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Fan M, Lan X, Wang Q, Shan M, Fang X, Zhang Y, Wu D, Luo H, Gao W, Zhu D. Renal function protection and the mechanism of ginsenosides: Current progress and future perspectives. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1070738. [PMID: 36814491 PMCID: PMC9939702 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1070738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Nephropathy is a general term for kidney diseases, which refers to changes in the structure and function of the kidney caused by various factors, resulting in pathological damage to the kidney, abnormal blood or urine components, and other diseases. The main manifestations of kidney disease include hematuria, albuminuria, edema, hypertension, anemia, lower back pain, oliguria, and other symptoms. Early detection, diagnosis, and active treatment are required to prevent chronic renal failure. The concept of nephropathy encompasses a wide range of conditions, including acute renal injury, chronic kidney disease, nephritis, renal fibrosis, and diabetic nephropathy. Some of these kidney-related diseases are interrelated and may lead to serious complications without effective control. In serious cases, it can also develop into chronic renal dysfunction and eventually end-stage renal disease. As a result, it seriously affects the quality of life of patients and places a great economic burden on society and families. Ginsenoside is one of the main active components of ginseng, with anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, antioxidant, and other pharmacological activities. A variety of monomers in ginsenosides can play protective roles in multiple organs. According to the difference of core structure, ginsenosides can be divided into protopanaxadiol-type (including Rb1, Rb3, Rg3, Rh2, Rd and CK, etc.), and protopanaxatriol (protopanaxatriol)- type (including Rg1, Rg2 and Rh1, etc.), and other types (including Rg5, Rh4, Rh3, Rk1, and Rk3, etc.). All of these ginsenosides showed significant renal function protection, which can reduce renal damage in renal injury, nephritis, renal fibrosis, and diabetic nephropathy models. This review summarizes reports on renal function protection and the mechanisms of action of these ginsenosides in various renal injury models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiling Fan
- The Affiliated Hospital of Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Xintian Lan
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Qunling Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Mengyao Shan
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaoxue Fang
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Yegang Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Donglu Wu
- Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,School of Clinical Medical, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Haoming Luo
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China
| | - Wenyi Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,*Correspondence: Wenyi Gao, ; Difu Zhu,
| | - Difu Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Changchun University of Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,Key Laboratory of Effective Components of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, China,*Correspondence: Wenyi Gao, ; Difu Zhu,
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Antigenotoxic, Anti-photogenotoxic, and Antioxidant Properties of Polyscias filicifolia Shoots Cultivated In Vitro. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25051090. [PMID: 32121158 PMCID: PMC7179227 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25051090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional medicinal plants are an important source of active compounds with potential antimutagenic activity. Polyscias filicifolia Bailey (Araliaceae) is a South Asian traditional herb used as an adaptogenic and cardiac drug. Extracts of P. filicifolia contain a wide range of biologically active compounds like phenolic acids and triterpenoid saponins. In the present study. antigenotoxic potential of three naturally occurring phenolic acids and extracts of P. filicifolia growing in vitro with the addition of elicitors was evaluated against direct (4-nitroquinoline-N-oxide (4NQO) and mitomycin C (MMC)) and indirect mutagens (2-aminoanthracene (2AA)). The evaluation was made using a bacterial umu-test. Moreover, the ability to prevent photogenotoxicity induced by chlorpromazine (CPZ) under UVA irradiation was measured. The phytochemical profiling of examined extracts revealed the presence of numerous compounds with the prevelance of chlorogenic, caffeic, and ferulic acid derivatives; however, saponin fractions were also determined. The antioxidant potential of extracts strictly correlated with their composition. The tested extracts exhibited high antigenotoxic activity if the assay was performed with 2AA and metabolic activation. Moreover, the extracts slightly decreased the MMC-induced genotoxicity. However, an increase of the genotoxic effect was observed in the assay performed with 4NQO. In addition, photo-antigenotoxic activity was observed. In our study, phenolic acids exhibited lower activity than the extracts.
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Xiao H, Xue Q, Zhang Q, Li C, Liu X, Liu J, Li H, Yang J. How Ginsenosides Trigger Apoptosis in Human Lung Adenocarcinoma Cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2019; 47:1737-1754. [PMID: 31795742 DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x19500885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Panax ginseng is a natural medicine that has been used globally for a long time. Moreover, several studies have reported the effective activity of ginseng in treating malignancies. Various agents containing ginseng were widely used as an antitumor treatment nowadays. Lung cancer is the most common fatal cancer in China, and lung adenocarcinoma is the most common histological type of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). What's worse, many patients may have a failed response to conventional therapy including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or molecule-targeted therapy due to drug resistance. Apoptosis is a highly ordered cellular suicidal process that plays an essential role in maintaining normal homeostasis. The pharmacological mechanism of many antineoplastic drugs involves triggering of apoptotic process. In several recent studies, ginsenosides are regarded as major active components of ginseng that have the potential to control lung cancer. Most of these results have proved that ginsenosides induce apoptosis in lung cancer cells through many different signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, EGFR, and so on. This study is aimed at reviewing the signaling pathways that underlie ginsenosides-triggered apoptotic process and encourage further studies to target promising agents against lung cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Xiao
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Qianfei Xue
- Department of Pediatrics, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Qinghua Zhang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Chunyan Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Xiaoqiu Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Han Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Junling Yang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
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Park H, Lee M, Kim KT, Park E, Paik HD. Antioxidant and antigenotoxic effect of dairy products supplemented with red ginseng extract. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:8702-8710. [PMID: 30100515 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2018-14690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant and antigenotoxic effect of dairy products milk (M) and yogurt (Y) after the addition of 2% red ginseng extract to milk (RM) and to yogurt (RY). Total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity, oxygen radical absorbance capacity, and total radical trapping antioxidant potential were determined in the samples. Furthermore, antigenotoxic effect of samples was measured, using comet assay in human leukocytes. Total phenolic content and total flavonoid content of RM [38.3 ± 0.8 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g, 23.6 ± 0.1 mg of quercetin equivalents (QE)/100 g] and RY (41.1 ± 0.9 mg of GAE/100 g, 18.7 ± 0.1 mg of QE/100 g), respectively, were higher than those of M (6.31 ± 0.2 mg of GAE/100 g, 10.4 ± 0.1 mg of QE/100 g) and Y (8.1 ± 0.9 mg of GAE/100 g, 8.4 ± 0.2 mg of QE/100 g), respectively. The 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity and oxygen radical absorbance capacity values increased significantly after the addition of 2% red ginseng in both. Additionally, the total radical trapping antioxidant potential in RM (787.7 ± 7.0 μg/mL) was lower than in M (2074.0 ± 28.4 μg/mL). The H2O2-induced DNA damage in RY (0.1 ± 0.0 mg/mL) was less than the damage in Y (0.4 ± 0.0 mg/mL), but we found no significant difference between M and RM. This study indicates that supplementation with red ginseng can fortify the antioxidant and antigenotoxic effects of dairy products effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanyeong Park
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyungnam University, Changwon, 51767, South Korea
| | - Minhee Lee
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyungnam University, Changwon, 51767, South Korea
| | - Kee-Tae Kim
- Bio/Molecular Informatics Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, South Korea
| | - Eunju Park
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Kyungnam University, Changwon, 51767, South Korea.
| | - Hyun-Dong Paik
- Bio/Molecular Informatics Center, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, South Korea; Department of Food Science and Biotechnology of Animal Resources, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029, South Korea.
