Effects of phycocyanin extract on tumor necrosis factor-alpha and nitrite levels in serum of mice treated with endotoxin

A Review of the Health-Promoting Properties of Spirulina with a Focus on athletes' Performance and Recovery

Spirulina species are photosynthetic and filamentous bacteria, commonly called 'blue-green microalgae'. Spirulina has a high nutrient content. It contains 60-70% protein with all essential amino acids present, and is rich in several vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Spirulina is also rich in essential fatty acids, and antioxidants. This rich nutritional content provides to Spirulina several health benefits including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation, and insulin-sensitizing properties as well as positive effects in various diseases which could be also interesting for athletes. This paper mainly aims to review the interest and effects of Spirulina supplementation in athletes at rest, and in relation to exercise/training. Spirulina's biochemical composition, health properties/effects in humans, and effects in athletes including nutritional status, body composition, physical performance and intense exercise-related disorders were discussed in this review. Literature data showed that Spirulina seems to have positive effects on body composition especially in overweight and obese subjects which could not be the case in other pathologies and athletes. Spirulina appears to be also effective in improving aerobic fitness especially in untrained and moderately trained subjects. Results reported in the literature suggest that Spirulina may improve strength and power performance despite the minor or no significant effects in highly trained subjects. Most studies have shown that Spirulina improves antioxidant status, prevents and accelerates the recovery of exercise-induced lipid peroxidation, muscle damage and inflammation in trained and untrained subjects. Taken together, the results from these studies are encouraging and may demonstrate the potential benefits of Spirulina supplementation in athletes despite methodological differences.

The Potential of Spirulina platensis to Ameliorate the Adverse Effects of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART)

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one of the most prevalent diseases globally. It is estimated that 37.7 million people are infected with HIV globally, and 8.2 million persons are infected with the virus in South Africa. The highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) involves combining various types of antiretroviral drugs that are dependent on the infected person’s viral load. HAART helps regulate the viral load and prevents its associated symptoms from progressing into acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Despite its success in prolonging HIV-infected patients’ lifespans, the use of HAART promotes metabolic syndrome (MetS) through an inflammatory pathway, excess production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and mitochondrial dysfunction. Interestingly, Spirulina platensis (SP), a blue-green microalgae commonly used as a traditional food by Mexican and African people, has been demonstrated to mitigate MetS by regulating oxidative and inflammatory pathways. SP is also a potent antioxidant that has been shown to exhibit immunological, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-aging, antidiabetic, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. This review is aimed at highlighting the biochemical mechanism of SP with a focus on studies linking SP to the inhibition of HIV, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Further, we propose SP as a potential supplement for HIV-infected persons on lifelong HAART.

Antioxidant Efficacy of a Spirulina Liquid Extract on Oxidative Stress Status and Metabolic Disturbances in Subjects with Metabolic Syndrome

Lipid peroxidation is associated with the development of some pathologies, such as cardiovascular diseases. Reduction in oxidative stress by antioxidants, such as Arthrospira (formely Spirulina), helps improving this redox imbalance. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of the Arthrospira liquid extract “Spirulysat^®” on oxidative markers—in particular, oxidized LDL (oxLDL)/total LDL cholesterol—and isoprostanes and to investigate its impact on lipid and glucose metabolism in the metabolic syndrome subject. A controlled, randomised, double-blind design was conducted in 40 subjects aged 18 to 65 years with metabolic syndrome after a daily intake of Spirulysat^® or placebo for twelve weeks. Blood and urinary samples were collected at three visits (V1, V2, V3) in the two groups for parameters determination. Although the Spirulysat^® group showed a decrease at all visits of the oxLDL/total cholesterol ratio, there was no significant difference compared to the placebo (p = 0.36). The urinary isoprostanes concentration in the Spirulysat^® group was reduced (p = 0.014) at V3. Plasma triglycerides decreased at V3 (p = 0.003) and HDL-cholesterol increased (p = 0.031) at all visits with Spirulysat^®. In conclusion, Spirulysat^® did not change the oxidized LDL (oxLDL)/LDL ratio but decreased the urinary isoprostanes, plasma triglycerides and increased HDL cholesterol, suggesting a beneficial effect on metabolic syndrome.

