CLINICAL PRACTICE. Genital Herpes

The application of photodynamic therapy in recurrent genital herpes

BACKGROUND

Frequently, recurrence of genital herpes imposes significant physical and psychological burdens on patients, and existing treatments are often ineffective in preventing recurrence. Previous studies have indicated that photodynamic therapy (PDT) showed promising outcomes in the treatment of labial herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections; however, its efficacy for genital herpes remained unclear.

METHOD

The study screened patients with genital herpes at Daping Hospital from July 2020 to May 2024. Patients were divided into two groups based on whether they received PDT treatment. Over a one-year follow-up period, patients' healing time and recurrence rates were compared between the two groups. The cumulative incidence of recurrence and restricted mean survival time (RMST) were used to assess outcomes. Propensity score matching (PSM) was employed to minimize bias.

RESULT

A total of 41 patients enrolled in our study, with 8 (19.5 %) received PDT. The non-PDT group exhibited a slower skin lesion healing time, averaging at 7.2 days compared to 5.4 days in the PDT group. A significant difference was observed in the cumulative incidence of recurrence between the PDT and non-PDT groups (37.5 % versus 71.4 %) after PSM. The RMST in the PDT group was 9.94 days, compared to 5.13 days in the non-PDT group before PSM, and 4.14 after PSM.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrated that the PDT effectively reduced lesion recovery time and delayed recurrences of genital herpes. We recommend considering PDT as a potential treatment option for patients with recurrent genital herpes.

Herpes Simplex Type 1 as the Predominant Cause of Genital Herpes in College Students

BACKGROUND

Genital herpes etiology has been shifting to include a greater proportion of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection in the last few decades. A prior study published in 2003 found that 48.9% of infections in a college health population were HSV-1.

METHODS

We evaluated the number of positive HSV polymerase chain reaction test results obtained from anogenital sites from undergraduate and graduate students from 2013 to 2022 in a college health clinic setting and analyzed the number caused by HSV-1 and HSV type 2 and compared by sex. This was then compared with the prior study from 1993 to 2001.

RESULTS

We received 691 (of 2685 samples) positive polymerase chain reaction results for HSV of both types in the period analyzed. Overall, 600 (86.8%) of these were HSV-1, and 520 (75.2%) were in female patients. The prior study in 1993 to 2001 found that 48.9% (244 of 675) of all positive test results were HSV-1; we observed an increase in the percentage of positive HSV-1 over all positive test results of 1.8 ( χ2 = 16.548; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that 86.8% of the positive genital HSV test results from 2013 to 2022 were HSV-1. This shows that most positive HSV test results in this setting are now HSV-1, a substantial increase from the previous study in our clinic.

Prevalence of Plantar Warts, Genital Warts, and Herpetic Infections in Greek Competitive Swimmers

Viral outbreaks are common in the sport community. Data regarding the prevalence of plantar warts, genital warts, herpes simplex type 1 (herpes labialis), herpes zoster, and genital herpes in competitive swimmers are lacking in the literature. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of those viral infections among young competitive swimmers participating in Greek swimming clubs. Swimmers' parents and adult swimmers were asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire. In total, 1047 swimmers enrolled in this study. The measured parameters included gender, age, times of infections, and seasons when athletes may be more susceptible to infections. Practicing information such as type of swimming facility, number of training years, average hours of daily training, behaviors in swimming practice, and sunlight exposure was also recorded. All infections showed a significant difference in relation to "age" and "years of training". The gender significance was observed in herpes labialis (p = 0.016) and plantar warts (p = 0.05). The prevalence of all infections in swimmers who use outdoor facilities was higher. Certain behaviors such as walking barefoot on a pool deck and sharing swimming equipment correlate with herpes simplex and plantar warts. Virus infections can affect swimmers of all ages. In our study, plantar warts and herpes labialis are more common in swimmers. Herpes zoster and sexually transmitted viruses are rarer and affect adult swimmers. The impact of cutaneous infections on swimmers can affect performance and well-being. Effective prevention and management are essential to avoid complications. Proper hygiene, medical guidance, and treatment reduce swimmers' exposure to skin viruses.

Additive manufacturing of TPU devices for genital herpes treatment with sustained acyclovir release

The treatment of recurrent genital herpes typically involves daily doses of acyclovir for extended periods. Additive manufacturing is an intriguing technique for creating personalised drug delivery systems, which can enhance the effectiveness of treatments for various diseases. The vaginal route offers a viable alternative for the systemic administration of drugs with low oral bioavailability. In this study, we produced different grades of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) filaments through hot-melt extrusion, with acyclovir concentrations of 0%, 10%, and 20% by weight. We used fused filament fabrication to manufacture matrix-based devices, including intrauterine devices and intravaginal rings. Our results, obtained through SEM, FTIR, and DSC analyses, confirm the successful incorporation of acyclovir into the matrix. Thermal analysis reveals that the manufacturing process alters the organization of the TPU chains, resulting in a slight reduction in crystallinity. In our in-vitro tests, we observed an initial burst release on the first day, followed by sustained release at reduced rates for up to 145 days, demonstrating their potential for long-term applications. Additionally, cytotoxicity analysis suggests the excellent biocompatibility of the printed devices, and biological assays show a remarkable 99% reduction in HSV-1 replication. In summary, TPU printed devices offer a promising alternative for long-term genital herpes treatment, with the results obtained potentially contributing to the advancement of pharmaceutical manufacturing.

