. [PMID: 30019510 PMCID: PMC6144156 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.1689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) is a distinct clinicopathological entity with poor prognosis, frequently resistant to chemotherapy. Comprehensive genomic profiling (CGP) by next‐generation sequencing potentially identifies novel treatment options for CUP patients. The objective of this study was to determine incidence and survival trends and to discuss the value of CGP in CUP patients. Methods Age‐standardized incidence rates (ASR) per 100 000 were calculated for 2935 CUP patients from 1981 to 2014 using cancer registry data of the canton of Zurich, Switzerland. Kaplan–Meier survival curves were estimated for sex, age, and histological groups. Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (HR). A literature review was conducted to assess the current use of CGP in CUP patients. Results ASR of CUP increased from 10.3 to 17.6 between 1981 and 1997 and decreased to 5.8/100 000 in 2014. Mean overall survival remained stable. Mortality was significantly lower for patients with squamous cell carcinoma (HR 0.48 [95% CI, 0.41‐0.57]) and neuroendocrine carcinoma (0.75 [0.63‐0.88]) and higher for unclassified neoplasms (1.25 [1.13‐1.66]) compared to adenocarcinomas. The literature review identified 10 studies using CGP of CUP tissue. Clinically relevant mutations were identified in up to 85% of CUP patients, of which 13%‐64% may benefit from currently available drugs. Conclusions CUP incidence decreased probably due to improved diagnostics, but mortality did not improve over the last 34 years. CGP testing may help to identify molecular signatures in CUP patients and enable targeted treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Binder
- Division of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Department of Pathology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katarina Luise Matthes
- Division of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Cancer Registry Zurich and Zug, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Dimitri Korol
- Cancer Registry Zurich and Zug, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sabine Rohrmann
- Division of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Cancer Registry Zurich and Zug, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Holger Moch
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Pathology, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Grajales-Álvarez R, Martin-Aguilar A, Silva JA, De La Garza-Salazar JG, Ruiz-García E, López-Camarillo C, Marchat LA, La Vega HAD. ECOG is as independent predictor of the response to chemotherapy, overall survival and progression-free survival in carcinoma of unknown primary site. Mol Clin Oncol 2017; 6:643-650. [PMID: 28515916 PMCID: PMC5431331 DOI: 10.3892/mco.2017.1209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine whether age, gender, functional status, histology, tumor location, number of metastases, and levels of the tumor markers, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and albumin, are poor prognostic factors for the response to chemotherapy in patients with carcinoma of unknown primary site. A total of 149 patients diagnosed with carcinoma of unknown primary site that was histologically confirmed, and treated with chemotherapy in the Oncology Hospital, National Medical Center, ‘Century XXI’ IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico during the period between January 2002 to December 2009, were carefully selected for the present study. The analysis of 149 patients diagnosed with carcinoma of unknown primary site revealed that the liver was the organ with the highest frequency of metastases (33.5%). The objective response rates to chemotherapy were ~30.2%. Notably, ECOG was an important predictor of response to chemotherapy (P=0.008). The median progression-free survival was 7.1 months. Upon multivariate analysis, the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) Scale of Performance Status was observed as an independent predictor of progression (P<0.0001). The median overall survival was 14.2 months. The ECOG was also an independent predictor of mortality (P<0.0001). In conclusion, the data from the present study have demonstrated that ECOG is an independent predictor of a poor response to chemotherapy, lower overall survival and progression-free survival in carcinoma of unknown primary site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocío Grajales-Álvarez
- Oncology Hospital, National Medical Center, 'Century XXI', IMSS, México City 06720, México
| | - Ana Martin-Aguilar
- Oncology Hospital, National Medical Center, 'Century XXI', IMSS, México City 06720, México
| | - Juan A Silva
- Oncology Hospital, National Medical Center, 'Century XXI', IMSS, México City 06720, México
| | | | - Erika Ruiz-García
- Translational Medicine Laboratory, National Institute of Cancerology, México City 14080, México