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Kim H, Lee JH, Kim JE, Kim YS, Ryu CH, Lee HJ, Kim HM, Jeon H, Won HJ, Lee JY, Lee J. Micro-/nano-sized delivery systems of ginsenosides for improved systemic bioavailability. J Ginseng Res 2018; 42:361-369. [PMID: 29983618 PMCID: PMC6026383 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2017.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Ginsenosides, dammarane-type triterpene saponins obtained from ginseng, have been used as a natural medicine for many years in the Orient due to their various pharmacological activities. However, the therapeutic potential of ginsenosides has been largely limited by the low bioavailability of the natural products caused mainly by low aqueous solubility, poor biomembrane permeability, instability in the gastrointestinal tract, and extensive metabolism in the body. To enhance the bioavailability of ginsenosides, diverse micro-/nano-sized delivery systems such as emulsions, polymeric particles, and vesicular systems have been investigated. The delivery systems improved the bioavailability of ginsenosides by enhancing solubility, permeability, and stability of the natural products. This mini-review aims to provide comprehensive information on the micro-/nano-sized delivery systems for increasing the bioavailability of ginsenosides, which may be helpful for designing better delivery systems to maximize the versatile therapeutic potential of ginsenosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeongmin Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea
| | - Jong Hyuk Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, College of Life and Health Sciences, Hoseo University, Asan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jee Eun Kim
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Management, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Su Kim
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Management, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Choong Ho Ryu
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Management, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Joo Lee
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Management, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye Min Kim
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Management, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyojin Jeon
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea
| | - Hyo-Joong Won
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea
| | - Ji-Yun Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea
| | - Jaehwi Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Management, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Kim TW. Ginseng for Liver Injury: Friend or Foe? MEDICINES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2016; 3:E33. [PMID: 28930143 PMCID: PMC5456240 DOI: 10.3390/medicines3040033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Panax sp., including Panax ginseng Meyer, Panax quiquifolius L., or Panax notoginseng (Burk.) FH Chen, have been used as functional foods or for traditional Chinese medicine for diabetes, inflammation, stress, aging, hepatic injury, and cancer. In recent decades, a number of both in vitro and in vivo experiments as well as human studies have been conducted to investigate the efficacy and safety of various types of ginseng samples and their components. Of these, the hepatoprotective and hepatotoxic effects of ginseng and their ginsenosides and polysaccharides are reviewed and summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-Woo Kim
- Graduate School of Medicine, School of Medicine, CHA University, Seongnam-shi, Gyunggi-do 13488, Korea.
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Upadhyaya J, Yoon MS, Kim MJ, Ryu NS, Song YE, Kim YH, Kim MK. Purification and characterization of a novel ginsenoside Rc-hydrolyzing β-glucosidase from Armillaria mellea mycelia. AMB Express 2016; 6:112. [PMID: 27837549 PMCID: PMC5106418 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-016-0277-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ginsenosides are the principal compounds responsible for the pharmacological effects and health benefits of Panax ginseng root. Among protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenosides, minor ginsenosides such as ginsenoside (G)-F2, G-Rh2, compound (C)-Mc1, C-Mc, C-O, C-Y, and C-K are known to be more pharmacologically active constituents than major ginsenosides such as G-Rb1, G-Rb2, G-Rc, and G-Rd. A novel ginsenoside Rc-hydrolyzing β-glucosidase (BG-1) from Armillaria mellea mycelia was purified as a single protein band with molecular weight of 121.5 kDa on SDS-PAGE and a specific activity of 17.9 U mg-1 protein. BG-1 concurrently hydrolyzed α-(1 → 6)-arabinofuranosidic linkage at the C-20 site or outer β-(1 → 2)-glucosidic linkage at the C-3 site of G-Rc to produce G-Rd and C-Mc1, respectively. The enzyme also hydrolyzed outer and inner glucosidic linkages at the C-3 site of G-Rd to produce C-K via G-F2, and inner glucosidic linkage at the C-3 site of C-Mc1 to produce C-Mc. C-Mc was also slowly hydrolyzed α-(1 → 6)-arabinofuranosidic linkage at the C-20 site to produce C-K with reaction time prolongation. Finally, the pathways for formation of C-Mc and C-K from G-Rc by BG-1 were G-Rc → C-Mc1 → C-Mc and G-Rc → G-Rd → G-F2 → C-K, respectively. The optimum reaction conditions for C-Mc and C-K formation from G-Rc by BG-1 were pH 4.0-4.5, temperature 45-60 °C, and reaction time 72-96 h. This is the first report of efficient production of minor ginsenosides, C-Mc and C-K from G-Rc by β-glucosidase purified from A. mellea mycelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitendra Upadhyaya
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, 54896 Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Sun Yoon
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Chonbuk National University, Iksan, 54596 Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Ji Kim
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, 54896 Republic of Korea
| | - Nam-Soo Ryu
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Chonbuk National University, Iksan, 54596 Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Eun Song
- Agricultural Research and Extension Services, Iksan, 54591 Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Hoi Kim
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, 54896 Republic of Korea
| | - Myung-Kon Kim
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, 54896 Republic of Korea
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Kang H, Park BR, Yoo HS, Kwon KR, Kang IC. Anti-angiogenic function of a Korean Ginseng and Toad venom complex, Doksamsumsu-dan (DSSSD) analyzed by a forwarded phase antibody microarray. BIOCHIP JOURNAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13206-015-9308-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Enzymatic formation of compound-K from ginsenoside Rb1 by enzyme preparation from cultured mycelia of Armillaria mellea. J Ginseng Res 2015; 40:105-12. [PMID: 27158230 PMCID: PMC4845050 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2015.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Minor saponins or human intestinal bacterial metabolites, such as ginsenosides Rg3, F2, Rh2, and compound K, are more pharmacologically active than major saponins, such as ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, and Rc. In this work, enzymatic hydrolysis of ginsenoside Rb1 was studied using enzyme preparations from cultured mycelia of mushrooms. Methods Mycelia of Armillaria mellea, Ganoderma lucidum, Phellinus linteus, Elfvingia applanata, and Pleurotus ostreatus were cultivated in liquid media at 25°C for 2 wk. Enzyme preparations from cultured mycelia of five mushrooms were obtained by mycelia separation from cultured broth, enzyme extraction, ammonium sulfate (30–80%) precipitation, dialysis, and freeze drying, respectively. The enzyme preparations were used for enzymatic hydrolysis of ginsenoside Rb1. Results Among the mushrooms used in this study, the enzyme preparation from cultured mycelia of A. mellea (AMMEP) was found to convert ginsenoside Rb1 into compound K with a high yield, while those from G. lucidum, P. linteus, E. applanata, and P. ostreatus produced remarkable amounts of ginsenoside Rd from ginsenoside Rb1. The enzymatic hydrolysis pathway of ginsenoside Rb1 by AMMEP was Rb1 → Rd → F2 → compound K. The optimum reaction conditions for compound K formation from ginsenoside Rb1 were as follows: reaction time 72–96 h, pH 4.0–4.5, and temperature 45–55°C. Conclusion AMMEP can be used to produce the human intestinal bacterial metabolite, compound K, from ginsenoside Rb1 with a high yield and without food safety issues.