Wide Range Applications of Spirulina: From Earth to Space Missions

Spirulina is the most studied cyanobacterium species for both pharmacological applications and the food industry. The aim of the present review is to summarize the potential benefits of the use of Spirulina for improving healthcare both in space and on Earth. Regarding the first field of application, Spirulina could represent a new technology for the sustainment of long-duration manned missions to planets beyond the Lower Earth Orbit (e.g., Mars); furthermore, it could help astronauts stay healthy while exposed to a variety of stress factors that can have negative consequences even after years. As far as the second field of application, Spirulina could have an active role in various aspects of medicine, such as metabolism, oncology, ophthalmology, central and peripheral nervous systems, and nephrology. The recent findings of the capacity of Spirulina to improve stem cells mobility and to increase immune response have opened new intriguing scenarios in oncological and infectious diseases, respectively.

C-phycocyanin attenuates RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption in vitro through inhibiting ROS levels, NFATc1 and NF-κB activation

Excessive bone loss occurs in inflammatory disorders such as periodontitis and osteoporosis. The underlying mechanism is related to the differentiation of macrophages into multinucleated giant osteoclasts and their bone resorptive activity. C-Phycocyanin (C-PC) is a phycobiliprotein extracted from the blue-green algae, which has been shown to have various pharmacological effects. The role of C-PC on bone metabolism needs revelation. In this study, we determined the effectiveness of C-PC as an inhibitor of osteoclast differentiation, activity, and survival in vitro. We found that C-PC strongly inhibited the differentiation of macrophages to TRAP-positive osteoclasts, distinctive osteoclast specific podosomal organization, and dentine matrix resorption without any cytotoxicity. Also, it suppressed the expression of osteoclast specific markers, such as cathepsin K and integrin β3 at mRNA and protein levels. RANKL mediated signaling utilizes reactive oxygen species (ROS) for the differentiation of osteoclasts. C-PC attenuated RANKL stimulated ROS. Mechanistic studies indicate that C-PC has the potential to reduce osteoclast formation via blocking the degradation of cytosolic IκB-α and hence, the activation of downstream markers such as c-Fos and NFATc1. However, it does not have any effect on osteoblast-mediated bone formation in vitro. Collectively, our data suggest that C-PC may be utilized as a therapeutic agent that can target bone loss mediated by excessive osteoclastic bone resorption without affecting osteoblastic activity in bone.

Nitric Oxide-Scavenging Nanogel for Treating Rheumatoid Arthritis

Nitric oxide (NO), a radical gas molecule produced by nitric oxide synthase, plays a key role in the human body. However, when endogenous NO is overproduced by physiological disorders, severe inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) can occur. Therefore, scavenging NO may be an alternative strategy for treating inflammatory disorders. In our previous study, we developed a NO-responsive macrosized hydrogel by incorporating a NO-cleavable cross-linker (NOCCL); here, we further evaluate the effectiveness of the NO-scavenging nanosized hydrogel (NO-Scv gel) for treating RA. NO-Scv gel is simply prepared by solution polymerization between acrylamide and NOCCL. When the NO-Scv gel is exposed to NO, NOCCL is readily cleaved by consuming the NO molecule, as demonstrated in a Griess assay. As expected, the NO-Scv gel reduces inflammation levels by scavenging NO in vitro and shows excellent biocompatibility. Furthermore, the more promising therapeutic effect of the NO-Scv gel in suppressing the onset of RA is observed in vivo in a mouse RA model when compared to the effects of dexamethasone, a commercial drug. Therefore, our findings suggest the potential of the NO-Scv gel for biomedical applications and further clinical translation.

Spirulina Liquid Extract Protects against Fibrosis Related to Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis and Increases Ursodeoxycholic Acid

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is characterized by an excess of lipids and oxidative stress in the liver. Spirulina was reported to possess hypolipemic and antioxidative effects and might counteract NASH development. C57Bl/6J mice were fed a western diet (WD) during 25 weeks with or without spirulina liquid extract (SLE) at 2 different doses (WDS1 and WDS2 groups) in drinking water. Liver histology, inflammation, and oxidative stress were assessed as well as glucose tolerance status, lipid metabolism, and gallbladder bile acid profile. WDS2 gained significantly less weight than WD. Liver weight-to-body weight ratio and plasma alanine aminotransferase were significantly lower in WDS2 mice. A reduced liver fibrosis and NFκBp65 protein expression were measured in the supplemented group as a lower accumulation of superoxide anion, nitric oxide, and thiobarbituric reactive substances. WDS2 mice showed also a preserved glucose tolerance, a strong decrease of plasma cholesterol, and a significant increase of gallbladder ursodeoxycholic acid and β-muricholic acid. Our findings demonstrate a protective effect of SLE against WD induced NASH that is related to less inflammation and oxidative stress, a preserved glucose tolerance, and less hepatotoxic bile acid profile.