| | - César López-Camarillo
- Oncogenomics Laboratory, Autonomous University of México City, México City 03100, México
| | - Laurence A Marchat
- Molecular Biomedicine Program and Biotechnology Program, National School of Medicine and Homeopathy, Instituto Politecnico Nacional, México City 07320, México
| | - Horacio Astudillo-De La Vega
- Translational Research Laboratory, Oncology Hospital, National Medical Center, 'Century XXI', IMSS, México City 06720, México
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Wei EY, Chen YB, Hsieh JJ. Genomic characterisation of two cancers of unknown primary cases supports a kidney cancer origin. BMJ Case Rep 2015; 2015:bcr-2015-212685. [PMID: 26494726 DOI: 10.1136/bcr-2015-212685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) comprises of 3-5% of new cancer diagnoses in the USA. Diagnostic work up typically includes CT of the chest, abdomen and pelvis, and histopathological review of tissue specimens. These measures are neither sensitive nor specific in determining tissue of origin (ToO) of primary tumours and, therefore, are unable to guide therapy. We present two cases of CUP for which we utilised ultra-deep genomic sequencing to identify the candidate ToO and to propose treatment. Patient 1 presented with metastases involving the lung, lymph nodes and bone. Patient 2 presented with an acute pathological fracture of the T7 vertebral body and metastases involving the bone, lymph nodes and soft tissue. No primary renal mass was found. Sequencing revealed SETD2 and NF2 mutations, and heterozygous loss of the short arm of chromosome 3 (3p). Mutations in conjunction with clinicopathological features strongly support a diagnosis of renal cell carcinoma. Both patients initially responded to mTORC1 inhibition therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Y Wei
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ying-Bei Chen
- Department of Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - James J Hsieh
- Human Oncology and Pathogenesis Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York, USA
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Takei H, Barrios R, Monzon FA. Cytogenomics and gene expression in a case of metachronous bilateral renal cell carcinomas with drop metastasis: Resolving a diagnostic dilemma with molecular technologies. Pathol Int 2013; 63:326-32. [DOI: 10.1111/pin.12068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2012] [Accepted: 04/26/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hidehiro Takei
- Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine; The Methodist Hospital
| | - Roberto Barrios
- Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine; The Methodist Hospital
| | - Federico A. Monzon
- Department of Pathology and Immunology; Baylor College of Medicine; Houston; Texas; USA
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Cancer of unknown primary sites: what radiologists need to know and what oncologists want to know. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2013; 200:484-92. [PMID: 23436835 DOI: 10.2214/ajr.12.9363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In this article, we review the role of imaging in cancer of unknown primary site (CUP) diagnosis and management and the utility of immunohistochemistry, serum tumor markers, and molecular profiling in the optimized care of CUP patients. CONCLUSION With advances in imaging, pathology, and molecular medicine, the diagnosis and management of CUP have evolved into more personalized and site-specific therapies. A multidisciplinary integrated approach among oncologists, pathologists, and radiologists is extremely important.
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Abstract
Cancer of unknown primary site (CUP) is a well recognised clinical disorder, accounting for 3-5% of all malignant epithelial tumours. CUP is clinically characterised as an aggressive disease with early dissemination. Diagnostic approaches to identify the primary site include detailed histopathological examination with specific immunohistochemistry and radiological assessment. Gene-profiling microarray diagnosis has high sensitivity, but further prospective study is necessary to establish whether patients' outcomes are improved by its clinical use. Metastatic adenocarcinoma is the most common CUP histopathology (80%). CUP patients are divided into subsets of favourable (20%) and unfavourable (80%) prognosis. Favourable subsets are mostly given locoregional treatment or systemic platinum-based chemotherapy. Responses and survival are similar to those of patients with relevant known primary tumours. Patients in unfavourable subsets are treated with empirical chemotherapy based on combination regimens of platinum or taxane, but responses and survival are generally poor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Pavlidis
- Department of Medical Oncology, School of Medicine, University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece.