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Kim KH, Choi I, Lee YW, Cho CK, Yoo HS, Lee SB, Ho Choi S, Kwon KR, Jang JH. Target genes involved in antiproliferative effect of modified ginseng extracts in lung cancer A549 cells. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2014; 46:441-9. [PMID: 24742432 DOI: 10.1093/abbs/gmu025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer is the most common cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths. Panax ginseng has long been used to treat cancer and other diseases worldwide. Most of the pharmacological actions of ginseng are attributed to a variety of ginsenosides, which are often metabolized by intestinal bacteria into more effective forms. In this study, we found that the antiproliferative activity of ginseng was increased after enzymatic processing of ginseng saponin (50% inhibitory concentration, >70 μg/ml). To elucidate the mechanism by which modified ginseng extract (MGX) induced cell death in human lung cancer cells, the gene expression profiles of A549 cells regulated by MGX were assayed using Agilent PrimeView Human Gene Expression Arrays. The expression of 17 genes involved in the regulation of cell signaling, cell metabolism, transport, and cytoskeleton-regulation was up-regulated, whereas the expression of 16 genes implicated in invasion and metastasis and cellular metabolism was down-regulated in MGX-treated A549 cells. Moreover, nuclear staining with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole revealed that MGX clearly caused nuclear condensation and fragmentation which are observed in apoptosis cell. These results elucidate crucial anticancer mechanisms of MGX and provide potential new targets for the assessment of anticancer activity of MGX.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keun-Hong Kim
- East-West Cancer Center, Dunsan Oriental Hospital of Daejeon University, Daejeon 302-122, Korea
| | - Ilsan Choi
- Department of Biochemistry, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon 400-712, Korea
| | - Yeon-Weol Lee
- East-West Cancer Center, Dunsan Oriental Hospital of Daejeon University, Daejeon 302-122, Korea
| | - Chong-Kwan Cho
- East-West Cancer Center, Dunsan Oriental Hospital of Daejeon University, Daejeon 302-122, Korea
| | - Hwa-Seung Yoo
- East-West Cancer Center, Dunsan Oriental Hospital of Daejeon University, Daejeon 302-122, Korea
| | - Seung-Bae Lee
- Division of Animal Resources and Life Science, Sangji University, Wonju 220-702, Korea
| | - Suk Ho Choi
- Division of Animal Resources and Life Science, Sangji University, Wonju 220-702, Korea
| | - Ki-Rok Kwon
- Research Center of Pharmacopuncture Medicine, Korean Pharmacopuncture Institute, Seoul 157-801, Korea
| | - Jun-Hyeog Jang
- Department of Biochemistry, Inha University School of Medicine, Incheon 400-712, Korea
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Zheng ZZ, Ming YL, Chen LH, Zheng GH, Liu SS, Chen QX. Compound K-induced apoptosis of human hepatocellular carcinoma MHCC97-H cells in vitro. Oncol Rep 2014; 32:325-31. [PMID: 24804620 DOI: 10.3892/or.2014.3171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
An intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng protopanaxadiol saponin, 20-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (compound K), has been reported to induce apoptosis in a variety of cancer cells. However, the precise mechanisms induced by compound K in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells remain unclear. In order to examine possible apoptotic mechanisms, we investigated the anticancer effect of compound K in MHCC97-H. MTT assay showed that compound K inhibited the proliferation of MHCC97-H cells with a relatively low toxicity in normal hepatoma cells. Cell cycle progression and cell staining showed an increase in apoptotic sub-G1 fraction. Treatment of MHCC97-H with compound K also induced a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm) and DNA damage. Further study showed that compound K upregulated Fas, FasL, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and downregulated pro-caspase-9, pro-caspase-3 in a dose-dependent manner, and it also inhibited Akt phosphorylation. These results suggest that compound K significantly inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis in MHCC97-H cells through Fas- and mitochondria-mediated caspase-dependent pathways in human HCC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Zhong Zheng
- The Research and Development Center for Medicine Plant and Plant Drugs, Xiamen Overseas Chinese Subtropical Plant Introduction Garden, Xiamen, Fujian 361002, P.R. China
| | - Yan-Lin Ming
- The Research and Development Center for Medicine Plant and Plant Drugs, Xiamen Overseas Chinese Subtropical Plant Introduction Garden, Xiamen, Fujian 361002, P.R. China
| | - Liang-Hua Chen
- The Research and Development Center for Medicine Plant and Plant Drugs, Xiamen Overseas Chinese Subtropical Plant Introduction Garden, Xiamen, Fujian 361002, P.R. China
| | - Guo-Hua Zheng
- The Research and Development Center for Medicine Plant and Plant Drugs, Xiamen Overseas Chinese Subtropical Plant Introduction Garden, Xiamen, Fujian 361002, P.R. China
| | - Shao-Song Liu
- The Research and Development Center for Medicine Plant and Plant Drugs, Xiamen Overseas Chinese Subtropical Plant Introduction Garden, Xiamen, Fujian 361002, P.R. China
| | - Qing-Xi Chen
- Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, P.R. China
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Li J, Zhong W, Wang W, Hu S, Yuan J, Zhang B, Hu T, Song G. Ginsenoside metabolite compound K promotes recovery of dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis and inhibits inflammatory responses by suppressing NF-κB activation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e87810. [PMID: 24504372 PMCID: PMC3913696 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2013] [Accepted: 01/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytogenic compounds with anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, such as ginsenoside metabolite compound K (CK) or berberine (BBR), are currently discussed as promising complementary agents in the prevention and treatment of cancer and inflammation. The latest study showed that ginsenoside Rb1 and its metabolites could inhibit TNBS-induced colitis injury. However, the functional mechanisms of anti-inflammation effects of ginsenoside, particularly its metabolite CK are still not clear. Here, using dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice, clinical parameters, intestinal integrity, pro-inflammatory cytokines production, and signaling pathways in colonic tissues were determined. In mild and sever colitis mice, CK and BBR (as a positive agent) alleviated colitis histopathology injury, ameliorated myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines production, such as, IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and increased anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 production in both mice colon tissues and blood. Nevertheless, the results revealed that CK and BBR inhibited NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation, downregulated p-IκBα and upregulated IκBα, indicating that CK, as well as BBR, suppressed the activation of the NF-κB pathway in the progression of colitis with immunofluorescence, immunohistochemical and western blotting analysis. Furthermore, CK inhibited pro-inflammatory cytokines production in LPS-activated macrophages via down-regulation of NF-κB signaling pathway. Taken together, our results not only reveal that CK promotes the recovery of the progression of colitis and inhibits the inflammatory responses by suppressing NF-κB activation, but also suggest that CK downregulates intestinal inflammation through regulating the activation of macrophages and pro-inflammatory cytokines production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Li
- Cancer Research Center, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Wei Zhong
- Cancer Research Center, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Weiwei Wang
- Cancer Research Center, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Shaoping Hu
- Cancer Research Center, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jiahui Yuan
- Cancer Research Center, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Bing Zhang
- Department of Basic Medicine, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Tianhui Hu
- Cancer Research Center, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- * E-mail: (TH); (GS)
| | - Gang Song
- Cancer Research Center, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
- * E-mail: (TH); (GS)
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Identification of Target Genes Involved in the Antiproliferative Effect of Enzyme-Modified Ginseng Extract in HepG2 Hepatocarcinoma Cell. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2013; 2013:502568. [PMID: 24174975 PMCID: PMC3794629 DOI: 10.1155/2013/502568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Ginsenosides are ginseng saponins, which are the major biologically active components of Panax ginseng, often metabolized by intestinal bacteria into more effective forms. In this study, we found that the antiproliferative activity of ginseng increased after enzymatic processing of ginseng saponin (50% inhibitory concentration [IC50], >30 μg/mL), which may be the result of the accumulation of minor saponins, such as Rh1, Rg3, compound K, and PPT constituents in ginseng saponin. Using the Agilent PrimeView Human Gene Expression Array, we found that the expression of several genes involved in apoptosis (caspase-4, Annexin A2, HSPA9, AIFM1, UQCRC2, and caspase-7) were increased in HepG2 human hepatocarcinoma cells after their treatment with enzyme-modified ginseng extract (EMGE). Furthermore, several genes implicated in cell cycle progression (CDCA3, CDCA8, CABLES2, CDC25B, CNNM3, and CCNK) showed decreased expression in HepG2 cells treated with EMGE. Finally, from flow cytometric analysis, we found that EMGE-treated HepG2 cells showed increased apoptotic sub-G1 population (24%), compared with that observed in DMSO-treated control cells (1.6%). Taken together, our results suggest that EMGE induces anticancer activity through the induction of apoptosis-related genes and cell cycle arrest via decreased expression of cell cycle regulatory genes.
