A Comparative Clinical Study between Concentrated Growth Factor and Low-Level Laser Therapy in the Management of Dry Socket

Enhancement of the angiogenic differentiation in the periodontal ligament stem cells using fibroblast growth factor 2 and photobiomodulation: An in vitro investigation

This study aims to evaluate and compare the effect of fibroblastic growth factor 2 (FGF-2) and photobiomodulation, solely or in combination, in angiogenic differentiation of human periodontal ligament stem cells (hPDLSCs). The study comprises the following groups: control group (hPDLSCs only), FGF-2 (50 ng/mL) group, two photobiomodulation groups with a 4 J/cm2 energy density of 808 nm diode laser (1-Session or 2-Session), and two groups with the combination of each 1-Session or 2-Session photobiomodulation with FGF-2 (50 ng/mL). The 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining, and Methyl Thiazolyl Tetrazolium (MTT) assay were undertaken on days 2, 4, and 6. Quantitative Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis on days 2, 4, 6, 8, and 11 was conducted to investigate VEGF-A and ANG-I genes. Coherently, the results of the DAPI and MTT showed the Laser (2-Session) group had higher cell viability than others on day 6. All groups demonstrated a growth pattern in the expression of VEGF-A and ANG-I from day 2 to 8 and, afterward, a significant downgrowth to day 11 (p < 0.05). The most amounts of expression of VEGF-A and ANG-I on day 8 were seen in the Laser (2-Session) group. Two-time application of photobiomodulation using a diode laser with 808 nm wavelength after 2 and 4 days of cell seeding can be associated with higher cell viability and angiogenic differentiation of hPDLSCs compared to the one-time application of photobiomodulation and administration of FGF-2.

Comparaison of Efficacy and Safety of Fentanyl Transdermal Patch with Oral Ketorolac for Pain Management in Dry Socket: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Objectives

The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy and safety of transdermal Fentanyl patch with oral Ketorolac for pain management in dry socket patients.

Study design

Sixty patients who were diagnosed with dry socket (VAS > 40 mm) were recruited in this prospective randomized controlled trial. Patients were divided into two groups. Group1 (n = 30) Transdermal Fentanyl patch (25mcg/hr) was given and in Group 2 (n = 30) Ketorolac 10 mg Oral tablet was prescribed for pain management. The primary endpoint was the mean pain scores within 72 h evaluated by visual analog scale (VAS). Secondary measures included the safety and tolerability, amount of rescue medication (analgesic and antiemetic) and effectiveness of treatment interventions by Brief Pain Inventory Questionnaire (BPI).

Results

The mean VAS pain scores were significantly less in group 1 (Fentanyl) as compared to group 2 (ketorolac) on all follow-up days. Significant difference was noted in the mean amount of rescue analgesic medication. It was 2.16 + 1.53 in group 1 and 8.50 + 3.98 in group 2. Side effects were seen in both the groups. Nausea (46%) and vomiting (43%) were reported in group 1 while headache (36.6%) and epigastric pain (53.3%) in group 2.

Conclusions

Thus, transdermal Fentanyl was better in pain control than Ketorolac with less need for rescue analgesic medication in dry socket.

Er:YAG Laser Therapy on Alveolar Osteitis After Mandibular Third Molar Surgery: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Study

Background: Alveolar osteitis (AO) or "dry socket" affects the quality of life of patients, and there is a high clinical demand for its effective treatment. Objective: To evaluate the effect of Er:YAG laser therapy (ErLT) on AO after mandibular third molar surgery. Methods: Eighty-three patients were randomly divided into Er (n = 43) and control groups (n = 40). In the Er group, the Er:YAG laser (2940 nm; AT Fidelis Fotona, Ljubljana, Slovenia) was used to irradiate the AO site directly in micro short-pulsed mode (pulse duration 0.1 ms, pulse energy 100 mJ, frequency 40 Hz, water 4, and air 2) until all debris and necrotic material had been removed, exposing fresh bone and soft tissue surfaces with blood exudation. The control group received mechanical therapy until the treated lesions resembled those in the Er group. Pain assessment was performed at baseline and on days 1-7 post-intervention using the visual analog scale (VAS). Wound healing was assessed using the wound healing index (WHI). The operating times of the two therapies were also recorded. Results: Group Er had lower VAS scores than the control group on days 1-3 (p = 0.00). There was no significant difference between the two groups on days 4-7 (p = 0.15). The WHI scores were better in the Er group than those in the control group (t = 2.65, p = 0.01), especially in terms of redness (t = 2.70, p = 0.01). There was no significant difference in the operating time between the two groups (t = 0.76, p = 0.45). Conclusions: Compared with mechanical therapy, ErLT for AO provides rapid pain relief and improved wound healing.