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Kelly P, Das P, Varadhachary GR, Fontanilla HP, Krishnan S, Delclos ME, Jhingran A, Eifel PJ, Crane CH. Role of definitive radiation therapy in carcinoma of unknown primary in the abdomen and pelvis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2012; 82:2012-7. [PMID: 21640510 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrobp.2011.03.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2011] [Revised: 03/09/2011] [Accepted: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Carcinoma of unknown primary (CUP) in the abdomen and pelvis is a heterogeneous group of cancers with no standard treatment. Considered by many to be incurable, these patients are often treated with chemotherapy alone. In this study, we determined the effectiveness of radiation therapy in combination with chemotherapy in patients with CUP in the abdomen and pelvis. PATIENTS AND METHODS Medical records were reviewed for 37 patients with CUP treated with radiation therapy for disease located in the soft tissues and/or nodal basins of the abdomen and pelvis at the University of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer between 2002 and 2009. All patients underwent chemotherapy, either before or concurrent with radiation therapy. Patients were selected for radiation therapy on the basis of histologic type, disease extent, and prior therapy response. Twenty patients underwent definitive radiation therapy (defined as radiation therapy targeting all known disease sites with at least 45 Gy) and 17 patients underwent palliative radiation therapy. Only 6 patients had surgical resection of their disease. Patient and treatment characteristics were extracted and the endpoints of local disease control, progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS), and treatment-related toxicity incidence were analyzed. RESULTS The 2-year PFS and OS rates for the entire cohort were 32% and 57%, respectively. However, in patients treated with definitive radiation therapy, the rates were 48% and 76%, and 7 patients lived more than 3 years after treatment with no evidence of disease progression. Nevertheless, radiation-associated toxicity was significant in this cohort, as 40% experienced Grade 2 or higher late toxicities. CONCLUSIONS The use of definitive radiation therapy should be considered in selected patients with CUP in the soft tissues or nodal basins of the abdomen and pelvis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Kelly
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
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Chen KW, Liu CJ, Lu HJ, Tzeng CH, Liu JH, Chiou TJ, Yen CC, Wang WS, Chao TC, Teng HW, Chen MH, Liu CY, Chang PMH, Yang MH. Evaluation of prognostic factors and the role of chemotherapy in unfavorable carcinoma of unknown primary site: a 10-year cohort study. BMC Res Notes 2012; 5:70. [PMID: 22280526 PMCID: PMC3331815 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-5-70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Carcinoma of unknown primary site (CUP) has a poor prognosis and the prognostic factors in these patients are not well established. Furthermore, there are no selection criteria for patients who should benefit from chemotherapy. METHODS The medical records of 179 CUP patients who were treated at Taipei Veterans General Hospital from 2000 to 2009 were reviewed. Factors associated with survival were determined by Kaplan-Meier analysis. Differences between the groups with and without palliative chemotherapy were analyzed. RESULTS Univariate analysis revealed multiple prognostic factors, including performance status, lung metastasis, number of metastatic organs, serum albumin, corrected serum calcium, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), sodium, and cholesterol levels, palliative chemotherapy, and white blood cell and lymphocyte counts. Multivariate analysis showed that performance status < 2, serum albumin level ≥ 3.5 g/dl, corrected serum calcium level < 10.7 mg/dl, single metastatic organ, and palliative chemotherapy were independent factors of better prognosis. Patients with better performance status, higher serum albumin, and lower serum LDH levels had significantly greater benefit from palliative chemotherapy. CONCLUSIONS Certain patients with unfavorable CUP will have better survival. Identification of patients with unfavorable CUP who could benefit from palliative chemotherapy warrants future prospective studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuo-Wei Chen
- Division of Hematology and Oncology, Department of Medicine, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
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Takei H, Monzon FA. Gene-expression assays and personalized cancer care: tissue-of-origin test for cancer of unknown primary origin. Per Med 2011; 8:429-436. [DOI: 10.2217/pme.11.37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) is one of the ten most frequently diagnosed cancers in developed countries and accounts for 3–5% of all new cancer cases. For all cancer management, chemotherapeutic regimens and targeted agents have increasingly become primary-site dependent over the last decade, and thus, accurate identification of the primary site is crucial for CUP patients. Histopathologic examination along with immunohistochemical studies and different imaging modalities are most often performed for this purpose, but still a significant number of patients remain with an unidentified primary. Recently, gene-expression profiling assays have emerged as alternative tests for tumor tissue of origin determination. It is expected that molecular determination of the origin in patients with CUP will aid in the determination of management strategies. It is thus possible that personalized treatment of CUP patients based on molecular classification could significantly improve patient outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hidehiro Takei