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Wang H, Jiang D, Liu J, Ye S, Xiao S, Wang W, Sun Z, Xie Y, Wang J. Compound K induces apoptosis of bladder cancer T24 cells via reactive oxygen species-mediated p38 MAPK pathway. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 2013; 28:607-14. [PMID: 23895116 DOI: 10.1089/cbr.2012.1468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Compound K (CK; 20-O-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol), a major metabolite of ginsenoside, has been shown to possess several biological activities such as potent antitumor properties. However, the effect of CK on the apoptosis of bladder cancer cells and its underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Therefore, we examined the effect of CK on the apoptosis of bladder cancer T 24 cells. Cell counts showed that treatment of T24 cells with CK decreased the cell number in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that CK could significantly induce apoptosis of T24 cells in vitro. Further, cellular glutathione reduction, accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were also observed in CK-treated T24 cells. Western blot demonstrated the release of cytochrome c, activation of procaspases-3, procaspases-9, and the change of Bax/Bcl-2 proteins ratio. We also found that the phosphorylation of p38MAPK was increased by CK, while treatment with SB203580 inhibited CK-induced cell apoptosis in T24 cells. The blockage of ROS generation by N-acetylcysteine effectively prevented the apoptosis induction in T24 cells with CK treatment, accompanied by the decrease of activation of p38MAPK. These results suggested that CK induced the apoptosis of bladder cancer T24 cells, which is partially due to ROS generation and p38MAPK activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Wang
- 1 Liaoning Key Laboratory of Food Biological Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Dalian Polytechnic University , Dalian, China
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Quan LH, Piao JY, Min JW, Kim HB, Kim SR, Yang DU, Yang DC. Biotransformation of Ginsenoside Rb1 to Prosapogenins, Gypenoside XVII, Ginsenoside Rd, Ginsenoside F2, and Compound K by Leuconostoc mesenteroides DC102. J Ginseng Res 2013; 35:344-51. [PMID: 23717079 PMCID: PMC3659545 DOI: 10.5142/jgr.2011.35.3.344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2011] [Revised: 06/20/2011] [Accepted: 06/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Ginsenoside Rb1is the main component in ginsenosides. It is a protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside that has a dammarane-type triterpenoid as an aglycone. In this study, ginsenoside Rb1 was transformed into gypenoside XVII, ginsenoside Rd, ginsenoside F2 and compound K by glycosidase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides DC102. The optimum time for the conversion was about 72 h at a constant pH of 6.0 to 8.0 and the optimum temperature was about 30℃. Under optimal conditions, ginsenoside Rb1 was decomposed and converted into compound K by 72 h post-reaction (99%). The enzymatic reaction was analyzed by highperformance liquid chromatography, suggesting the transformation pathway: ginsenoside Rb1→ gypenoside XVII and ginsenoside Rd→ginsenoside F2→compound K.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin-Hu Quan
- Korean Ginseng Center Most Valuable Product and Ginseng Genetic Resource Bank, Kyung Hee University, Yongin 446-701, Korea
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16
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Dougherty U, Mustafi R, Wang Y, Musch MW, Wang CZ, Konda VJ, Kulkarni A, Hart J, Dawson G, Kim KE, Yuan CS, Chang EB, Bissonnette M. American ginseng suppresses Western diet-promoted tumorigenesis in model of inflammation-associated colon cancer: role of EGFR. Altern Ther Health Med 2011; 11:111. [PMID: 22070864 PMCID: PMC3227598 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6882-11-111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2011] [Accepted: 11/09/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Background Western diets increase colon cancer risk. Epidemiological evidence and experimental studies suggest that ginseng can inhibit colon cancer development. In this study we asked if ginseng could inhibit Western diet (20% fat) promoted colonic tumorigenesis and if compound K, a microbial metabolite of ginseng could suppress colon cancer xenograft growth. Methods Mice were initiated with azoxymethane (AOM) and, two weeks later fed a Western diet (WD, 20% fat) alone, or WD supplemented with 250-ppm ginseng. After 1 wk, mice received 2.5% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) for 5 days and were sacrificed 12 wks after AOM. Tumors were harvested and cell proliferation measured by Ki67 staining and apoptosis by TUNEL assay. Levels of EGF-related signaling molecules and apoptosis regulators were determined by Western blotting. Anti-tumor effects of intraperitoneal compound K were examined using a tumor xenograft model and compound K absorption measured following oral ginseng gavage by UPLC-mass spectrometry. Effects of dietary ginseng on microbial diversity were measured by analysis of bacterial 16S rRNA. Results Ginseng significantly inhibited colonic inflammation and tumorigenesis and concomitantly reduced proliferation and increased apoptosis. The EGFR cascade was up-regulated in colonic tumors and ginseng significantly reduced EGFR and ErbB2 activation and Cox-2 expression. Dietary ginseng altered colonic microbial diversity, and bacterial suppression with metronidazole reduced serum compound K following ginseng gavage. Furthermore, compound K significantly inhibited tumor xenograft growth. Conclusions Ginseng inhibited colonic inflammation and tumorigenesis promoted by Western diet. We speculate that the ginseng metabolite compound K contributes to the chemopreventive effects of this agent in colonic tumorigenesis.
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Lee NJ, Lee JW, Sung JH, Lee YJ, Kang JK. In vitro antioxidant properties of a ginseng intestinal metabolite IH-901. Lab Anim Res 2011; 27:227-34. [PMID: 21998612 PMCID: PMC3188730 DOI: 10.5625/lar.2011.27.3.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2011] [Revised: 09/08/2011] [Accepted: 09/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
IH-901 (20-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol or compound K) is a final intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng in humans. It has various pharmacologic effects such as antiaging, immunopotentiation, antistress, and antimetastatic activities. We analyzed the antioxidant activities of IH-901 using several assays including: total antioxidant activity, reductive potential, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl, hydroxyl, superoxide and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging assays, a nitric oxide scavenging assay and a lipid peroxidation assay. At concentrations of 25 and 100 µg/mL, IH-901 inhibited lipid peroxidation of a linoleic acid emulsion with a potency comparable to ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxyanisole. The reductive potential of IH-901 increased in a concentration-dependent manner. IH-901 exhibited strong DPPH, hydroxyl, superoxide and ABTS radical scavenging activities. IH-901 was also an effective inhibitor of lipid peroxidation, although IH-901 had only a mild scavenging activity against nitric oxide. These results suggest that IH-901 may be a useful antioxidant agent against reactive oxygen species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nam-Jin Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Korea
| | - Jung Won Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Korea
| | - Jong Hwan Sung
- Central Research Institute, Ilhwa Co., Ltd., Guri, Korea
| | - Young-Jung Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Medical Research Center, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Korea
| | - Jong-Koo Kang
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Korea
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Gao Y, Liu Z, Li C, Shen J, Yin H, Li G. Subchronic toxicity studies with ginsenoside compound K delivered to dogs via intravenous administration. Food Chem Toxicol 2011; 49:1857-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2011.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Revised: 05/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/04/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Abdel-Aziem SH, Hassan AM, Abdel-Wahhab MA. Dietary supplementation with whey protein and ginseng extract counteracts oxidative stress and DNA damage in rats fed an aflatoxin-contaminated diet. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2011; 723:65-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2011.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2010] [Revised: 03/14/2011] [Accepted: 04/13/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Tournas V, Kohn J, Katsoudas E. Interactions between various microbes and ginseng botanicals. Crit Rev Microbiol 2011; 37:113-20. [DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2010.520670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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21
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Song G, Guo S, Wang W, Hu C, Mao Y, Zhang B, Zhang H, Hu T. Intestinal metabolite compound K of ginseng saponin potently attenuates metastatic growth of hepatocellular carcinoma by augmenting apoptosis via a Bid-mediated mitochondrial pathway. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:12753-12760. [PMID: 21121651 DOI: 10.1021/jf103814f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
It was recently shown that compound K (CK), an intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng saponin, exhibits antihepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) activity, and Bid is a potential drug target for HCC therapy. This paper reports a novel mechanism of CK-induced apoptosis of HCC cells via Bid-mediated mitochondrial pathway. CK dramatically inhibited HCC cells growth in concentration- and time-dependent manners, and a high dose of CK could induce HCC cell apoptotic cell death. Furthermore, the effective dose of CK potently attenuated the subcutaneous tumor growth and spontaneous HCC metastasis in vivo. At the molecular level, immunohistochemical staining revealed that Bid expression in subcutaneous tumor and liver metastasis tissues decreased dramatically in CK-treated groups compared to untreated controls, which also implies that Bid may play a critical role in the growth and progression of HCC. Further study shows that translocation of full-length Bid to the mitochondria from nuclei during cytotoxic apoptosis was associated with the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, indicating that full-length Bid is sufficient for the activation of mitochondrial cell death pathways in response to CK treatment in HCC cells. Taken together, the results not only reveal a Bid-mediated mitochondrial pathway in HCC cells induced by CK but also suggest that CK may become a potential cytotoxic drug targeting Bid in the prevention and treatment of HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Song
- Cancer Research Center, Medical College of Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China.
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22
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Lee IK, Kang KA, Lim CM, Kim KC, Kim HS, Kim DH, Kim BJ, Chang WY, Choi JH, Hyun JW. Compound K, a metabolite of ginseng saponin, induces mitochondria-dependent and caspase-dependent apoptosis via the generation of reactive oxygen species in human colon cancer cells. Int J Mol Sci 2010; 11:4916-31. [PMID: 21614182 PMCID: PMC3100836 DOI: 10.3390/ijms11124916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2010] [Revised: 11/19/2010] [Accepted: 11/19/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to elucidate the cytotoxic mechanism of Compound K, with respect to the involvement of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the mitochondrial involved apoptosis, in HT-29 human colon cancer cells. Compound K exhibited a concentration of 50% growth inhibition (IC50) at 20 μg/mL and cytotoxicity in a time dependent manner. Compound K produced intracellular ROS in a time dependent fashion; however, N-acetylcysteine (NAC) pretreatment resulted in the inhibition of this effect and the recovery of cell viability. Compound K induced a mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway via the modulation of Bax and Bcl-2 expressions, resulting in the disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm). Loss of the Δψm was followed by cytochrome c release from the mitochondria, resulting in the activation of caspase-9, -3, and concomitant poly ADP-ribosyl polymerase (PARP) cleavage, which are the indicators of caspase-dependent apoptosis. The apoptotic effect of Compound K, exerted via the activation of c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), was abrogated by specific MAPK inhibitors. This study demonstrated that Compound K-mediated generation of ROS led to apoptosis through the modulation of a mitochondria-dependent apoptotic pathway and MAPK pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- In Kyung Lee
- Department of Microbiology and Cancer Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110-799, Korea; E-Mails: (I.K.L.); (B.J.K.)