Neonatal herpes: case series in two obstetric centres over a 10-year period (2013-2023), France

Neonatal herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection (HSV infection in infants less than 6 weeks of age) is rare but mortality and morbidity rates are high after disseminated disease and encephalitis. In France, the epidemiology is poorly described, and two decades ago, incidence was estimated to be 3 per 100,000 live births a year. We describe determinants, epidemiologic and clinical characteristics of neonatal HSV infection in a managed-care population attending in two major obstetric and paediatric centres, Paris, France, over a 10-year period. This retrospective case series study was conducted from 2013 to 2023, in infants less than 42 days of age who had virologically confirmed HSV infection. We report an overall rate of neonatal herpes of 5.5 per 100,000 live births a year and an incidence of symptomatic cases of 1.2 per 100,000 live births a year. HSV-1 was the major serotype involved (84.2%) and post-natal acquisition through the orolabial route reached 63.2%. All neonates who had neonatal HSV PCR screening (owing to clinical signs in parents) and who received prompt acyclovir treatment remained asymptomatic. Symptomatic forms accounted for 21.1% cases of the total and mortality was high (62.5% of symptomatic forms).   Conclusion: This case series confirms that neonates at risk for HSV disease and poor outcome are those born to HSV-seronegative mothers, preterm infants, and those who received acyclovir after onset of symptoms (mainly because mothers did not present evidence of acute HSV infection). Our study confirms the major role of HSV-1 and the frequency of its early post-natal acquisition. What is known: • Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection is rare but motality and morbidity rates are high after disseminted disease and encephalitis. National recommendations exist worldwide but mangement of this disease is not always easy. What is new: • As in France epidemiology of neonatal herpes is poorly described, our report is potentially an important addition to the existing literature. Moreover, we describe local practice that may be useful to physicians.

Vaccine value profile for herpes simplex virus

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) are chronic, highly prevalent viral infections that cause significant morbidity around the world. HSV-2 is sexually transmitted and is the leading cause of genital ulcer disease (GUD). It also increases the risk of HIV acquisition, fueling the HIV epidemic. HSV-1 is typically acquired in childhood through nonsexual contact and contributes to oral and ocular disease, but it can also be sexually transmitted to cause GUD. Both HSV-1 and HSV-2 cause neonatal herpes and neurologic disease. Given the ubiquitous nature of HSV-1 and HSV-2 infections and the limited existing prevention and control measures, vaccination would be the most efficient strategy to reduce the global burden of morbidity related to HSV infection. Vaccine strategies include prophylactic vaccination, which would prevent infection among susceptible persons and would likely be given to adolescents, and therapeutic vaccinations, which would be given to people with symptomatic genital HSV-2 infection. This document discusses the vaccine value profile of both types of vaccines. This 'Vaccine Value Profile' (VVP) for HSV is intended to provide a high-level, holistic assessment of the information and data that are currently available to inform the potential public health, economic and societal value of pipeline vaccines and vaccine-like products. This VVP was developed by subject matter experts from academia, non-profit organizations, government agencies and multi-lateral organizations. All contributors have extensive expertise on various elements of the HSV VVP and collectively aimed to identify current research and knowledge gaps. The VVP was developed using only existing and publicly available information.

Perianal Ulcers from Antihemorrhoidal Ointment: A Case Report and Literature Review

ABSTRACT

Perianal ulcers (PAUs) related to antihemorrhoidal product use have been recently reported in the literature through a few case reports. However, other etiologies of PAU must be ruled out, including infectious disease, inflammatory disease, malignancy, pressure injuries, radiotherapy, and other topical drugs. In this report, the authors describe two cases of PAUs due to an antihemorrhoidal ointment. In case 1, a 68-year-old woman with a history of hemorrhoids presented with PAUs after using an antihemorrhoidal ointment for 2 months. The ulcers were assessed through a histopathologic study and treated with calcium alginate dressings, with complete re-epithelialization occurring after 2 months. In case 2, a 58-year-old woman with a history of hemorrhoids developed painful PAUs while using an antihemorrhoidal ointment for 2 months. No other probable cause was found, and the ulcers were treated by discontinuing the ointment. The ulcers showed marked improvement, and complete re-epithelialization occurred after 6 weeks without additional treatment.

Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Mycoplasma genitalium at pharyngeal and anorectal sites in patients presenting to an STI outpatient ward

BACKGROUND

The incidence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) is unbridled and on the rise. Extragenital STIs (anal and pharyngeal infections) are commonly asymptomatic, resulting in delayed diagnosis and treatment and consequently higher chances of onward transmission.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this observational single-centre study was to determine the prevalence of STIs at extragenital sites in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients presenting at an STI outpatient clinic.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of patients who presented between October 2019 and February 2021 at the STI outpatient clinic of a tertiary centre in Central Europe. Patients were included in the study if they received at least one pharyngeal and/or anorectal swab in addition to a genital swab for multiplex-PCR STI diagnostics. Demographic data, symptoms and serological results were collected and analysed.

RESULTS

Data collected from 440 patients were analysed (mean age: 33.9 years, male: n = 345, 78.4%, female: n = 95, 21.6%). Ninety-seven males reported having sex with men (MSM); 174 patients identified as heterosexual (132 males, 42 females), and 10 females as bisexual. The sexual orientation was not reported in 159 cases. An STI was confirmed in 195 patients (44.3%) and, among those, 109 patients (55.9%) tested positive for an STI at extragenital sites. Seventy-one patients had a pharyngeal STI whereas 61 were infected in the anorectal region. Of those suffering from an extragenital STI, 64.2% (70 out of 109) tested negative for relevant pathogens at genital sites. The most frequently detected extragenital pathogen was Neisseria gonorrhoeae (71.8% of all pharyngeal STIs [51 out of 71], 55.7% of anorectal STIs [34 out of 61]), followed by Chlamydia trachomatis (41.0% of all anal infections [25 out of 61], 5.6% of pharyngeal infections [4 out of 71]). Pharyngeal and anorectal infections were asymptomatic in 88.7% [63 out of 71] and 65.6% [40 out of 61] of the cases, respectively.

CONCLUSION

These results underline the need to perform multisite testing, regardless of the presence of symptoms.