Comparison of Platelet-Rich Fibrin and Iodoform Gauze in the Treatment of Localized Alveolitis

PURPOSE

Iodoform gauze is commonly used to treat patients with localized alveolitis; however, saliva can easily dilute the iodoform concentration. This study aimed to compare the efficacies of platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) and iodoform gauze in treating localized alveolitis.

METHODS

This prospective randomized controlled trial enrolled patients with localized alveolitis who received treatment at our hospital from January 2018 to July 2021. They were randomly assigned to the control (treated with iodoform gauze) or experimental (treated with PRF) groups. Treatment method was the predictor variable. The primary outcome variable was clinical efficacy, defined as symptom resolution 1 week after treatment. Secondary outcome variables included granulation tissue (GT) quantitative score, analgesic drug dosage, and pain score determined using a visual analog scale (VAS). Patient demographics were used as covariates. Data analysis was performed by carrying out the χ2 and Mann-Whitney rank sum tests; P values <.05 indicated statistical significance.

RESULTS

This study included 60 patients, equally and randomly divided into the control and PRF groups (n = 30 each). There were no significant differences in demographic characteristics of patients between the 2 groups. One week after treatment, the PRF group showed a higher healing rate (93.3% vs 60.0%) and better GT quantitative score (3.13 ± 0.63 vs 1.70 ± 0.75) than the control group (P < .05). Moreover, the number of analgesic tablets consumed within 1 week postoperatively was lesser in the PRF group than in the control group (3.93 ± 1.53 vs 9.67 ± 3.16, P < .05). The PRF group exhibited significantly lower VAS pain scores than those of the control group on the 3rd day (1.10 ± 1.03 vs 4.17 ± 1.49) and 7th day (0.30 ± 0.60 vs 1.73 ± 1.44, P < .05) postoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with iodoform gauze, PRF is associated with higher healing rate, faster promotion of GT growth in the extraction socket, better relief of alveolar pain, and lower intake of analgesic drugs when treating localized alveolitis.

Investigation of the clinical efficacy of CGF and ozone in the management of alveolar osteitis: a randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the efficacy of concentrated growth factors (CGF) and ozone in the treatment of alveolar osteitis (AO).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients admitted for the treatment of AO and eligible for the study were included and divided into control, ozone, and CGF + ozone groups. For the treatment of AO alveogyl, ozone, and CGF + ozone were applied to control, ozone, and CGF + ozone groups, respectively, and repeated on 3rd day. Demographic data and oral hygiene were recorded at the initial visit. Pain with visual analog scale (VAS) and analgesic consumption were evaluated at the 6th and 24th h, and on 2nd-7th days. Granulation tissue health and inflammation severity were evaluated on the 1st, 3rd, and 7th days. Quality of life was evaluated with the postoperative symptom severity scale (Posse) on the 7th day.

RESULTS

A total of 60 patients (43 females/17 males; mean age 42.7 ± 13.76 years), 20 patients per group were included. Among the groups, pain scores on the 7th day (p = 0.042), granulation tissue health on the 3rd (p = 0.003) and 7th (p = 0.015) days showed a significant difference while analgesic consumption, Posse scores, and inflammation severity showed no significant differences (p > 0.05). Between genders analgesic consumption at 6 h (p = 0.027), 24 h (p = 0.033), and on the 2nd day (p = 0.034) and inflammation severity on the 7th day (p = 0.012) showed significant differences while Posse scores and granulation tissue health showed no significant differences (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that regenerative treatment which modulates angiogenesis, and tissue regeneration by stimulating stem cells, growth factors, and cytokines with CGF + ozone are more effective than conventional treatment regarding AO.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Usage of CGF and ozone together provides faster and more satisfactory management of AO.

The efficacy of minocycline hydrochloride ointment versus iodoform gauze for alveolar osteitis: A prospective cohort study

Background

Alveolar osteitis (AO) is one of the most commonly encountered complication following tooth extraction, however, to date there is no standard methods of prevention and treatment. The study aims to investigate the efficiency of minocycline hydrochloride ointment (MHO) for the treatment of alveolar osteitis compared with traditional treatment with iodoform gauze (IG).

Methods/design

STROBE checklist was followed to report this study. All patients underwent tooth extraction either in our department or other hospitals, whom presented with postoperative pain, were screened out to meet the inclusion and exclusion criteria of this study about AO. Patients who fulfilled the inclusion criteria were enrolled in our prospective cohort study, and MHO or IG was administered. The Visual analog scale scores were used to assess the pain score of patients. The healing status of the extraction sockets was followed up. Differences in responses between groups were analyzed using Mann-Whitney U tests. Chi-square test was performed to explore the differences in the teeth position of AO.