| | - Kyoung Ah Kang
- School of Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 690-756, Korea; E-Mails: (K.A.K.); (C.M.L.); (K.C.K.); (W.Y.C.)
| | - Chae Moon Lim
- School of Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 690-756, Korea; E-Mails: (K.A.K.); (C.M.L.); (K.C.K.); (W.Y.C.)
| | - Ki Cheon Kim
- School of Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 690-756, Korea; E-Mails: (K.A.K.); (C.M.L.); (K.C.K.); (W.Y.C.)
| | - Hee Sun Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 110-783, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Dong Hyun Kim
- Department of Microbial Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Bum Joon Kim
- Department of Microbiology and Cancer Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 110-799, Korea; E-Mails: (I.K.L.); (B.J.K.)
| | - Weon Young Chang
- School of Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 690-756, Korea; E-Mails: (K.A.K.); (C.M.L.); (K.C.K.); (W.Y.C.)
| | - Jae Hyuck Choi
- School of Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 690-756, Korea; E-Mails: (K.A.K.); (C.M.L.); (K.C.K.); (W.Y.C.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (J.W.H.); (J.H.C.); Tel.: +82-64-754-3838; Fax: +82-64-702-2687
| | - Jin Won Hyun
- School of Medicine, Jeju National University, Jeju 690-756, Korea; E-Mails: (K.A.K.); (C.M.L.); (K.C.K.); (W.Y.C.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (J.W.H.); (J.H.C.); Tel.: +82-64-754-3838; Fax: +82-64-702-2687
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Kim AD, Kang KA, Zhang R, Lim CM, Kim HS, Kim DH, Jeon YJ, Lee CH, Park J, Chang WY, Hyun JW. Ginseng saponin metabolite induces apoptosis in MCF-7 breast cancer cells through the modulation of AMP-activated protein kinase. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2010; 30:134-140. [PMID: 21787643 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2010.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2010] [Revised: 04/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/30/2010] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that the ginseng saponin metabolite, Compound K (20-O-d-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol, IH901), suppresses proliferation of various cancers and induces apoptosis. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a sensor of cellular energy states and is involved in apoptosis of cancer cells. We hypothesized that Compound K may exert cytotoxicity in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells through modulation of AMPK, followed by a decrease in cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. Compound K inhibited cell growth, induced apoptosis via generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as decreasing COX-2 expression and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) levels. These effects of Compound K were induced via an AMPK-dependent pathway and were abrogated by a specific AMPK inhibitor. These results suggest that Compound K induced apoptosis by modulating AMPK-COX-2 signaling in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Areum Daseul Kim
- Department of Marine Life Science, Jeju National University, Jeju-si 690-756, Republic of Korea
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Jia L, Zhao Y, Liang XJ. Current evaluation of the millennium phytomedicine- ginseng (II): Collected chemical entities, modern pharmacology, and clinical applications emanated from traditional Chinese medicine. Curr Med Chem 2010; 16:2924-42. [PMID: 19689273 DOI: 10.2174/092986709788803204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This review, a sequel to part 1 in the series, collects about 107 chemical entities separated from the roots, leaves and flower buds of Panax ginseng, quinquefolius and notoginseng, and categorizes these entities into about 18 groups based on their structural similarity. The bioactivities of these chemical entities are described. The 'Yin and Yang' theory and the fundamentals of the 'five elements' applied to the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) are concisely introduced to help readers understand how ginseng balances the dynamic equilibrium of human physiological processes from the TCM perspectives. This paper concerns the observation and experimental investigation of biological activities of ginseng used in the TCM of past and present cultures. The current biological findings of ginseng and its medical applications are narrated and critically discussed, including 1) its antihyperglycemic effect that may benefit type II diabetics; in vitro and in vivo studies demonstrated protection of ginseng on beta-cells and obese diabetic mouse models. The related clinical trial results are stated. 2) its aphrodisiac effect and cardiovascular effect that partially attribute to ginseng's bioactivity on nitric oxide (NO); 3) its cognitive effect and neuropharmacological effect that are intensively tested in various rat models using purified ginsenosides and show a hope to treat Parkinson's disease (PD); 4) its uses as an adjuvant or immunotherapeutic agent to enhance immune activity, appetite and life quality of cancer patients during their chemotherapy and radiation. Although the apoptotic effect of ginsenosides, especially Rh2, Rg3 and Compound K, on various tumor cells has been shown via different pathways, their clinical effectiveness remains to be tested. This paper also updates the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic and immune-stimulatory activities of ginseng, its ingredients and commercial products, as well as common side effects of ginseng mainly due to its overdose, and its pharmacokinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Jia
- Developmental Therapeutics Program, National Cancer Institute/ NIH, Rockville, MD 20852, USA.
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Cho SH, Chung KS, Choi JH, Kim DH, Lee KT. Compound K, a metabolite of ginseng saponin, induces apoptosis via caspase-8-dependent pathway in HL-60 human leukemia cells. BMC Cancer 2009; 9:449. [PMID: 20017956 PMCID: PMC2806409 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-9-449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2009] [Accepted: 12/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Compound K [20-O-beta-(D-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol], a metabolite of the protopanaxadiol-type saponins of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, has been reported to possess anti-tumor properties to inhibit angiogenesis and to induce tumor apoptosis. In the present study, we investigated the effect of Compound K on apoptosis and explored the underlying mechanisms involved in HL-60 human leukemia cells. METHODS We examined the effect of Compound K on the viabilities of various cancer cell lines using MTT assays. DAPI assay, Annexin V and PI double staining, Western blot assay and immunoprecipitation were used to determine the effect of Compound K on the induction of apoptosis. RESULTS Compound K was found to inhibit the viability of HL-60 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner with an IC50 of 14 muM. Moreover, this cell death had typical features of apoptosis, that is, DNA fragmentation, DNA ladder formation, and the externalization of Annexin V targeted phosphatidylserine residues in HL-60 cells. In addition, compound-K induced a series of intracellular events associated with both the mitochondrial- and death receptor-dependent apoptotic pathways, namely, (1) the activation of caspases-3, -8, and -9; (2) the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential; (3) the release of cytochrome c and Smac/DIABLO to the cytosol; (4) the translocation of Bid and Bax to mitochondria; and (5) the downregulations of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL. Furthermore, a caspase-8 inhibitor completely abolished caspase-3 activation, Bid cleavage, and subsequent DNA fragmentation by Compound K. Interestingly, the activation of caspase-3 and -8 and DNA fragmentation were significantly prevented in the presence of cycloheximide, suggesting that Compound K-induced apoptosis is dependent on de novo protein synthesis. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate that caspase-8 plays a key role in Compound K-stimulated apoptosis via the activation of caspase-3 directly or indirectly through Bid cleavage, cytochrome c release, and caspase-9 activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung-Hee Cho
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biochemistry, College of Pharmacy, Kyung-Hee University, Seoul 130-701, South Korea
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Cho S, Won CH, Lee DH, Lee MJ, Lee S, So SH, Lee SK, Koo BS, Kim NM, Chung JH. Red Ginseng Root Extract Mixed with Torilus Fructus and Corni Fructus Improves Facial Wrinkles and Increases Type I Procollagen Synthesis in Human Skin: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. J Med Food 2009; 12:1252-9. [DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2008.1390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Soyun Cho
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University Boramae Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chong-Hyun Won
- Department of Dermatology, Ulsan University Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hun Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Jung Lee
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Aging Research, Clinical Research Institute, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Dermatological Science, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Serah Lee
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Aging Research, Clinical Research Institute, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Dermatological Science, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Ho So
- Ginseng Research Group, KT&G Central Research Institute, Yuseong, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong-Kye Lee
- Ginseng Research Group, KT&G Central Research Institute, Yuseong, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Bon-Suk Koo
- Ginseng Research Group, KT&G Central Research Institute, Yuseong, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Na-Mi Kim
- Ginseng Research Group, KT&G Central Research Institute, Yuseong, Daejeon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Ho Chung