Diagnostic Methods and Management Strategies of Herpes Simplex and Herpes Zoster Infections

Herpesviruses are medium-sized double-stranded DNA viruses. Of more than 80 herpesviruses identified, only 9 human herpesviruses have been found to cause infection in humans. These include herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and HSV-2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), human cyto-megalovirus (HCMV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and human herpesvirus (HHV-6A, HHV-6B, HHV-7, HHV-8). HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV can be problematic given their characteristic neurotropism which is the ability to invade via fusion of its plasma membrane and reside within neural tissue. HSV and VZV primarily infect mucocutaneous surfaces and remain latent in the dorsal root ganglia for a host's entire life. Reactivation causes either asymptomatic shedding of virus or clinical manifestation of vesicular lesions. The clinical presentation is influenced by the portal of entry, the immune status of the host, and whether the infection is primary or recurrent. Affecting 60% to 95% of adults, herpesvirus-associated infections include gingivostomatitis, orofacial and genital herpes,and primary varicella and herpes zoster. Symptomatology, treatment, and potential complications vary based on primary and recurrent infections as well as the patient's immune status.

Discovery of a Novel Intron in US10/US11/US12 of HSV-1 Strain 17

Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) infects humans and causes a variety of clinical manifestations. Many HSV-1 genomes have been sequenced with high-throughput sequencing technologies and the annotation of these genome sequences heavily relies on the known genes in reference strains. Consequently, the accuracy of reference strain annotation is critical for future research and treatment of HSV-1 infection. In this study, we analyzed RNA-Seq data of HSV-1 from NCBI databases and discovered a novel intron in the overlapping coding sequence (CDS) of US10 and US11, and the 3' UTR of US12 in strain 17, a commonly used HSV-1 reference strain. To comprehensively understand the shared US10/US11/US12 intron structure, we used US11 as a representative and surveyed all US11 gene sequences from the NCBI nt/nr database. A total of 193 high-quality US11 sequences were obtained, of which 186 sequences have a domain of uninterrupted tandemly repeated RXP (Arg-X-Pro) in the C-terminus half of the protein. In total, 97 of the 186 sequences encode US11 protein with the same length of the mature US11 in strain 17:26 of them have the same structure of US11 and can be spliced as in strain 17; 71 of them have transcripts that are the same as mature US11 mRNA in strain 17. In total, 76 US11 gene sequences have either canonical or known noncanonical intron border sequences and may be spliced like strain 17 and obtain mature US11 CDS with the same length. If not spliced, they will have extra RXP repeats. A tandemly repeated RXP domain was proposed to be essential for US11 to bind with RNA and other host factors. US10 protein sequences from the same strains have also been studied. The results of this study show that even a frequently used reference organism may have errors in widely used databases. This study provides accurate annotation of the US10, US11, and US12 gene structure, which will build a more solid foundation to study expression regulation of the function of these genes.

Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 1 in Canada: systematic review, meta-analyses, and meta-regressions

Background

The objective of this study was to characterize herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) epidemiology in Canada.

Methods

HSV-1 publications as recent as December 6, 2021 were systematically reviewed, synthesized, and reported following PRISMA guidelines. Meta-analyses and meta-regressions were conducted.

Results

HSV-1 measures were extracted from 22 studies and included 32 overall seroprevalence measures (79 stratified), 2 overall proportions of HSV-1 detection in clinically diagnosed genital ulcer disease (2 stratified), and 8 overall proportions of HSV-1 detection in laboratory-confirmed genital herpes (27 stratified). Pooled mean seroprevalence was 19.1% [95% confidence interval (CI): 12.6-26.4%] among healthy children and 51.4% (95% CI: 47.3-55.5%) among healthy adults. Pooled mean seroprevalence among healthy general populations increased with age, with the lowest being 35.7% (95% CI: 29.1-42.6%) among individuals <20 years of age, and the highest being 70.0% (95% CI: 54.8-83.2) among individuals ≥40 years. Seroprevalence increased by 1.02-fold (95% CI: 1.01-1.04) per year. Pooled mean proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital ulcer disease was 30.8% (95% CI: 12.6-52.8%). Pooled mean proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes was 37.4% (95% CI: 29.5-45.6%) and was highest in women and in young persons. Proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes increased by 1.04-fold (95% CI: 1.00-1.08) per year.

Conclusions

HSV-1 epidemiology in Canada appears to be shifting toward less oral acquisition in childhood and more genital acquisition in adulthood, particularly among youth. Both HSV-1 seroprevalence and proportion of HSV-1 detection in genital herpes are increasing with time.

Elsberg syndrome caused by herpes zoster in the sacral region with preceding urinary retention

Background

Elsberg syndrome (ES) is an acute-onset lumbosacral radiculitis with myelitis caused by a herpes virus infection.

Case Presentation

We present a case of a 77-year-old woman who was admitted with urinary retention prior to genital rash. The patient was diagnosed with ES and treated with intravenous acyclovir 250 mg every 8 h for 1 week.

Conclusion

Physicians should consider ES in patients with voiding dysfunction, as preceding neurological symptoms may lead to a misdiagnosis. Considering the adverse effects of the antiviral drug, its dosage should be according to the causative virus of the ES as well as the patient's age and medical history.

Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 in Europe: systematic review, meta-analyses, and meta-regressions

Background

Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) infection is a globally prevalent, life-long, sexually transmitted infection. This study characterized HSV-2 seroprevalence in Europe for various at-risk populations and proportions of HSV-2 detection in genital ulcer disease (GUD) and in genital herpes. Data on neonatal herpes and HSV-2's contribution to HIV transmission were also reviewed.

Methods

Cochrane and PRISMA guidelines were followed to systematically review, synthesize, and report HSV-2 related findings. The search was conducted in PubMed and Embase databases up to February 20, 2022. Any publication reporting data on the outcome measures was included. Meta-analyses and meta-regressions were conducted.