Results

Of 41,371 patients underwent tooth extraction with post-operative follow-up in our departments, only 20 patients (0.05%) suffered from AO. 31 patients with AO, whose teeth were extracted in other places, were also enrolled. The incidence of AO was significantly higher in third molars than other teeth (P < 0.01). In 28 patients that were treated with MHO, the pain was relieved substantially on day 3 and almost painless on day 7. And only 25% of cases required dressing change more than once. Whilst 23 patients treated with IG, the pain was relieved on day 5, and 56.5% of cases required multiple dressing change. The difference between the two groups of VAS scores had statistical significance during treatment at 8 h, 24 h, 3d, 5d, and 7d. No allergic reaction or further infection occurred.

Conclusion

MHO has a safer and higher therapeutic effect in the treatment of AO compared with traditional treatment with IG. MHO may become a preferred treatment modality for AO.

Supplementary information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12903-022-02468-9.

Local interventions for the management of alveolar osteitis (dry socket)

BACKGROUND

Alveolar osteitis (dry socket) is a complication of dental extractions more often involving mandibular molar teeth. It is associated with severe pain developing 2 to 3 days postoperatively with or without halitosis, a socket that may be partially or totally devoid of a blood clot, and increased postoperative visits. This is an update of the Cochrane Review first published in 2012.  OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of local interventions used for the prevention and treatment of alveolar osteitis (dry socket) following tooth extraction.

SEARCH METHODS

An Information Specialist searched four bibliographic databases up to 28 September 2021 and used additional search methods to identify published, unpublished, and ongoing studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials of adults over 18 years of age who were having permanent teeth extracted or who had developed dry socket postextraction. We included studies with any type of local intervention used for the prevention or treatment of dry socket, compared to a different local intervention, placebo or no treatment. We excluded studies reporting on systemic use of antibiotics or the use of surgical techniques because these interventions are evaluated in separate Cochrane Reviews.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. We followed Cochrane statistical guidelines and reported dichotomous outcomes as risk ratios (RR) and calculated 95% confidence intervals (CI) using random-effects models. For some of the split-mouth studies with sparse data, it was not possible to calculate RR so we calculated the exact odds ratio (OR) instead. We used GRADE to assess the certainty of the body of evidence.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 49 trials with 6771 participants; 39 trials (with 6219 participants) investigated prevention of dry socket and 10 studies (with 552 participants) looked at the treatment of dry socket. 16 studies were at high risk of bias, 30 studies at unclear risk of bias, and 3 studies at low risk of bias. Chlorhexidine in the prevention of dry socket When compared to placebo, rinsing with chlorhexidine mouthrinses (0.12% and 0.2% concentrations) both before and 24 hours after extraction(s) substantially reduced the risk of developing dry socket with an OR of 0.38 (95% CI 0.25 to 0.58; P < 0.00001; 6 trials, 1547 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). The prevalence of dry socket varies from 1% to 5% in routine dental extractions to upwards of 30% in surgically extracted third molars. The number of patients needed to be treated (NNT) with chlorhexidine rinse to prevent one patient having dry socket was 162 (95% CI 155 to 240), 33 (95% CI 27 to 49), and 7 (95% CI 5 to 10) for control prevalence of dry socket 0.01, 0.05, and 0.30 respectively.  Compared to placebo, placing chlorhexidine gel intrasocket after extractions reduced the odds of developing a dry socket by 58% with an OR of 0.44 (95% CI 0.27 to 0.71; P = 0.0008; 7 trials, 753 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). The NNT with chlorhexidine gel (0.2%) to prevent one patient developing dry socket was 180 (95% CI 137 to 347), 37 (95% CI 28 to 72), and 7 (95% CI 5 to 15) for control prevalence of dry socket of 0.01, 0.05, and 0.30 respectively. Compared to chlorhexidine rinse (0.12%), placing chlorhexidine gel (0.2%) intrasocket after extractions was not superior in reducing the risk of dry socket (RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.46 to 1.20; P = 0.22; 2 trials, 383 participants; low-certainty evidence).  The present review found some evidence for the association of minor adverse reactions with use of 0.12%, 0.2% chlorhexidine mouthrinses (alteration in taste, staining of teeth, stomatitis) though most studies were not designed explicitly to detect the presence of hypersensitivity reactions to mouthwash as part of the study protocol. No adverse events were reported in relation to the use of 0.2% chlorhexidine gel placed directly into a socket. Platelet rich plasma in the prevention of dry socket  Compared to placebo, placing platelet rich plasma after extractions was not superior in reducing the risk of having a dry socket (RR 0.51, 95% CI 0.19 to 1.33; P = 0.17; 2 studies, 127 participants; very low-certainty evidence).  A further 21 intrasocket interventions to prevent dry socket were each evaluated in single studies, and there is insufficient evidence to determine their effects. Zinc oxide eugenol versus Alvogyl in the treatment of dry socket Two studies, with 80 participants, showed that Alvogyl (old formulation) is more effective than zinc oxide eugenol at reducing pain at day 7 (mean difference (MD) -1.40, 95% CI -1.75 to -1.04; P < 0.00001; 2 studies, 80 participants; very low-certainty evidence) A further nine interventions for the treatment of dry socket were evaluated in single studies, providing insufficient evidence to determine their effects.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Tooth extractions are generally undertaken by dentists for a variety of reasons, however, all but five studies included in the present review included participants undergoing extraction of third molars, most of which were undertaken by oral surgeons. There is moderate-certainty evidence that rinsing with chlorhexidine (0.12% and 0.2%) or placing chlorhexidine gel (0.2%) in the sockets of extracted teeth, probably results in a reduction in dry socket. There was insufficient evidence to determine the effects of the other 21 preventative interventions each evaluated in single studies. There was limited evidence of very low certainty that Alvogyl (old formulation) may reduce pain at day 7 in patients with dry socket when compared to zinc oxide eugenol.