Phycobiliproteins and phycocyanin of Arthrospira maxima (Spirulina) reduce apoptosis promoters and glomerular dysfunction in mercury-related acute kidney injury

Arthrospira maxima ( Spirulina) is considered a nutraceutical or functional food because it provides health benefits and it is used as nephroprotector because it contains nucleophilic compounds as phycobiliproteins and phycocyanin that prevent oxidative stress and cellular damage process. Also, it is known that inorganic mercury is bioaccumulated and exerted kidney toxicity. Despite the nephroprotective effect of Spirulina and its components, there is not enough information about the effect of them on renal function as well as the apoptosis process inhibition. This work aimed to investigate whether phycobiliproteins and phycocyanin of Spirulina can improve HgCl2-related glomerular and tubular renal dysfunction as well as the Bax, Bcl2, and effectors caspases alterations. Male mice were administrated with Spirulina, phycobiliproteins or phycocyanin 30 min before 5 mg/Kg HgCl2 administration. The nutraceuticals were administrated for the next 5 days. Then, the mice were euthanized. The renal function, caspases 3 and 9 activities, as well as Bax and Bcl2 expression were evaluated. Spirulina and its components prevent HgCl2-related apoptosis induction and glomerular dysfunction. We concluded that phycobiliproteins and phycocyanin of Spirulina reduce glomerular damage but not the tubular dysfunction in a mercury-related acute kidney injury.

Amelioration of Ethanol-Induced Gastric Ulcers in Rats Pretreated with Phycobiliproteins of Arthrospira (Spirulina) Maxima

Phycobiliproteins of Arthrospira (Spirulina) maxima have attracted attention because of their potential therapeutic antioxidant properties. The aim of this study was to assess the possible antiulcerogenic activity of these phycobiliproteins (ExPhy) against ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in rats. To explore the possible mechanisms of action, we examined antioxidant defense enzymes (e.g., catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase), as well as the level of lipid peroxidation (MDA) and the histopathological changes in the gastric mucosa. Intragastric administration of ExPhy (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg body weight) significantly lowered the ulcer index value compared to the ulcer control group (p < 0.05). The greatest protection was provided by the concentration of 400 mg/kg. The histological study supported the observed gastroprotective activity of ExPhy, showing a reduced inflammatory response. Moreover, the alcohol-induced decrease in stomach antioxidant enzyme activity found in the ulcer control group was prevented by ExPhy pretreatment. Furthermore, ExPhy reversed the ethanol-induced increase in lipid peroxidation. In summary, the antiulcerogenic potential of ExPhy may be due, at least in part, to its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects.

Spirulina Protects against Hepatic Inflammation in Aging: An Effect Related to the Modulation of the Gut Microbiota?

Aging predisposes to hepatic dysfunction and inflammation that can contribute to the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Spirulina, a cyanobacterium used as a food additive or food supplement, has been shown to impact immune function. We have tested the potential hepatoprotective effect of a Spirulina in aged mice and to determine whether these effects can be related to a modulation of the gut microbiota. Old mice have been fed a standard diet supplemented with or without 5% Spirulina for six weeks. Among several changes of gut microbiota composition, an increase in Roseburia and Lactobacillus proportions occurs upon Spirulina treatment. Interestingly, parameters related to the innate immunity are upregulated in the small intestine of Spirulina-treated mice. Furthermore, the supplementation with Spirulina reduces several hepatic inflammatory and oxidative stress markers that are upregulated in old mice versus young mice. We conclude that the oral administration of a Spirulina is able to modulate the gut microbiota and to activate the immune system in the gut, a mechanism that may be involved in the improvement of the hepatic inflammation in aged mice. Those data open the way to new therapeutic tools in the management of immune alterations in aging, based on gut microbe-host interactions.