Findings

211 relevant reports were identified, including 12 overall incidence measures, 294 overall (813 stratified by factors such as age and sex) seroprevalence measures, 13 overall (15 stratified by sex) proportions of HSV-2 detection in clinically diagnosed GUD, and 70 overall (183 stratified by factors such as age and sex) proportions of HSV-2 detection in laboratory-confirmed genital herpes. Pooled mean seroprevalence was 12.4% (95% CI: 11.5-13.3%) among general populations, 27.8% (95% CI: 17.5-39.4%) among men who have sex with men, 46.0% (95% CI: 40.1-51.8%) among people living with HIV and people in HIV discordant couples, and 63.2% (95% CI: 55.5-70.6%) among female sex workers. Most measures showed heterogeneity in HSV-2 seroprevalence. The pooled mean seroprevalence among general populations increased with age and was 0.65-fold (95% CI: 0.58-0.74) lower in men than women. Seroprevalence decreased by 1% per calendar year. Pooled mean proportions of HSV-2 detection in GUD and in genital herpes were 22.0% (95% CI: 15.3-29.6%) and 66.0% (95% CI: 62.9-69.1%), respectively. HSV-2 detection in genital herpes cases was 1.21-fold (95% CI: 1.10-1.32) higher in men compared to women and decreased by 1% per calendar year. Incidence of neonatal herpes indicated an increasing trend.

Interpretation

Although seroprevalence is declining, a significant proportion of Europe's population is infected with HSV-2. HSV-2 accounts for approximately one-fifth of GUD cases and two-thirds of genital herpes cases. Findings support the need to invest in HSV-2 vaccine development, and sexual and reproductive health services.

Funding

Qatar National Research Fund [NPRP 9-040-3-008] and pilot funding from the Biomedical Research Program at Weill Cornell Medicine in Qatar supported this study.

Efficacy of Lazolex® Gel in the Treatment of Herpes Simplex Mucocutaneous Infections and the Prevention of Recurrences: A Pilot Study

Background. Previous in vitro and in vivo studies indicated that walnut extract has a therapeutic effect on herpes simplex infections. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and tolerance of Lazolex® Gel (Iveriapharma, Tbilisi, Georgia), an emollient gel to treat mucocutaneous lesions caused by herpes simplex virus. Methods. A single-center, single-arm, open-label, phase II clinical trial was conducted with 30 patients divided into two groups: 15 patients with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infections and 15 with herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). All received topical treatment with Lazolex® Gel four times a day for 10 days. The efficacy and tolerance of the treatment were evaluated on day 10 and day 20 of the study. Recurrence rates were also evaluated both prior to treatment with Lazolex® and over a 4-year follow-up period subsequent to treatment. Results. The median effective time to resolution of symptoms (itching, burning, and pain) was 1.97 days in the HSV-1 group and 3.11 days in the HSV-2 group. The median effective time for vesicles and erosion to disappear was 3.64 days in the HSV-1 group and 3.88 days for the HSV-2 group. Finally, the median effective time for inflammatory signs to disappear was 5.70 and 4.32 days, respectively. Following treatment with Lazolex® Gel, the frequency of outbreaks decreased from a median of 2.00 and 1.00 times per year in the HSV-1 and HSV-2 cohorts to 0.25 and 0.00 ( $p=0.001$ and $p=0.003$ ), respectively. Conclusions. Topical treatment with Lazolex® Gel applied to lesions four times a day for 10 days was shown to be effective and safe in the treatment of herpes simplex mucocutaneous infections and dramatically reduced the rate of recurrence. Clinical trial was approved by Drug Agency of Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Affairs of Georgia, registration # DA Nº CT-000032, date of approval 01.10.2007.

Disseminated Herpes Simplex Virus-2 (HSV-2) as a Cause of Viral Hepatitis in an Immunocompetent Host

Patient: Male, 57-year-old

Final Diagnosis: Hepatitis • herpes

Symptoms: Fever

Medication: —

Clinical Procedure: —

Specialty: General and Internal Medicine

Brazilian Protocol for Sexually Transmitted Infections, 2020: infections that cause genital ulcers

Infections that cause genital ulcers are one of the themes comprising the Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guidelines for Comprehensive Care for People with Sexually Transmitted Infections, published by the Brazilian Ministry of Health in 2020. The Protocol and Guidelines have been developed based on scientific evidence and validated in discussions with specialists. This article addresses clinical genital ulcer syndrome caused by sexually transmitted infections and its most common etiological agents: Treponema pallidum (syphilis), herpes simplex virus-2 (genital herpes) and herpes simplex virus-1 (perioral herpes), Haemophilus ducreyi (chancroid), Chlamydia trachomatis serotypes L1, L2 and L3 (lymphogranuloma venereum), and Klebsiella granulomatis (donovanosis). Epidemiological and clinical aspects of these infections and guidelines for their diagnosis and treatment are presented, including strategies for surveillance, prevention, and control actions to support health managers and professionals in the qualification of care. Approximately 70% of the genital ulcers attended in specialized clinics are due to sexually transmitted infections, particularly in adolescents and young adults.

Analytic Characterization of the Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Epidemic in the United States, 1950-2050

Background

We analytically characterized the past, present, and future levels and trends of the national herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) epidemic in the United States.

Methods

A population-level mathematical model was constructed to describe HSV-2 transmission dynamics and was fitted to the data series of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.

Results

Over 1950–2050, antibody prevalence (seroprevalence) increased rapidly from 1960, peaking at 19.9% in 1983 in those aged 15–49 years, before reversing course to decline to 13.2% by 2020 and 8.5% by 2050. Incidence rate peaked in 1971 at 11.9 per 1000 person-years, before declining by 59% by 2020 and 70% by 2050. Annual number of new infections peaked at 1 033 000 in 1978, before declining to 667 000 by 2020 and 600 000 by 2050. Women were disproportionately affected, averaging 75% higher seroprevalence, 95% higher incidence rate, and 71% higher annual number of infections. In 2020, 78% of infections were acquired by those 15–34 years of age.

Conclusions

The epidemic has undergone a major transition over a century, with the greatest impact in those 15–34 years of age. In addition to 47 million prevalent infections in 2020, high incidence will persist over the next 3 decades, adding >600 000 new infections every year.