Healing of Alveolar Sockets Treated with Concentrated Growth Factors: A Split-Mouth Study

Background: tooth extraction is a common procedure in oral surgery. The socket healing process involves hard and soft tissues and is characterized by intense remodeling, which may determine consistent dimension changes. Several autologous platelet concentrates (APCs) proved to be effective for enhancing alveolar socket healing after tooth extraction, accelerating socket closure and countering alveolar bone resorption. Concentrated growth factors (CGFs) are one of the most recently developed APCs, and their effect on the socket healing process still needs to be confirmed. Aim: The aim of the present split-mouth study was to evaluate the effectiveness of CGFs in enhancing the healing process in the postextraction alveolar socket and reducing postoperative pain. Methods: One hundred and fifty-four extractions were performed. One of the extraction sockets of each patient was treated with CGFs (test site), and the other socket was unfilled (control site). The main outcomes were: healing index, alveolar dimensions at the crestal level, socket closure, and pain perception. Descriptive statistics of the results were analyzed. Follow-up data were compared to baseline using paired tests. Results: The healing index on day 7 was significantly better (p < 0.001) in the test group (5.01 ± 1.30) as compared to the control group (6.65 ± 1.41). The mean visual analog scale for pain (VAS) was significantly higher for the control group when compared to the CGF group in the first 5 days postextraction. There was a trend toward greater socket closure in the CGF group, indicating faster healing, as compared to the control group at 7, 14, and 21 days. Conclusions: CGFs can represent a useful adjunctive tool, considering their mechanical and biological properties, for improving alveolar socket healing and reducing postoperative patient discomfort.

Regulatory Processes of the Canonical Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway and Photobiomodulation in Diabetic Wound Repair

Skin is a biological system composed of different types of cells within a firmly structured extracellular matrix and is exposed to various external and internal insults that can break its configuration. The restoration of skin's anatomic continuity and function following injury is a multifaceted, dynamic, well-coordinated process that is highly dependent on signalling pathways, including the canonical Wnt/β catenin pathway, all aimed at restoring the skin's protective barrier. Compromised and inappropriate tissue restoration processes are often the source of wound chronicity. Diabetic patients have a high risk of developing major impediments including wound contamination and limb amputation due to chronic, non-healing wounds. Photobiomodulation (PBM) involves the application of low-powered light at specific wavelengths to influence different biological activities that incite and quicken tissue restoration. PBM has been shown to modulate cellular behaviour through a variety of signal transduction pathways, including the Wnt/β catenin pathway; however, the role of Wnt/β catenin in chronic wound healing in response to PBM has not been fully defined. This review largely focuses on the role of key signalling pathways in human skin wound repair, specifically, the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and the effects of PBM on chronic wound healing.

