Determination of the Optimal Load Setting for Arm Crank Anaerobic Testing in Men and Women

The Effects of Load, Crank Position, and Sex on the Biomechanics and Performance during an Upper Body Wingate Anaerobic Test

INTRODUCTION

The upper body Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) is a 30-s maximal effort sprint against a set load (percentage of body mass). However, there is no consensus on the optimal load and no differential values for males and females, even when there are well-studied anatomical and physiological differences in muscle mass for the upper body. Our goal was to describe the effects of load, sex, and crank position on the kinetics, kinematics, and performance of the upper body WAnT.

METHODS

Eighteen participants (9 females) performed three WAnTs at 3%, 4%, and 5% of body mass. Arm crank forces, 2D kinematics, and performance variables were recorded during each WAnT.

RESULTS

Our results showed an increase of ~49% effective force, ~36% peak power, ~5° neck flexion, and ~30° shoulder flexion from 3% to 5% load ( P < 0.05). Mean power and anaerobic capacity decreased by 15%, with no changes in fatigue index ( P < 0.05). The positions of higher force efficiency were at 12 and 6 o'clock. The least force efficiency occurred at 3 o'clock ( P < 0.05). Sex differences showed that males produced 97% more effective force and 109% greater mean power than females, with 11.7% more force efficiency ( P < 0.001). Males had 16° more head/neck flexion than females, and females had greater elbow joint variability with 17° more wrist extension at higher loads. Males cycled ~32% faster at 3% versus 5% WAnT load with a 65% higher angular velocity than females. Grip strength, maximal voluntary isometric contraction, mass, and height positively correlated with peak and mean power ( P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, load, sex, and crank position have a significant impact on performance of the WAnT. These factors should be considered when developing and implementing an upper body WAnT.

Comparative analysis of cardiorespiratory fitness, bio-motor abilities, and body composition indicators among sprint kayakers of different age groups and expertise levels

This study compared cardiorespiratory fitness, bio-motor abilities, and body composition indexes of sprint kayakers categorized into three different age groups and two expertise levels of international- and club-level athletes. Seventy-three male juniors (n = 14, age = 16.2 ± 0.8), under 23 [U23 (n = 15, age = 20.2 ± 1.6)], professionals (n = 16, age = 27.1 ± 4.8), club-level (n = 15, age = 26.9 ± 6.6), and international-level (n = 13, age = 27.3 ± 3.2) sprint kayakers were studied. Cardiorespiratory fitness (assessed using incremental exercise test), 500 and 1,000-m paddling performance (assessed using kayak ergometer), upper-body power (assessed using 30 s all-out Wingate test) and strength (assessed through one repetition tests for bench press, cable row, and prone bench pull exercises), as well as body composition indexes (measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry) were evaluated on four occasions separated by 48 h recovery. U23 and, especially, professionals indicated significantly (p < 0.05) greater outcomes for the majority of the cardiorespiratory fitness parameters [maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), velocity corresponding to VO2max, Oxygen pulse, maximal ventilation, and second ventilatory threshold] and 500 and 1,000-m performance. U23 and professional sprint kayakers significantly (p < 0.05) differed in the first ventilatory threshold and 500, and 1,000-m performance but not in VO2max or the second ventilatory threshold. Professionals also showed a lower fat mass, higher muscle mass, and higher strength (bench press, prone bench pull, and seated cable row) and power than U23 and junior kayakers. Strength and power indicators had significantly greater values in U23 athletes compared to juniors. International-level athletes also showed superior VO2max, velocity corresponding to VO2max, middle (500-m), and long-distance (1,000-m) time trial performance, strength and power, lower fat, and higher muscle mass than club-level sprint kayakers. Cardiorespiratory fitness (particularly ventilatory threshold), body composition, and muscle strength/power are the best differentiating factors for sprint kayakers of different ages and expertise levels. These findings could aid coaches in prescribing training programs focusing on improving determining factors in paddling performance, as well as in predicting performance and identifying talent.