[Brazilian Protocol for Sexually Transmitted Infections 2020: infections that cause genital ulcers]

Infections that cause genital ulcers are one of the themes comprising the Clinical Protocol and Therapeutic Guidelines for Comprehensive Care for People with Sexually Transmitted Infections, published by the Brazilian Ministry of Health in 2020. The Protocol and Guidelines have been developed based on scientific evidence and validated in discussions with specialists. This article addresses clinical genital ulcer syndrome caused by sexually transmitted infections, and its most common etiological agents: Treponema pallidum (syphilis), herpes simplex virus-2 (genital herpes) and herpes simplex virus-1 (perioral herpes), Haemophilus ducreyi (chancroid), Chlamydia trachomatis serotypes L1, L2 and L3 (venereal lymphogranuloma), and Klebsiella granulomatis (donovanosis). Epidemiological and clinical aspects of these infections are presented, as well as guidelines for their diagnosis and treatment, in addition to strategies for surveillance, prevention and control actions, with the purpose of supporting health managers and professionals in the qualification of care.

Perianal Reactivation of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 After Laser-Assisted Hair Removal

ABSTRACT

We report a case of perianal reactivation of herpes simplex virus type 2 in a 27-year-old man, who was HIV positive with good immunovirological status, after a laser-assisted (alexandrite) hair removal session. We discuss the clinical and laboratory features and the role of prophylaxis with antivirals, particularly in certain patients such as immunocompromised ones.

Update on Guidelines for Sexually Transmitted Infection Treatment and Management in the Adult and Adolescent Population

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are a prevalent global health care problem. Incidence rates are rising yearly. STI incidence is highest for adolescents and young adults ages 15 to 24, who are diagnosed with half of all new STIs. Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhea are common STIs caused by bacteria. Treatment guidelines change frequently as a result of antimicrobial resistance and public health trends. It is important for primary care providers to remain up to date with new guidelines. This article provides updates on pharmacologic treatment as well as patient education and follow-up specific to the primary care setting.

Herpes Simplex Virus: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Genital herpes simplex virus infections are among the most prevalent sexually transmitted infections in the United States. It continues to be a public health concern because of its recurrent nature and potential for complications. Treatment is not curative, but rather serves to shorten the duration of symptoms and improve quality of life. Current therapies include episodic treatment and chronic suppressive therapy and are generally well tolerated and effective.

The Epidemiology of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 in Asia: Systematic Review, Meta-analyses, and Meta-regressions

Background

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) epidemiology in Asia was characterized by assessing seroprevalence levels and extent to which HSV-1 is isolated from clinically diagnosed genital ulcer disease (GUD) and genital herpes.

Methods

HSV-1 reports in Asia were systematically reviewed and synthesized, following PRISMA guidelines. Random-effects meta-analyses estimated pooled mean seroprevalence and proportion of HSV-1 detection in GUD and genital herpes. Random-effects meta-regressions identified predictors of seroprevalence and sources of between-study heterogeneity.

Results

Forty-nine relevant publications were identified. Fifty-four overall seroprevalence measures (182 stratified measures), and 8 and 24 proportions of HSV-1 detection in GUD and in genital herpes, respectively, were extracted. The pooled mean seroprevalence was 50.0% (n = 26; 95% confidence interval [CI], 41.3%–58.7%) for children and 76.5% (n = 151; 73.3%–79.6%) for adults. By age group, the pooled mean was lowest at 55.5% (n = 37; 95% CI, 47.5%–63.4%) in individuals aged <20 years, followed by 67.9% (n = 48; 62.4%–73.3%) in those aged 20–39 and 87.5% (n = 44; 83.4%–91.1%) in those aged ≥40 years. In meta-regression, age was the major predictor of seroprevalence. The mean proportion of HSV-1 detection was 5.6% (n = 8; 95% CI, 0.8%–13.6%) in GUD and 18.8% (n = 24; 12.0%–26.7%) in genital herpes.

Conclusions

HSV-1 epidemiology is transitioning in Asia. HSV-1 is probably playing a significant role as a sexually transmitted infection, explaining one-fifth of genital herpes cases. There is a need for expanded seroprevalence monitoring and GUD/genital herpes etiological surveillance.

Herpes simplex virus mucocutaneous tumoural lesions - Systematic review

The goal was to characterize the clinical-epidemiological profile of patients with mucocutaneous tumoural herpes simplex virus (MCT HSV) lesions across the world. Two researchers extracted and independently reviewed data from the literature search engine PubMed/MEDLINE through October 2018. From 110 reported patients, the following data were available: the patients' ages ranged from 7 to 76 years; the majority was male (62.73 %-69/110) and immunosuppression was found in 97.25 % (106/109, missing 1) cases, of whom 88 were HIV- related. Lesions size varied from 0.2-13 cm, settling in the anogenital region in 76.36 % (84/110) patients; 84.13 % (53/63, missing 47) complained of pain and multiple recurrences were found in 44.94 % (40/89, missing 21) cases. On clinical basis, the initial hypothesis was neoplasia in 36/53 patients. Histopathological diagnosis was achieved in 90 % (90/100, missing 10) cases and was sample size-dependent. Type 2 HSV was detected in 86.07 % (68/79, missing 31) lesions. MCT HSV lesions recurrence after treatment was reported in 33.96 % (18/53, missing 57) patients. Pathophysiology is poorly understood. Physicians should be aware of MCT HSV lesions in immunosuppressed patients to avoid inappropriate therapeutic strategies.

Genital zoster in near term pregnancy: Case report and need of management guidelines

Genital herpes simplex infection close to delivery may be transmitted to the newborn. Guidelines for genital herpes during pregnancy have been elaborated to reduce the risks of neonatal herpes. Genital herpes zoster due to reactivation of varicella zoster virus (VZV) from sacral ganglia is an under recognized cause of genital lesions. The risks of genital zoster near delivery for the newborn have not been evaluated. No guidelines have taken into account this rare viral infection during pregnancy. A pregnant woman at 38 weeks gestation presented herpes-like genital vesicular lesions in absence of herpes simplex virus (HSV) past history. Rapid HSV molecular testing was negative despite clinically suggestive lesions. A control multiplex PCR was performed, which evidenced VZV. The woman was treated with acyclovir until delivery. The newborn was healthy. VZV should be investigated in HSV- negative herpes-like genital lesions during pregnancy. Diagnosis of genital lesions requires virological confirmation to adapt obstetrical and neonatal management.