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Laboratory of Cutaneous Aging Research, Clinical Research Institute, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Dermatological Science, Medical Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Kim DY, Park MW, Yuan HD, Lee HJ, Kim SH, Chung SH. Compound K induces apoptosis via CAMK-IV/AMPK pathways in HT-29 colon cancer cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009; 57:10573-10578. [PMID: 19845353 DOI: 10.1021/jf902700h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Although compound K (CK), an intestinal metabolite of ginseng protopanaxadiol saponins, has been known to induce apoptosis in various cancer cells, association of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) with apoptosis in HT-29 colon cancer cells remains unclear. We hypothesized that CK may exert an anticancer activity through modulating the AMPK pathway in HT-29 cells. CK-induced apoptosis was associated with the disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential, release of apoptogenic factors (cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing factor) from mitochondria, and cleavage of caspase-9, caspase-3, caspase-8, Bid, and PARP proteins. This apoptotic effect of CK on colon cancer cells was found to be initiated by AMPK activation, and AMPK was activated through phosphorylation by Ca2+/calmodulin-activated protein kinase-IV (CAMK-IV). Treatment of HT-29 cells with compound C (AMPK inhibitor) or siRNA for AMPK completely abolished the CK-induced apoptosis. STO-609, CAMKs inhibitor, also attenuated CK-induced AMPK activation and apoptosis. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that CK-mediated cell death of HT-29 colon cancer cells is regulated by CAMK-IV/AMPK pathways, and these findings provide a molecular basis for the anticancer effect of CK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Do Yeon Kim
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
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Jia L, Zhao Y. Current evaluation of the millennium phytomedicine--ginseng (I): etymology, pharmacognosy, phytochemistry, market and regulations. Curr Med Chem 2009; 16:2475-84. [PMID: 19601793 DOI: 10.2174/092986709788682146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The dawning of this millennium broke new ground in life science and technology, presented us genomic and proteomic revolution, nanotechnology innovation, and high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) used for separating and identifying new chemical entities at pico-, or even femto-concentrations. Applications of these high technologies to the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) opened a new chapter in the ancient medicine, and prompted us to re-evaluate the thousand-year-old phytomedicine- ginseng from current perspectives. We, therefore, collected the latest information (mostly within 10 years) on ginseng, and condensed the information into two parts of this review serial. The present part covers etymology of ginseng, its pharmacognosy (natural origin, physical appearance, chemical properties, and specie identification), its cultivation and processing-related metabolic changes in active ingredients, standardized analytical methods used for quality control of various ginseng products, modern analytical methods used to identify and classify more than 100 chemical entities (many were recently unfolded) derived from ginseng species and their metabolites. The global markets and production of ginseng and relevant government regulations are herein updated to exchange information and understandings about current people's uses and cultivation of ginseng. The second part of the review serial will classify all these 100 chemical entities separated from various ginseng species into different groups based on their structural similarities, and summarize bioactivities of these entities. The second part of the review serial will also focus on recent findings of ginseng pharmacology and its clinical trials for various diseases, and brief side effects of ginseng.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Jia
- Developmental Therapeutics Program, National Cancer Institute/NIH, 6130 Executive Blvd., Rockville, MD 20852, USA.
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Hasegawa H. Anticarcinogenesis in Mice by Ginseng-Hydrolyzing Colonic Bacteria. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/089106000435473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hideo Hasegawa
- Itto Institute of Life Science Research, Happy World Inc., 3-13-8 Shiraitodai, Fuchu, Tokyo, 183-0011 Japan
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Chae S, Kang KA, Chang WY, Kim MJ, Lee SJ, Lee YS, Kim HS, Kim DH, Hyun JW. Effect of compound K, a metabolite of ginseng saponin, combined with gamma-ray radiation in human lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2009; 57:5777-5782. [PMID: 19526988 DOI: 10.1021/jf900331g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Pretreatment of NCI-H460 human lung cancer cells with compound K produced by intestinal bacteria enhances gamma-ray radiation-induced cell death. Increases in apoptosis induced by combined treatment are made apparent in the observation of nuclear fragmentation, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (Deltapsi), and activation of caspase 3. Apoptosis induced by compound K and gamma-ray radiation is associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Furthermore, compound K, in combination with gamma-ray radiation, has an enhanced effect in the regression of NCI-H460 tumor xenografts of nude mice. These results suggest that compound K has possible application for cancer therapy when used in combination with gamma-ray radiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungwook Chae
- Department of Herbal Resources Research, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Daejeon 305-811, Republic of Korea
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Yu H, Liu Q, Zhang C, Lu M, Fu Y, Im WT, Lee ST, Jin F. A new ginsenosidase from Aspergillus strain hydrolyzing 20-O-multi-glycoside of PPD ginsenoside. Process Biochem 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2009.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Zhou W, Li J, Li X, Yan Q, Zhou P. Development and validation of a reversed-phase HPLC method for quantitative determination of ginsenosides Rb1, Rd, F2, and compound K during the process of biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1. J Sep Sci 2008; 31:921-5. [PMID: 18300212 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200700406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A simple and rapid gradient RP-HPLC method for simultaneous separation and determination of related ginsenosides during the process of biotransformation of ginsenoside Rb1 has been developed. As many as four process ginsenosides have been separated and identified on an Eclipse XDB C(18) column (4.6 mm x 150 mm, 5 mum) with gradient elution using water and ACN as a mobile phase. The column was maintained at 30 degrees C and the eluents were monitored with diode array detection at 203 nm. The method was validated in terms of linearity, sensitivity, precision, and accuracy. The correlation coefficients (r) for calibration curves of ginsenosides were in the range of 0.9996-1.0000. The proposed RP-HPLC method was successfully applied to the analysis of fermentation broth and the recoveries of ginsenosides were in the range of 94.4-103.1% with RSD <2.87%. The method could be of use for rapid and routine evaluation of the quantity of ginsenosides during the biotransformation process of ginsenoside Rb1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhou
- Department of Biosynthetic Drug, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Zhou W, Yan Q, Li JY, Zhang XC, Zhou P. Biotransformation of Panax notoginseng saponins into ginsenoside compound K production by Paecilomyces bainier sp. 229. J Appl Microbiol 2008; 104:699-706. [PMID: 18179546 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03586.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Development and optimization of an efficient and inexpensive biotransformation process for ginsenoside compound K production by Paecilomyces bainier sp. 229. METHODS AND RESULTS We have determined the optimum culture conditions required for the efficient production of ginsenoside compound K by P. bainier sp. 229 via biotransformation of ginseng saponin substrate. The optimal medium constituents were determined to be: 30 g sucrose, 30 g soybean steep powder, 1 g wheat bran powder, 1 g (NH(4))(2)SO(4), 2 g MgSO(4) x 7H(2)O and 1 g CaCl(2) in 1 l of distilled water. An inoculum size of 5-7.5% with an optimal pH range of 4.5-5.5 was essential for high yield. CONCLUSIONS The Mol conversion quotient of ginseng saponins increased from 21.2% to 72.7% by optimization of the cultural conditions. Scale-up in a 10 l fermentor, under conditions of controlled pH and continuous air supply in the optimal medium, resulted in an 82.6% yield of ginsenoside compound K. SIGNIFICANT AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This is the first report on the optimization of culture conditions for the production of ginsenoside compound K by fungal biotransformation. The degree of conversion is significantly higher than previous reports. Our method describes an inexpensive, rapid and efficient biotransformation system for the production of ginsenoside compound K.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Zhou
- Department of Biosynthetic Drug, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Kyo Jeoung M, Bok Chung Y, Sok Lee P, Soo Kim C, Hee Kim N, Ju Son D, Tae Hong J, Moon D. Determination of a Ginseng Saponin Metabolite, IH901, in Rat Plasma by Liquid Chromatography‐Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/10826070500330885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Min Kyo Jeoung
- a College of Pharmacy , Chungbuk National University , Heungduk‐Gu, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Youn Bok Chung
- a College of Pharmacy , Chungbuk National University , Heungduk‐Gu, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Pung Sok Lee
- a College of Pharmacy , Chungbuk National University , Heungduk‐Gu, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang Soo Kim
- a College of Pharmacy , Chungbuk National University , Heungduk‐Gu, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Nam Hee Kim
- a College of Pharmacy , Chungbuk National University , Heungduk‐Gu, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Ju Son
- a College of Pharmacy , Chungbuk National University , Heungduk‐Gu, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Tae Hong
- a College of Pharmacy , Chungbuk National University , Heungduk‐Gu, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong‐Cheul Moon
- a College of Pharmacy , Chungbuk National University , Heungduk‐Gu, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