Determination of optimal load in the Wingate Anaerobic Test is not depend on number of sprints included in mathematical models

Determining the optimal load (OPT_LOAD) in measuring mechanical peak power output (PPO) is important in assessment of anaerobic fitness. The main goals of this study were: 1) to examine estimated optimal load and PPO based on a force-velocity test and 2) to compare the PPO from the previous method with the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT). The study involved 15 academic male athletes, aged 22.4 ± 2.3 (years), height 178.9 ± 6.8 (cm), and body weight 77.9 ± 12.2 (kg). They performed the 30-s WAnT (7.5% of body weight) during the first visit to the laboratory. Second to fourth session included a force-velocity test (FVT) involving three, 10-s all-out sprints. A randomized load ranging from 3 to 11 kg was used in each session for FVT. The OPT_LOAD and PPO were computed using quadratic relationships based on power-velocity (P-v) and power-percent of body weight (P-%BM) and including three, four, five and nine sprints from FVT. The results showed non-difference in OPT_LOAD [13.8 ± 3.2 (%BM); 14.1 ± 3.5 (%BM); 13.5 ± 2.8 (%BM); 13.4 ± 2.6 (%BM)] executed at three, four, five, and nine sprints (F_3,56 = 0.174, p = 0.91, η² = 0.01). The two-way ANOVA revealed that PPO were similar between tested models (P-%BM vs. P-v) independently from the numbers of sprints (F_3,112 = 0.08, p = 0.99, η² = 0.000). Moreover, the PPO measured in the WAnT (870.6 ± 179.1 W) was significantly lower compared with in P-v model (1,102.9 ± 242.5-1,134.2 ± 285.4 W) (F_4,70 = 3.044, p = 0.02, η² = 0.148). In addition, the PPO derived from P-%BM model (1,105.2 ± 245.5-1,138.7 ± 285.3 W) was significantly higher compared with the WAnT (F_4,70 = 2.976, p = 0.02, η² = 0.145). The findings suggest the potential utility of FVT for assessment of anaerobic capacity.

Effects of a paddling-based high-intensity interval training prescribed using anaerobic speed reserve on sprint kayak performance

The aim of this study was to investigate physiological and performance adaptations to high-intensity interval training (HIIT) prescribed as a proportion of anaerobic speed reserve (ASR) compared to HIIT prescribed using maximal aerobic speed (MAS). Twenty-four highly trained sprint kayak athletes were randomly allocated to one of three 4-weak conditions (N = 8) (ASR-HIIT) two sets of 6 × 60 s intervals at ∆%20ASR (MAS-HIIT) six 2 min paddling intervals at 100% maximal aerobic speed (MAS); or controls (CON) who performed six sessions/week of 1-h traditional endurance paddling at 70%-80% maximum HR. A graded exercise test was performed on a kayak ergometer to determine peak oxygen uptake (V̇O_2peak), MAS, V̇O₂/HR, and ventilatory threshold. Also, participants completed four consecutive upper-body wingate tests to asses peak and average power output. Significant increases in V̇O_2peak (ASR-HIIT = 6.9%, MAS-HIIT = 4.8%), MAS (ASR-HIIT = 7.2%, MAS-HIIT = 4.8%), ASR (ASR-HIIT = -25.1%, MAS-HIIT = -15.9%), upper-body Wingate peak power output and average power output (p < 0.05 for both HIIT groups) were seen compared with pre-training. Also, ASR-HIIT resulted in a significant decrease in 500-m - 1.9 % , and 1,000 - m   - 1.5 % paddling time. Lower coefficient of variation values were observed for the percent changes of the aforementioned factors in response to ASR-HIIT compared to MAS-HIIT. Overall, a short period of ASR-HIIT improves 500-m and 1,000-m paddling performances in highly trained sprint kayak athletes. Importantly, inter-subject variability (CV) of physiological adaptations to ASR-HIIT was lower than MAS-HIIT. Individualized prescription of HIIT using ASR ensures similar physiological demands across individuals and potentially facilitates similar degrees of physiological adaptation.