Omeprazole Increases the Efficacy of Acyclovir Against Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 and 2

Omeprazole was shown to improve the anti-cancer effects of the nucleoside analogue 5-fluorouracil. Here, we combined omeprazole with the antiviral nucleoside analogues ribavirin and acyclovir. Omeprazole did not affect the antiviral effects of ribavirin in non-toxic concentrations up to 80 μg/mL but increased the acyclovir-mediated effects on herpes simplex virus 1 and 2 (HSV-1 and -2) replication in a dose-dependent manner. Omeprazole alone reduced HSV-1 and -2 titers [but not HSV-induced formation of cytopathogenic effects (CPE)] at concentrations ≥40 μg/mL. However, it exerted substantially stronger effects on acyclovir activity and also increased acyclovir activity at lower concentrations that did not directly interfere with HSV replication. Omeprazole 80 μg/mL caused a 10.8-fold (Vero cells) and 47.7-fold (HaCaT cells) decrease of the acyclovir concentrations that reduced HSV-1-induced CPE formation by 50% (IC₅₀). In HSV-2-infected cells, omeprazole 80 μg/mL reduced the acyclovir IC₅₀ by 7.3- (Vero cells) and 12.9-fold (HaCaT cells). In HaCaT cells, omeprazole 80 μg/mL reduced the HSV-1 titer in the presence of acyclovir 1 μg/mL by 1.6 × 10⁵-fold and the HSV-2 titer in the presence of acyclovir 2 μg/mL by 9.2 × 10³-fold. The proton pump inhibitors pantoprazole, rabeprazole, lansoprazole, and dexlansoprazole increased the antiviral effects of acyclovir in a similar fashion as omeprazole, indicating this to be a drug class effect. In conclusion, proton pump inhibitors increase the anti-HSV activity of acyclovir and are candidates for antiviral therapies in combination with acyclovir, in particular for topical preparations for the treatment of immunocompromised individuals who are more likely to suffer from severe complications.

Evaluation of RealStar® Alpha Herpesvirus PCR Kit for Detection of HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV in Clinical Specimens

Several commercial PCR kits are available for detection of herpes simplex virus (HSV) and varicella zoster virus (VZV), but the test performance of one CE-marked in vitro diagnostic kit—RealStar® alpha Herpesvirus PCR Kit—has not been well studied. This study evaluated the performance of RealStar® alpha Herpesvirus PCR Kit 1.0 on the LightCycler® 480 Instrument II for detection and differentiation of HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV in human clinical specimens. We evaluated the analytical sensitivity of the RealStar® and in-house multiplex real-time PCR assays using serial dilutions of nucleic acids extracted from clinical specimens. The analytical sensitivity of the RealStar® assay was 10, 32, and 100 copies/reaction for HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV, respectively, which was slightly higher than that of the in-house multiplex real-time PCR assay. Reproducibility of the cycle threshold (Cp) values for each viral target was satisfactory with the intra- and interassay coefficient of variation values below 5% for both assays. One-hundred and fifty-three clinical specimens and 15 proficiency testing samples were used to evaluate the diagnostic performance of RealStar® alpha Herpesvirus PCR Kit against the in-house multiplex real-time PCR assay. The RealStar® assay showed 100% sensitivity and specificity when compared to the in-house assay. Cp values of the RealStar® and in-house assays showed excellent correlation. RealStar® alpha Herpesvirus PCR is a sensitive, specific, and reliable assay for the detection of HSV-1, HSV-2, and VZV, with less extensive verification requirements compared to a laboratory developed assay.

Effects of Different Doses of GEN-003, a Therapeutic Vaccine for Genital Herpes Simplex Virus-2, on Viral Shedding and Lesions: Results of a Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trial

Background

GEN-003 is a candidate therapeutic vaccine for genital herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2). We compared virologic and clinical impact of varying GEN-003 doses.

Methods

Adults with symptomatic HSV-2 received placebo or GEN-003 (30 or 60 µg antigen with 25, 50, or 75 µg adjuvant). Viral shedding and lesion rates before vaccination were compared with those measured immediately after vaccination, then at weeks 29-33 and 53-57 after last dose.

Results

Compared with baseline shedding rates, the rate ratios for viral shedding immediately after treatment were as follows: 0.82 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.49-1.36), 30 µg antigen/25 µg adjuvant (30/25) dose; 0.64 (95% CI, 0.45-0.92), 30/50 dose; 0.63 (95% CI, 0.37-1.10), 30/75 dose; 0.56 (95% CI, 0.36-0.88), 60/25 dose; 0.58 (95% CI, 0.38-0.89), 60/50 dose; 0.45 (95% CI, 0.16-0.79), 60/75 dose; and 0.98 (95% CI, 0.76-1.26), placebo. Lesion rate reductions by GEN-003 ranged from 31% to 69%, but lesion rates also decreased among placebo recipients (62%). Reductions in shedding and lesion rate were durable for 12 months for the 60 µg antigen plus 50 or 75 µg adjuvant groups. No serious adverse events occurred with vaccination.

Conclusions

The most efficacious vaccine combinations for GEN-003 were the 60 µg/50 µg and 60 µg/75 µg doses.