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Zhou W, Feng MQ, Li JY, Zhou P. Studies on the preparation, crystal structure and bioactivity of ginsenoside compound K. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2006; 8:519-27. [PMID: 16931427 DOI: 10.1080/10286020500208600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Microbial transformation of Panaxnotoginseng saponins (PNS) using Aspergillus niger afforded, as the main metabolite, ginsenoside compound K (20-O-beta-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol). Its structure was determined spectroscopically and by X-ray analysis, and this is the first time the crystal structure of ginsenoside has been reported. In comparison with ginsenoside Rb1, the pro-drug for this metabolite, compound K exhibits potent cytotoxic activity against tumor cell lines. The mean concentrations of compound K needed to inhibit the proliferation of cells by 50% (IC50) were 12.7, 11.4, 8.5 and 9.7 microM for mouse high-metastatic melanoma (B16-BL6), human hepatoma (HepG2), human myeloid leukemia (K562) and human high-metastatic lung carcinoma (95-D) cell lines, respectively. The data show that ginsenoside compound K is a good antitumor drug candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Zhou
- Department of Biosynthetic Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, 138 YiXueYuan Road, Shanghai 200032, China
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Wang W, Zhao Y, Rayburn ER, Hill DL, Wang H, Zhang R. In vitro anti-cancer activity and structure-activity relationships of natural products isolated from fruits of Panax ginseng. Cancer Chemother Pharmacol 2006; 59:589-601. [PMID: 16924497 DOI: 10.1007/s00280-006-0300-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 229] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2006] [Accepted: 07/25/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Panax ginseng and its extracts have long been used for medical purposes; there is increasing interest in developing ginseng products as cancer preventive or therapeutic agents. The present study was designed to determine biological structure-activity relationships (SAR) for saponins present in Panax ginseng fruits. METHODS Eleven saponins were extracted from P. ginseng fruits and purified by use of D(101) resin and ordinary and reverse-phase silica gel column chromatography. Their chemical structures were elucidated on the basis of physicochemical constants and NMR spectra. Compounds were then evaluated for SAR with their in vitro cytotoxicity against several human cancer cell lines. RESULTS The 11 compounds were identified as 20(R)-dammarane-3beta,12beta,20,25-tetrol (25-OH-PPD, 1); 20(R)-dammarane-3beta,6alpha,12beta,20,25-pentol (25-OH-PPT, 2); 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PPD, 3); daucosterine 4, 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rh(2) (Rh(2), 5); 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rg(3) (Rg(3,) 6); 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rg(2) (Rg(2), 7); 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rg(1) (Rg(1), 8); 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rd (Rd, 9); 20(S)-ginsenoside-Re (Re, 10); and 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rb(1) (Rb(1), 11). Among the eleven compounds, 1, 3 and 5 were the most effective inhibitors of cell growth and proliferation and inducers of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. For 1, the IC(50) values for most cell lines were in the range of 10-60 microM, at least twofold lower than for any of the other compounds. Compounds 1 and 3 had significant, dose-dependent effects on apoptosis, proliferation, and cell cycle progression. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that the type of dammarane, the number of sugar moieties, and differences in the substituent groups affect their anti-cancer activity. This information may be useful for evaluating the structure/function relationship of other ginsenosides and their aglycones and for development of novel anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Cancer Pharmacology Laboratory, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA
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Lee PS, Han JY, Song TW, Sung JH, Kwon OS, Song S, Chung YB. Physicochemical characteristics and bioavailability of a novel intestinal metabolite of ginseng saponin (IH901) complexed with β-cyclodextrin. Int J Pharm 2006; 316:29-36. [PMID: 16574357 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2005] [Revised: 01/23/2006] [Accepted: 02/15/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
In an effort to improve the bioavailability (BA) of the insoluble compound 20-O-(beta-d-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (IH901), we prepared beta-cyclodextrin (betaCD) and hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin (HPbetaCD) inclusion complexes containing IH901. IH901 is a major metabolite formed by intestinal bacteria from protopanaxadiol ginseng saponins. We developed and validated an HPLC-based method to measure IH901 levels from samples prepared in vitro. The phase solubility profiles with both cyclodextrins (CDs) were classified as AL-type, indicating the formation of a 1:1 stoichiometric inclusion complex. Stability constants (Ks) calculated from the phase solubility diagrams showed that the betaCD complex was more stable than the HPbetaCD complex. Consequently, complexes of IH901 and betaCD were prepared by a freeze-drying method and were analyzed by fourier transformation-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). From these physicochemical characterizations, we confirmed the presence of a new solid phase in the freeze-dried samples. The IH901 released from the complex in a pH 1.2 solution, the pH range of gastric fluids, was considerably lower than the amount released in the other solutions. The IH901 released from the complex in pH 6.8 solution, the range of intestinal fluids, was 9.0-fold greater than pure IH901 powder. However, the amount of IH901 released from the complex in pH 4.0-8.0 was less than 20%. After oral administration of the IH901-betaCD inclusion complex (30 mg/kg IH901) into rats, plasma concentrations were determined by LC/MS/MS. The peak concentration (Cmax) for the inclusion complex was 2.8-fold higher than that for pure IH901 powder. The BA, calculated from the ratio of the AUCoral to the AUCi.v., for the pure IH901 powder, the IH901-betaCD physical mixture, and the inclusion complex was 3.52, 4.34, and 6.57%, respectively. These results indicate that the BA for the inclusion complex was 1.9-fold higher than that for the pure IH901 powder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pung Sok Lee
- National Research Laboratory (NRL) of PK/PD, Biotechnology Research Institute, College of Pharmacy, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Chungbuk 361-763, South Korea
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Popovich DG, Hu C, Durance TD, Kitts DD. Retention of Ginsenosides in Dried Ginseng Root: Comparison of Drying Methods. J Food Sci 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2005.tb11455.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Kang KA, Lee KH, Chae S, Kim JK, Seo JY, Ham YH, Lee KH, Kim BJ, Kim HS, Kim DH, Hyun JW. Inhibition of telomerase activity in U937 human monocytic leukemia cells by Compound K, a ginseng saponin metabolite. BIOTECHNOL BIOPROC E 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02931861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Jung SH, Woo MS, Kim SY, Kim WK, Hyun JW, Kim EJ, Kim DH, Kim HS. Ginseng saponin metabolite suppresses phorbol ester-induced matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression through inhibition of activator protein-1 and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways in human astroglioma cells. Int J Cancer 2006; 118:490-7. [PMID: 16049964 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.21356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Aberrant expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is implicated in the process of invasion and angiogenesis of malignant tumors as well as in inflammatory diseases of the CNS. Therefore, the development of compounds that can inhibit or suppress MMP-9 is required to treat brain tumors. We investigated the effects of a ginseng saponin metabolite, compound K (20-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol), on MMP-9 expression in human astroglioma cells. Compound K significantly inhibited the secretion and protein expression of MMP-9 induced by PMA. The inhibitory effect of compound K on MMP-9 expression correlated with decreased MMP-9 mRNA levels and suppression of MMP-9 promoter activity. The compound K-mediated inhibition of MMP-9 gene expression appears to occur via AP-1 because its DNA-binding and transcriptional activities were suppressed by the agent. Furthermore, compound K significantly repressed the PMA-mediated activation of p38 MAPK, ERK and JNK, which are upstream modulators of AP-1. Finally, compound K inhibited the in vitro invasiveness of glioma cells. Therefore, inhibition of MMP-9 expression by compound K might have therapeutic potential for controlling the growth and invasiveness of brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soo-Hyun Jung
- Department of Neuroscience, Ewha Institute of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, Ewha Woman's University, Seoul, South Korea
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Kang KA, Kim YW, Kim SU, Chae S, Koh YS, Kim HS, Choo MK, Kim DH, Hyun JW. G1 phase arrest of the cell cycle by a ginseng metabolite, compound K, in U937 human monocytic leukamia cells. Arch Pharm Res 2005; 28:685-90. [PMID: 16042078 DOI: 10.1007/bf02969359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We recently reported that the ginseng saponin metabolite, compound K (20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-20(S)-protopanaxadiol, IH901), inhibits the growth of U937 cells through caspase-dependent apoptosis pathway. In this study, we further characterized the effects of compound K on U937 cells and found that, in addition to apoptosis, compound K induced the arrest of the G1 phase. The compound K treated U937 cells showed increased p21 expression; an inhibitory protein of cyclin-cdk complex. The up-regulation of p21 was followed by the inactivation of cyclin D and the cdk4 protein, which act at the early G1 phase, and cyclin E, which acts at the late G1 phase. Furthermore, compound K induced the activation of JNK and the transcription factor AP-1, which is a downstream target of JNK. These findings suggest that the up-regulation of p21 and activation of JNK in the compound K treated cells contribute to the arrest of the G1 phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoung Ah Kang