Effects of a New Form of Resistance-Type High-Intensity Interval Training on Cardiac Structure, Hemodynamics, and Physiological and Performance Adaptations in Well-Trained Kayak Sprint Athletes

This study examined the effects of a resistance-type high-intensity interval training (RHIIT) matched with the lowest velocity that elicited V.O_2peak (100% vV.O_2peak) in well-trained kayak sprint athletes. Responses in cardiac structure and function, cardiorespiratory fitness, anaerobic power, exercise performance, muscular strength, and hormonal adaptations were examined. Male kayakers (n = 24, age: 27 ± 4 years) were randomly assigned to one of three 8-wk conditions (N = 8): (RHIIT) resistance training using one-armed cable row at 100% vV.O_2peak; paddling-based HIIT (PHIIT) six sets of paddling at 100% vV.O_2peak; or controls (CON) who performed six sessions including 1-h on-water paddling/sessions at 70–80% maximum HR per week. Significant increases (p < 0.05) in V.O_2peak, vV.O_2peak, maximal cardiac output, resting stroke volume, left ventricular end-systolic dimension, 500-m paddling performance were seen pre- to post-training in all groups. Change in V.O_2peak in response to PHIIT was significantly greater (p = 0.03) compared to CON. Also, 500-m paddling performance changes in response to PHIIT and RHIIT were greater (p = 0.02, 0.05, respectively) than that of CON. Compared with pre-training, PHIIT and RHIIT resulted in significant increases in peak and average power output, maximal stroke volume, end-diastolic volume, ejection fraction, total testosterone, testosterone/cortisol ratio, and 1,000-m paddling performance. Also, the change in 1,000-m paddling performance in response to PHIIT was significantly greater (p = 0.02) compared to that of CON. Moreover, maximum strength was significantly enhanced in response to RHIIT pre- to post-training (p < 0.05). Overall, RHIIT and PHIIT similarly improve cardiac structure and hemodynamics, physiological adaptations, and performance of well-trained kayak sprint athletes. Also, RHIIT enhances cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular strength simultaneously.

Power profiling and the power-duration relationship in cycling: a narrative review

Emerging trends in technological innovations, data analysis and practical applications have facilitated the measurement of cycling power output in the field, leading to improvements in training prescription, performance testing and race analysis. This review aimed to critically reflect on power profiling strategies in association with the power-duration relationship in cycling, to provide an updated view for applied researchers and practitioners. The authors elaborate on measuring power output followed by an outline of the methodological approaches to power profiling. Moreover, the deriving a power-duration relationship section presents existing concepts of power-duration models alongside exercise intensity domains. Combining laboratory and field testing discusses how traditional laboratory and field testing can be combined to inform and individualize the power profiling approach. Deriving the parameters of power-duration modelling suggests how these measures can be obtained from laboratory and field testing, including criteria for ensuring a high ecological validity (e.g. rider specialization, race demands). It is recommended that field testing should always be conducted in accordance with pre-established guidelines from the existing literature (e.g. set number of prediction trials, inter-trial recovery, road gradient and data analysis). It is also recommended to avoid single effort prediction trials, such as functional threshold power. Power-duration parameter estimates can be derived from the 2 parameter linear or non-linear critical power model: P(t) = W′/t + CP (W′—work capacity above CP; t—time). Structured field testing should be included to obtain an accurate fingerprint of a cyclist’s power profile.