Characteristics of herpes simplex virus infection and pathogenesis suggest a strategy for vaccine development

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) can cause oral or genital ulcerative lesions and even encephalitis in various age groups with high infection rates. More seriously, HSV may lead to a wide range of recurrent diseases throughout a lifetime. No vaccines against HSV are currently available. The accumulated clinical research data for HSV vaccines reveal that the effects of HSV interacting with the host, especially the host immune system, may be important for the development of HSV vaccines. HSV vaccine development remains a major challenge. Thus, we focus on the research data regarding the interactions of HSV and host immune cells, including dendritic cells (DCs), innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), macrophages, and natural killer (NK) cells, and the related signal transduction pathways involved in immune evasion and cytokine production. The aim is to explore possible strategies to develop new effective HSV vaccines.

Characterizing herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 seroprevalence declines and epidemiological association in the United States

Objective

Assessing the epidemiological association between herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) infections in the United States, and characterizing the trends in the standardized HSV-1 and HSV-2 antibody prevalences (seroprevalences), 1999–2016.

Methods

Source of data was the cross-sectional and nationally-representative biennial surveys of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). All nine NHANES rounds for 1999–2016 were included in analysis. Datasets of these rounds were combined and analyzed accounting for survey design and applying weighting procedures. Logistic regressions were used to identify associations with seropositivity. Sensitivity analyses were conducted.

Results

Odds of HSV-1 infection declined by 2.84% (95% CI: 1.70%-4.00%) annually among men, and by 2.22% (95% CI: 1.23%-3.21%) among women. Declines were highest at younger ages. Odds of HSV-2 infection declined by 2.23% (95% CI: 0.71%-3.82%) annually among men, and by 2.89% (95% CI: 1.57%-4.28%) among women. Odds ratio of the association between HSV-2 and HSV-1 seropositivity was 0.71 (95% CI: 0.60–0.84) for men and 0.81 (95% CI: 0.72–0.91) for women, after adjustment for age, ethnicity, and year.

Conclusion

HSV-1 and HSV-2 seroprevalences showed a strong declining trend for at least two decades, for both sexes and for the different ethnicities, possibly reflecting improvements in hygiene and living conditions (for HSV-1), and safer sexual behavior (for HSV-2). HSV-1 seroprevalence declines are most pronounced among young individuals. There is evidence for cross protection between the two infections, suggestive of HSV-1 seropositivity being partially protective against HSV-2 infection.

Characterizing the transitioning epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 1 in the USA: model-based predictions

BACKGROUND

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is a prevalent lifelong infection that appears to be undergoing an epidemiologic transition in the United States (US). Using an analytical approach, this study aimed to characterize HSV-1 transitioning epidemiology and estimate its epidemiologic indicators, past, present, and future.

METHODS

An age-structured mathematical model was developed to describe HSV-1 transmission through oral and sexual modes of transmission. The model was fitted to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1976-2016 data series.

RESULTS

HSV-1 seroprevalence was projected to decline from 61.5% in 1970 to 54.8% in 2018, 48.5% in 2050, and 42.0% in 2100. In < 3 decades, seroprevalence declined by > 30% for those aged 0-19 years, but < 5% for those aged > 60. Meanwhile, the number of new infections per year (oral and genital) was persistent at 2,762,000 in 1970, 2,941,000 in 2018, 2,933,000 in 2050, and 2,960,000 in 2100. Of this total, genital acquisitions contributed 252,000 infections in 1970, 410,000 in 2018, 478,000 in 2050, and 440,000 in 2100-a quarter of which are symptomatic with clinical manifestations. For those aged 15-49 years, nearly 25% of incident infections are genital. Most genital acquisitions (> 85%) were due to oral-to-genital transmission through oral sex, as opposed to genital-to-genital transmission through sexual intercourse.

CONCLUSION

HSV-1 epidemiology is undergoing a remarkable transition in the US, with less exposure in childhood and more in adulthood, and less oral but more genital acquisition. HSV-1 will persist as a widely prevalent infection, with ever-increasing genital disease burden.

Herpes simplex virus type 1 epidemiology in the Middle East and North Africa: systematic review, meta-analyses, and meta-regressions

This study aimed at characterizing herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) epidemiology in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). HSV-1 records were systematically reviewed. Findings were reported following the PRISMA guidelines. Random-effects meta-analyses were implemented to estimate pooled mean HSV-1 seroprevalence. Random-effects meta-regressions were conducted to identify predictors of higher seroprevalence. Thirty-nine overall seroprevalence measures yielding 85 stratified measures were identified and included in the analyses. Pooled mean seroprevalence was 65.2% (95% CI: 53.6-76.1%) in children, and 91.5% (95% CI: 89.4-93.5%) in adults. By age group, seroprevalence was lowest at 60.5% (95% CI: 48.1-72.3%) in <10 years old, followed by 85.6% (95% CI: 80.5-90.1%) in 10-19 years old, 90.7% (95% CI: 84.7-95.5%) in 20-29 years old, and 94.3% (95% CI: 89.5-97.9%) in ≥30 years old. Age was the strongest predictor of seroprevalence explaining 44.3% of the variation. Assay type, sex, population type, year of data collection, year of publication, sample size, and sampling method were not significantly associated with seroprevalence. The a priori considered factors explained 48.6% of the variation in seroprevalence. HSV-1 seroprevalence persists at high levels in MENA with most infections acquired in childhood. There is no evidence for declines in seroprevalence despite improving socio-economic conditions.

The alpha-herpesviridae in dermatology : Herpes simplex virus types I and II

This review on herpes simplex virus type I and type II (HSV‑I, HSV‑II) summarizes recent developments in clinical manifestations and treatment interventions for primary and recurrent orolabial and genital herpes, as well as those regarding vaccination issues. Among the clinical presentations, the relationship between pyogenic granuloma and chronic HSV‑I infection; HSV-related folliculitis; verrucous HSV‑I and HSV‑II lesions; the role of recurrent HSV‑I infection in burning mouth syndrome; HSV‑I and HSV‑II infection of the periareolar area; zosteriform HSV; the "knife-cut sign"; and the preferential colonization and infection of preexisting dermatoses by HSV‑I or HSV‑II are discussed. The usual antiviral treatment regimens for primary and recurrent orolabial and genital herpes are compared to short-term and one-day treatment options. New anti-HSV‑I and anti-HSV‑II agents include amenavir, pritelivir, brincidofovir, valomaciclovir, and FV-100. Therapeutic or preventive vaccination against HSV‑I and HSV‑II infections still remains a highly desirable treatment aim, which, unfortunately, has no clinically relevant applications to date.