TOL19-001 reduces inflammation and MMP expression in monolayer cultures of tendon cells

Background

Tendinopathies are tendon conditions associated with degeneration and disorganization of the matrix collagen fibers, tendon cells apoptosis and inflammation through up-regulation of proinflammatory cytokines, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression, and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) production. Currently, the pharmacological treatment is mainly based on non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) use and corticosteroid injections, which both can lead to numerous side effects for patients. TOL19-001 is a diet supplementary composed mostly of spirulina and glucosamine sulfate whose antioxidant properties could be helpful to treat tendinopathies while avoiding taking NSAIDs. In this study we developed an in vitro model of tendinopathy in order to evaluate the therapeutic potential of TOL19-001.

Methods

Tendon cells were cultured on monolayer and treated with interleukin-1β (IL-1β) or ciprofloxacin (CIP), and then, MMPs, PGE2 and collagen expression was evaluated by RT-PCR or Elisa. In addition, a cotreatment with increased doses of TOL19-001 was done. Toxicity of TOL19-001 was evaluated using a metabolic activity assay.

Results

This study demonstrates that IL-1β mimics some aspects of tendinopathies with PGE2 induction, MMP expression (mostly MMP1 and MMP3), and increases of type III/I collagen ratio. CIP, meanwhile, leads to an increase of MMP2 and p65 mRNA, whereas it reduces TIMP1 expression. Scleraxis expression was also increased by CIP whereas it was decreased by IL-1β treatment. Besides, TOL19-001 cotreatment suppresses tendon cell inflammation in vitro, marked by the downregulation of PGE2, MMPs and type III collagen in IL-1β stimulated-cells. TOL19-001 also represses CIP induced-changes.

Conclusions

These findings indicate that TOL19-001 exerts anti-inflammatory effects on tendon cells, which might explain why TOL19-001 diet may improve tendon function in patients with tendon injury. Future research is required to determine TOL19-001 effect on injured or overused tendons in vivo.

Anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects of spirulina on rat model of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis

The pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) remains unclear, but accumulating data suggest oxidative stress and the relationship between inflammation and immunity plays a crucial role. The aim of this study is to investigate the spirulina, which is a blue-green algae rich in proteins and other nutritional elements, and its component-phycocyanin effect on a rat model of NASH. NASH model rats were established by feeding male Wistar rats with choline-deficient high-fat diet (CDHF) and intermittent hypoxemia by sodium nitrite challenge after 5 weeks of CDHF. After experimental period of 10 weeks, blood and liver were collected to determine oxidative stress injuries and efficacies of spirulina or phycocyanin on NASH model rats. In the NASH model rats, increase in plasma liver enzymes and liver fibrosis, increases in productions of reactive oxygen species from liver mitochondria and from leukocytes, the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B, and the change in the lymphocyte surface antigen ratio (CD4(+)/CD8(+)) were observed. The spirulina and phycocyanin administration significantly abated these changes. The spirulina or phycocyanin administration to model rats of NASH might lessen the inflammatory response through anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, breaking the crosstalk between oxidative stress and inflammation, and effectively inhibit NASH progression.

Hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and antiinflammatory activities of microalgae Spirulina

Spirulina is free-floating filamentous microalgae growing in alkaline water bodies. With its high nutritional value, Spirulina has been consumed as food for centuries in Central Africa. It is now widely used as nutraceutical food supplement worldwide. Recently, great attention and extensive studies have been devoted to evaluate its therapeutic benefits on an array of diseased conditions including hypercholesterolemia, hyperglycerolemia, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, cancer, and viral infections. The cardiovascular benefits of Spirulina are primarily resulted from its hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and antiinflammatory activities. Data from preclinical studies with various animal models consistently demonstrate the hypolipidemic activity of Spirulina. Although differences in study design, sample size, and patient conditions resulting in minor inconsistency in response to Spirulina supplementation, the findings from human clinical trials are largely consistent with the hypolipidemic effects of Spirulina observed in the preclinical studies. However, most of the human clinical trials are suffered with limited sample size and some with poor experimental design. The antioxidant and/or antiinflammatory activities of Spirulina were demonstrated in a large number of preclinical studies. However, a limited number of clinical trials have been carried out so far to confirm such activities in human. Currently, our understanding on the underlying mechanisms for Spirulina's activities, especially the hypolipidemic effect, is limited. Spirulina is generally considered safe for human consumption supported by its long history of use as food source and its favorable safety profile in animal studies. However, rare cases of side-effects in human have been reported. Quality control in the growth and process of Spirulina to avoid contamination is mandatory to guarantee the safety of Spirulina products.