CYP1A2 Genotype Polymorphism Influences the Effect of Caffeine on Anaerobic Performance in Trained Males

The purpose was to investigate the effects of CYP1A2 -163C > A polymorphism on the effects of acute caffeine (CAF) supplementation on anaerobic power in trained males. Sixteen trained males (age: 21.6 ± 7.1 years; height: 179.7 ± 5.6 cm; body mass: 72.15 ± 6.8 kg) participated in a randomized, double-blind, placebo (PLA) controlled crossover design. Participants supplemented with CAF (6 mg/kg of body mass) and an isovolumetric PLA (maltodextrin) in random order and separated by 7 days, before an all-out 30-s anaerobic cycling test to determine peak, average, and minimum power output, and fatigue index. Genomic deoxyribonucleic acid was extracted to identify each participants CYP1A2 genotype. Six participants expressed AA homozygote and 10 expressed C alleles. There was a treatment by genotype interaction for peak power output (p = .041, η2 = .265, observed power = 0.552) with only those expressing AA genotype showing improvement following CAF supplementation compared with PLA (CAF: 693 ± 108 watts vs. PLA: 655 ± 97 watts; p = .039), while no difference between treatments was noted in those expressing C alleles (CAF: 614 ± 92 watts vs. PLA: 659 ± 144 watts; p = .135). There were no other interaction or main effects for average or minimum power output, or fatigue index (p > .05). In conclusion, the ingestion of 6 mg/kg of CAF improved peak power output only in participants with the AA genotype compared with PLA; however, expression of the CYP1A2 did not influence average or minimum power output or fatigue index.

Examining work-to-rest ratios to optimize upper body sprint interval training

The objective was to compare the metabolic influence of varying work-to-rest ratios during upper body sprint interval training (SIT). Forty-two recreationally-trained men were randomized into a training group [10 s work - 2 min of rest (10:2) or 4 min of rest (10:4), or 30 s work - 4 min of rest (30:4)] or a control group (CON). Participants underwent six training sessions over two weeks. Assessments consisted of a graded exercise test [maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂peak) and peak power output (PPO)], four constant-work rate trials [critical power, anaerobic working capacity, and electromyographic fatigue threshold], and an upper body Wingate test (mean/peak power and total work). Post-training absolute and relative VO₂peak was greater than pre-training for 30:4 (p = .005 and p = .009, respectively), but lower for CON (p = .001 and p = .006, respectively). Post-training PPO was greater in 30:4 (p < .001). No differences were observed during the constant-work rate trials or Wingate test. Traditional SIT appears to have enhanced VO₂peak in the upper body over a short-term two-week intervention.

Practical Model of Low-Volume Paddling-Based Sprint Interval Training Improves Aerobic and Anaerobic Performances in Professional Female Canoe Polo Athletes

Sheykhlouvand, M, Khalili, E, Gharaat, M, Arazi, H, Khalafi, M, and Tarverdizadeh, B. Practical model of low-volume paddling-based sprint interval training improves aerobic and anaerobic performances in professional female canoe polo athletes. J Strength Cond Res 32(8): 2375-2382, 2018-Brief, intense exercise training using running and cycling as exercise interventions may induce aerobic and anaerobic adaptations in athletes from a wide range of sports. However, this has not been studied extensively for those sports in which the upper body is predominantly involved. Our purpose was to examine the effects of kayak paddling-based sprint interval training (SIT) on cardiorespiratory fitness and anaerobic performance. Sixteen professional female canoe polo athletes (age = 27.6 ± 1.9 years; height = 165.7 ± 5.2 cm; body mass = 62.6 ± 8.5 kg; body mass index = 22.8 kg·m; body fat = 23.8 ± 4.9%) were randomized to either an intense exercise training consisting of sets of 5 × 5-second maximum sprint efforts interspersed by a 10-second recovery between each sprint (3, 4, 5, and 6 sets/session from first to fourth week, respectively, with 3 minutes of rest between each set), performed 3 times per week for 4 weeks (n = 8), or a usual training control group (n = 8). Before and after the training period, aerobic and anaerobic measurements were assessed using a kayak specific test and Wingate protocol, respectively. Training increased V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak, O2 pulse, anaerobic threshold, peak, and mean power output in the SIT group compared with the control group (p ≤ 0.05) who showed no changes in these variables when tested 4 weeks apart without SIT. Paddling-based SIT was a potent stimulus and time-efficient strategy to induce rapid adaptations in aerobic and anaerobic performances in professional female canoe polo athletes who can use this training method to achieve fitness in a short period.