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine and Applied Radiological Science Research Institute, Cheju National University, 66 Jejudaehakno, Jeju-si 690-756 Korea
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Yim HW, Jong HS, Kim TY, Choi HH, Kim SG, Song SH, Kim J, Ko SG, Lee JW, Kim TY, Bang YJ. Cyclooxygenase-2 Inhibits Novel Ginseng Metabolite-Mediated Apoptosis. Cancer Res 2005; 65:1952-60. [PMID: 15753395 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-1740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recently, a novel intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng protopanaxadiol saponins, i.e., 20-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (IH-901), has been reported to induce apoptosis in a variety of cancer cells. Here we show a differential effect of IH-901 on several cell types. Exposure to IH-901 for 48 hours at a supposedly subapoptotic concentration of 40 mumol/L led to both apoptotic cell death and G1 arrest in Hep3B cells, but only resulted in G1 arrest in MDA-MB-231, Hs578T, and MKN28 cells. Additionally, the treatment of MDA-MB-231, but not of Hep3B, with IH-901 up-regulated cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mRNA (2 hours) and protein (6 hours), and enhanced the production of prostaglandin E2. In MDA-MB-231 cells, IH-901 induced the sustained activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), whereas inhibition of mitogen-activated protein/ERK kinase blocked IH-901-mediated COX-2 induction and resulted in apoptosis, suggesting the involvement of an ERK-COX-2 pathway. Combined treatment with IH-901 and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibited COX-2 enzyme and induced apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 and Hs578T cells. Adenovirus-mediated COX-2 small interfering RNAs also effectively inhibited COX-2 protein expression and enhanced IH-901-mediated apoptosis without inhibiting ERK 1/2 phosphorylation, thus providing direct evidence that COX-2 is an antiapoptotic molecule. Moreover, IH-901-mediated G1 arrest resulted from an increase in p27Kip1 mRNA and protein expression followed by a decrease in CDK2 kinase activity that was concurrent with the hypophosphorylation of Rb and p130. In conclusion, IH-901 induced both G1 arrest and apoptosis, and this apoptosis could be inhibited by COX-2 induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Woo Yim
- National Research Laboratory for Cancer Epigenetics, Cancer Research Institute and Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Chongno, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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KANG KYOUNGAH, LIM HEEKYOUNG, KIM SEUNGUK, KIM YEONGWAN, KIM WONTAEK, CHUNG HASOOK, CHOO MINKYUNG, KIM DONGHYUN, KIM HEESUN, SHIM MIJA, CHUNG MYUNGHEE, HYUN JINWON. INDUCTION OF APOPTOSIS BY GINSENG SAPONIN METABOLITE IN U937 HUMAN MONOCYTIC LEUKEMIA CELLS. J Food Biochem 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4514.2005.00001.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Oh SH, Yin HQ, Lee BH. Role of the Fas/Fas ligand death receptor pathway in ginseng saponin metabolite-induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells. Arch Pharm Res 2004; 27:402-6. [PMID: 15180305 DOI: 10.1007/bf02980081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
This research team found in previous studies, that the ginseng saponin metabolite IH901 induces apoptosis in HepG2 cells via a mitochondrial-mediated pathway, which resulted in the activation of caspase-9 and subsequently of caspase-3 and -8. Based on these results, the involvement of the Fas/Fas ligand (FasL) death-receptor pathway, in IH901-induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells, was investigated. Levels of Fas and the Fas ligand (FasL) mRNA or protein were not increased by IH901, rather they were decreased significantly at 18 h post treatment. Soluble FasL (sFasL) was detectable by immunoprecipitation analysis in the medium of HepG2 cells treated with IH901. Increased levels of sFasL were inversely correlated with the levels of FasL. Preincubation of HepG2 cells with antagonistic anti-Fas antibody showed little protective effect, if any, on IH901-induced cell death. At a 30 microM (24 and 48 h) and 40 microM (24 h) concentration of IH901, the cytotoxic effect of IH901 was less then 50%, anti-Fas antibody prevented IH901-induced cell death. However, at a 60 microM (24 and 48 h) and 40 microM (48 h) concentration of IH901, cell death rates were about 80% or more and most of the chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects of IH901 were manifested. Blocking the Fas receptor did not influence IH901-induced cell death. These results indicate that the Fas/FasL system is engaged, but not required for IH901-induced cell death, at pharmacologically significant concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seon-Hee Oh
- College of Pharmacy and Medicinal Resources Research Center, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Jeonbuk 570-749, Korea
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Sparg SG, Light ME, van Staden J. Biological activities and distribution of plant saponins. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2004; 94:219-43. [PMID: 15325725 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2004.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 691] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2004] [Revised: 05/28/2004] [Accepted: 05/29/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Plant saponins are widely distributed amongst plants and have a wide range of biological properties. The more recent investigations and findings into their biological activities were summarized. Isolation studies of saponins were examined to determine which are the more commonly studied plant families and in which families saponins have been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- S G Sparg
- Research Centre for Plant Growth and Development, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, Private Bag X01, Scottsville 3209, South Africa
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Oh SH, Lee BH. A ginseng saponin metabolite-induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells involves a mitochondria-mediated pathway and its downstream caspase-8 activation and Bid cleavage. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2004; 194:221-9. [PMID: 14761678 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2003.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2003] [Accepted: 09/02/2003] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
20-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)-20(S)-protopanaxadiol (IH901), an intestinal bacterial metabolite of ginseng saponin formed from ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, and Rc, is suggested to be a potential chemopreventive agent. Here, we show that IH901 induces apoptosis in human hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells. IH901 led to an early activation of procaspase-3 (12 h posttreatment), and the activation of caspase-8 became evident only later (18 h posttreatment). Caspase activation was a necessary requirement for apoptosis because caspase inhibitors significantly inhibited cell death by IH901. Treatment of HepG2 cells with IH901 also induced the cleavage of cytosolic factors such as Bid and Bax and translocation of truncated Bid (tBid) to mitochondria. A time-dependent release of cytochrome c from mitochondria was observed, which was accompanied by activation of caspase-9. A broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor, N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone (zVAD-fmk), and a specific inhibitor for caspase-8, N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Ile-Glu-Thr-Asp-fluoromethylketone (zIETD-fmk), abrogated Bid processing and translocation, and caspase-3 activation. Cytochrome c release was inhibited by zVAD-fmk, however, the inhibition by zIETD-fmk was not complete. The activation of caspase-8 was inhibited not only by zIETD-fmk but also by zVAD-fmk. The results, together with the kinetic change of caspase activation, indicate that activation of caspase-8 occurred downstream of caspase-3 and -9. Our data suggest that the activation of caspase-8 after early caspase-3 activation might act as an amplification loop necessary for successful apoptosis. Primary hepatocytes isolated from normal Sprague-Dawley rats were not affected by IH901 (0-60 microM). The very low toxicity in normal hepatocytes and high activity in hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells suggest that IH901 is a promising experimental cancer chemopreventive agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seon-Hee Oh
- Laboratory of Hygienic Pharmacy and Molecular Toxicology, College of Pharmacy and Medicinal Resources Research Center, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Jeonbuk 570-749, South Korea
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Kang JK, Lee YJ, No KO, Jung EY, Sung JH, Kim YB, Nam SY. Ginseng intestinal metabolite-I (GIM-I) reduces doxorubicin toxicity in the mouse testis. Reprod Toxicol 2002; 16:291-8. [PMID: 12128103 DOI: 10.1016/s0890-6238(02)00021-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The protective effect of ginseng intestinal metabolite-I (GIM-I) against doxorubicin-induced testicular toxicity was investigated in 5-week-old ICR male mice. GIM-I was administered orally to mice at a dose of 50 mg/kg daily for 4 weeks. From the second week, doxorubicin was coadministered intraperitoneally to the animals at a dose of 3 mg/kg once a week for 3 weeks (a total of 9 mg/kg). The body weight, spermatogenic activities (Sertoli cell, repopulation, and epididymal indices), and serum levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine phosphokinase (CPK) were significantly decreased by doxorubicin treatment (P<0.01), while the combined treatment of GIM-I with doxorubicin resulted in parameters similar to the control. In the testes of doxorubicin-treated animals, almost all of the germ cells disappeared and were replaced by fibrinoid debris in the seminiferous tubules. Germ cell injury was significantly attenuated by GIM-I coadministration. The mRNA for phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx), a testis-specific antioxidant, was greatly decreased by doxorubicin treatment, and less decreased with GIM-I coadministration. These findings indicate that GIM-I may be partially protective against doxorubicin-induced testicular toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong- Koo Kang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju 361-763, South Korea
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