Preliminary Novel Analysis on Antimicrobial Properties of Concentrated Growth Factor against Bacteria-Induced Oral Diseases

OBJECTIVE

 Concentrated growth factor (CGF) is particularly gaining acceptance and popularity in regenerative dentistry. Nonetheless, there are no available studies showing its effect against microorganisms of oral cavity particularly in chronic oral disease-induced biofilms. This in vitro research was conducted to determine the antimicrobial effects of CGF against Staphylococcus aureus sp. (S. aureus) and Streptococcus mutans sp. (S. mutans).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 Blood samples were obtained from a healthy volunteer. CGF was then prepared using specialized centrifugation equipment (Medifuge, Silfradent, Santa Sofia FC, Italy) and protocol. Antimicrobial activity of the CGF was observed and recorded on standard strains of S. aureus and S. mutans using a well diffusion method to determine the inhibition zone, broth microdilution to determine minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and crystal violet assay for biofilm assessment, with chlorhexidine (CHX) 0.12% used as a positive control. Statistical analysis was then performed using one-way analysis of variance followed by Tukey Test post hoc analysis.

RESULTS

 It was observed that there was a presence of clear zones of inhibition around the CGF after 24 hours of incubation. The mean diameter of the inhibition zone was 1.26 ± 0.12 nm and 1.20 ± 0.06 nm for S. aureus and S. mutans, respectively, with significance difference (p < 0.05) against the control group CHX 0.12%. The MIC values of the CGF against S. aureus and S. mutans were 47.9% and 34.17%, respectively, and the MBC values of the CGF against S. aureus and S. mutans were 100%. The viability and the ability in inhibiting the biofilm formation of S. mutans and S. aureus following treatment with CGF showed a reduction in the concentration-dependent manner as compared with the control group.

CONCLUSION

 CGF possesses antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity against S. aureus and S. mutans.

Pain Relief and Antimicrobial Activity in Alveolar Osteitis after Platelet-Rich Fibrin Application—A Non-Randomized Controlled Study

The objective was to compare pain relief in alveolar osteitis achieved by the application of platelet-rich fibrin (PRF) and aspirin cones, and to assess the influence of both treatments on bacterial concentrations in post-extraction wounds. A split-mouth, single-center, non-randomized controlled trial was conducted in 30 patients. Pain relief was assessed using the visual analog scale at three time points (before, 24 h after, and 48 h after intervention). Bacterial concentrations were evaluated from cultures of swab samples collected at the three time points. A Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test was performed to detect differences in distributions of scalar variables between treatment with PRF and aspirin cones. Pain relief at 24 h and 48 h after treatment was significantly higher (p = 0.003) with PRF application than with aspirin cone placement. Additionally, PRF application caused a significantly higher reduction in aerobic bacteria concentration, an average increase, instead of a decrease, in lactic acid bacilli concentration in the first 24 h, and a significantly greater increase in streptococci concentration at 48 h follow-up. PRF provides better pain relief than aspirin cones in alveolar osteitis. Bacterial concentrations in the extraction wounds are consistent with the pain relief achieved after PRF or aspirin application.

Pain in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery and Implant Dentistry: Types and Management

Over the years, the pain has been defined numerous times in several ways. In oral and maxillofacial surgery, the occurrence of pain, especially postoperatively, is anticipated. Pain arises as a combination of various processes after tissue damage. Distinct pain experiences in oral surgery were depicted in several previous studies, adding knowledge to the field. The management of these encounters has been suggested over time, improving treatment approaches in the clinical setting. This review aims to understand the pain and its types and intervention in the field of oral and maxillofacial surgery.

Concentrated Growth Factors vs. Leukocyte-and-Platelet-Rich Fibrin for Enhancing Postextraction Socket Healing. A Longitudinal Comparative Study

Platelet concentrates (PCs) have been used for over 20 years in dentistry, as an adjunct to oral surgery procedures, to improve hard and soft tissue healing and control postoperative symptoms. Among various PCs, Leukocyte and Platelet-Rich Fibrin (L-PRF) has become very popular due to its excellent cost-effectiveness ratio, and to the simple preparation protocol, but comparative clinical studies with other PCs are lacking. The aim of this split-mouth cohort study was to evaluate the effect of Concentrated Growth Factors (CGF), a recently introduced PC, as compared to L-PRF for enhancing post-extraction socket healing. Methods: Patients in need of bilateral tooth extractions were included. Each side was treated with either CGF or L-PRF. Pain, socket closure and healing index were the main outcomes. Results: Forty-five patients (24 women), aged 60.52 ± 11.75 years (range 37–87 years) were treated. No significant difference in outcomes was found, except for Pain at day 1 (p < 0.001) and socket closure in the vestibulo-palatal/lingual dimension at day 7 post-extraction (p = 0.04), both in favor of CGF. Conclusions: based on the present results, CGF proved to be as effective and safe as L-PRF, representing a valid alternative option for improving alveolar socket healing and reducing postoperative discomfort.