Overnight fasting compromises exercise intensity and volume during sprint interval training but improves high-intensity aerobic endurance

BACKGROUND

The combined effects of sprint interval training (SIT) and exercising in the fasted state are unknown. We compared the effects of SIT with exogenous carbohydrate supplementation (SIT-CHO) and SIT following overnight fast (SIT-Fast) on aerobic capacity (peak oxygen consumption: V̇O2peak) and high-intensity aerobic endurance (time-to-exhaustion at 85% V̇O2peak [T85%]).

METHODS

Twenty male cyclists were randomized to SIT-CHO and SIT-Fast. Both groups performed 30-second all-out cycling followed by 4-minute active recovery 3 times per week for 4 weeks, with the number of sprint bouts progressing from 4 to 7. Peak power output (PPO) and total mechanical work were measured for each sprint interval bout. The SIT-CHO group performed exercise sessions following breakfast and consumed carbohydrate drink during exercise, whereas the SIT-Fast group performed exercise sessions following overnight fast and consumed water during exercise. Before and after training, V̇O2peak and T85% were assessed. Blood glucose, non-esterified fatty acids, insulin and glucagon concentrations were measured during T85%.

RESULTS

Overall PPO and mechanical work were lower in SIT-Fast than SIT-CHO (3664.9 vs. 3871.7 J/kg; P=0.021 and 10.6 vs. 9.9 W/kg; P=0.010, respectively). Post-training V̇O2peak did not differ between groups. Baseline-adjusted post-training T85% was longer in SIT-Fast compared to SIT-CHO (19.7±3.0 vs. 16.6±3.0 minutes, ANCOVA P=0.038) despite no changes in circulating energy substrates or hormones.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that SIT-Fast compromises exercise intensity and volume but still can have a greater impact on the ability to sustain high-intensity aerobic endurance exercise compared to SIT-CHO.

Arm-cycling sprints induce neuromuscular fatigue of the elbow flexors and alter corticospinal excitability of the biceps brachii

We examined the effects of arm-cycling sprints on maximal voluntary elbow flexion and corticospinal excitability of the biceps brachii. Recreationally trained athletes performed ten 10-s arm-cycling sprints interspersed with 150 s of rest in 2 separate experiments. In experiment A (n = 12), maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) force of the elbow flexors was measured at pre-sprint 1, post-sprint 5, and post-sprint 10. Participants received electrical motor point stimulation during and following the elbow flexor MVCs to estimate voluntary activation (VA). In experiment B (n = 7 participants from experiment A), supraspinal and spinal excitability of the biceps brachii were measured via transcranial magnetic and transmastoid electrical stimulation that produced motor evoked potentials (MEPs) and cervicomedullary motor evoked potentials (CMEPs), respectively, during a 5% isometric MVC at pre-sprint 1, post-sprint 1, post-sprint 5, and post-sprint 10. In experiment A, mean power output, MVC force, potentiated twitch force, and VA decreased 13.1% (p < 0.001), 8.7% (p = 0.036), 27.6% (p = 0.003), and 5.6% (p = 0.037), respectively, from pre-sprint 1 to post-sprint 10. In experiment B, (i) MEPs decreased 42.1% (p = 0.002) from pre-sprint 1 to post-sprint 5 and increased 40.1% (p = 0.038) from post-sprint 5 to post-sprint 10 and (ii) CMEPs increased 28.5% (p = 0.045) from post-sprint 1 to post-sprint 10. Overall, arm-cycling sprints caused neuromuscular fatigue of the elbow flexors, which corresponded with decreased supraspinal and increased spinal excitability of the biceps brachii. The different post-sprint effects on supraspinal and spinal excitability may illustrate an inhibitory effect on supraspinal drive that reduces motor output and, therefore, decreases arm-cycling sprint performance.