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, The Methodist Hospital, 6565 Fannin Street, MS205 Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Federico A Monzon
- Department of Pathology, Weill Cornell Medical College, NY 10065, USA
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Ferracin M, Pedriali M, Veronese A, Zagatti B, Gafà R, Magri E, Lunardi M, Munerato G, Querzoli G, Maestri I, Ulazzi L, Nenci I, Croce CM, Lanza G, Querzoli P, Negrini M. MicroRNA profiling for the identification of cancers with unknown primary tissue-of-origin. J Pathol 2011; 225:43-53. [PMID: 21630269 DOI: 10.1002/path.2915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2011] [Revised: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/04/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Cancer of unknown primary (CUP) represents a common and important clinical problem. There is evidence that most CUPs are metastases of carcinomas whose primary site cannot be recognized. Driven by the hypothesis that the knowledge of primary cancer could improve patient's prognosis, we investigated microRNA expression profiling as a tool for identifying the tissue of origin of metastases. We assessed microRNA expression from 101 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples from primary cancers and metastasis samples by using a microarray platform. Forty samples representing ten different cancer types were used for defining a cancer-type-specific microRNA signature, which was used for predicting primary sites of metastatic cancers. A 47-miRNA signature was identified and used to estimate tissue-of-origin probabilities for each sample. Overall, accuracy reached 100% for primary cancers and 78% for metastases in our cohort of samples. When the signature was applied to an independent published dataset of 170 samples, accuracy remained high: correct prediction was found within the first two options in 86% of the metastasis cases (first prediction was correct in 68% of cases). This signature was also applied to predict 16 CUPs. In this group, first predictions exhibited probabilities higher than 90% in most of the cases. These results establish that FFPE samples can be used to reveal the tissue of origin of metastatic cancers by using microRNA expression profiling and suggest that the approach, if applied, could provide strong indications for CUPs, whose correct diagnosis is presently undefined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Ferracin
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale e Diagnostica, Università di Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
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Cusack JC, Clark JW, Curley SA, Sahani DV, Zukerberg LR. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital: Case 3-2011: a 58-year-old woman with a mass in the liver. N Engl J Med 2011; 364:362-70. [PMID: 21268729 DOI: 10.1056/nejmcpc1000965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James C Cusack
- Division of Surgical Oncology,the Department of Surgery, Massachusetts GeneralHospital, Boston, USA
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Validation of a microRNA-based qRT-PCR test for accurate identification of tumor tissue origin. Mod Pathol 2010; 23:814-23. [PMID: 20348879 DOI: 10.1038/modpathol.2010.57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Identification of the tissue of origin of a tumor is vital to its management. Previous studies showed tissue-specific expression patterns of microRNA and suggested that microRNA profiling would be useful in addressing this diagnostic challenge. MicroRNAs are well preserved in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples, further supporting this approach. To develop a standardized assay for identification of the tissue origin of FFPE tumor samples, we used microarray data from 504 tumor samples to select a shortlist of 104 microRNA biomarker candidates. These 104 microRNAs were profiled by proprietary quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) on 356 FFPE tumor samples. A total of 48 microRNAs were chosen from this list of candidates and used to train a classifier. We developed a clinical test for the identification of the tumor tissue of origin based on a standardized protocol and defined the classification criteria. The test measures expression levels of 48 microRNAs by qRT-PCR, and predicts the tissue of origin among 25 possible classes, corresponding to 17 distinct tissues and organs. The biologically motivated classifier combines the predictions generated by a binary decision tree and K-nearest neighbors (KNN). The classifier was validated on an independent, blinded set of 204 FFPE tumor samples, including nearly 100 metastatic tumor samples. The test predictions correctly identified the reference diagnosis in 85% of the cases. In 66% of the cases the two algorithm predictions (tree and KNN) agreed on a single-tissue origin, which was identical to the reference diagnosis in 90% of cases. Thus, a qRT-PCR test based on the expression profile of 48 tissue-specific microRNAs allows accurate identification of the tumor tissue of origin.
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Morris GJ, Greco FA, Hainsworth JD, Engstrom PF, Scialla S, Jordan WE, Thomas LC. Cancer of Unknown Primary Site. Semin Oncol 2010; 37:71-9. [DOI: 10.1053/j.seminoncol.2010.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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