Performance evaluation of four type-specific commercial assays for detection of herpes simplex virus type 1 antibodies in a Middle East and North Africa population

BACKGROUND

The number of diagnostic assays for the detection of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) antibodies has increased over the years. However, their performance characteristics could vary among global populations.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate performance of two commercial ELISA kits, HerpeSelect^® 1 ELISA and Euroimmun Anti-HSV-1 (gC1) ELISA (IgG); and two commercial immunoblot (IB)/Western blot (WB) assays, HerpeSelect^® 1 and 2 Immunoblot IgG, and Euroimmun Anti-HSV-1/HSV-2 gG2 Euroline-WB (IgG/IgM); in detecting HSV-1 antibodies in a Middle East and North Africa (MENA) population.

STUDY DESIGN

Blood specimens were collected from blood donors in Doha, Qatar, June 2013-2016. Twenty specimens were randomly selected from 10 MENA nationalities (Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Lebanon, Pakistan, Palestine, Qatar, Sudan, Syria, and Yemen; total = 200), and tested for HSV-1 antibodies.

RESULTS

Across all six comparisons between assays, positive percent agreement ranged between 95.7% (95% CI: 91.4-98.3%) and 100.0% (95% CI: 97.8-100.0%). Negative percent agreement ranged between 86.2% (95% CI: 68.3-96.1%) and 96.2% (95% CI: 80.4-99.9%). Overall percent agreement ranged between 95.7% (95% CI: 91.7-97.8%) and 99.4% (95% CI: 96.7-99.9%). Cohen's kappa statistic ranged between 0.84 (95% CI: 0.73-0.95) and 0.98 (95% CI: 0.93-1.00). Compared against IB/WB, HerpeSelect^® and Euroimmun had sensitivities and specificities >96% and >86%, respectively. Positive and negative predictive values were >97% and >83%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The assays showed excellent concordance with one another, and with a high kappa statistic. The ELISA kits demonstrated robust diagnostic performance compared to the IB/WB assays. These findings support the assays' utility in clinical diagnosis and research in MENA populations.

[The Spanish Society of Paediatric Infectious Diseases guidelines on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of neonatal herpes simplex infections]

Neonatal herpes simplex virus infections are rare, but are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Most newborns acquire herpes simplex virus infection in the peripartum period. For peripartum transmission to occur, women must be shedding the virus in their genital tracts symptomatically or asymptomatically around the time of delivery. There are evidence-based interventions in pregnancy to prevent the transmission to the newborn. Caesarean section should be performed in the presence of herpetic lesions, and antiviral prophylaxis in the last weeks of pregnancy is recommended to suppress genital tract herpes simplex virus at the time of delivery. The diagnosis and early treatment of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections require a high index of suspicion, especially in the absence of skin lesions. It is recommended to rule out herpes simplex virus infections in those newborns with mucocutaneous lesions, central nervous system involvement, or septic appearance. The prognosis of newborns with skin, eye, and/or mouth disease in the high-dose acyclovir era is very good. Antiviral treatment not only improves mortality rates in disseminated and central nervous system disease, but also improves the rates of long-term neurodevelopmental impairment in the cases of disseminated disease. Interestingly, a 6-month suppressive course of oral acyclovir following the acute infection has improved the neurodevelopmental prognosis in patients with CNS involvement.

[The alpha-herpesviridae in dermatology : Herpes simplex virus types I and II. German version]

This review on herpes simplex virus type I and type II (HSV-I, HSV-II) summarizes recent developments in clinical manifestations and treatment interventions for primary and recurrent orolabial and genital herpes, as well as those regarding vaccination issues. Among the clinical presentations, the relationship between pyogenic granuloma and chronic HSV-I infection; HSV-related folliculitis; verrucous HSV-I and HSV-II lesions; the role of recurrent HSV-I infection in burning mouth syndrome; HSV-I and HSV-II infection of the periareolar area; zosteriform HSV; the "knife-cut sign"; and the preferential colonization and infection of preexisting dermatoses by HSV-I or HSV-II are discussed. The usual antiviral treatment regimens for primary and recurrent orolabial and genital herpes are compared to short-term and one-day treatment options. New anti-HSV-I and anti-HSV-II agents include amenavir, pritelivir, brincidofovir, valomaciclovir, and FV-100. Therapeutic or preventive vaccination against HSV-I and HSV-II infections still remains a highly desirable treatment aim, which, unfortunately, has no clinically relevant applications to date.

Neonatal sepsis

Neonatal sepsis is the cause of substantial morbidity and mortality. Precise estimates of neonatal sepsis burden vary by setting. Differing estimates of disease burden have been reported from high-income countries compared with reports from low-income and middle-income countries. The clinical manifestations range from subclinical infection to severe manifestations of focal or systemic disease. The source of the pathogen might be attributed to an in-utero infection, acquisition from maternal flora, or postnatal acquisition from the hospital or community. The timing of exposure, inoculum size, immune status of the infant, and virulence of the causative agent influence the clinical expression of neonatal sepsis. Immunological immaturity of the neonate might result in an impaired response to infectious agents. This is especially evident in premature infants whose prolonged stays in hospital and need for invasive procedures place them at increased risk for hospital-acquired infections. Clinically, there is often little difference between sepsis that is caused by an identified pathogen and sepsis that is caused by an unknown pathogen. Culture-independent diagnostics, the use of sepsis prediction scores, judicious antimicrobial use, and the development of preventive measures including maternal vaccines are ongoing efforts designed to reduce the burden of neonatal sepsis.

Estimating seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus type 1 among different Middle East and North African male populations residing in Qatar

HSV‐1 epidemiology in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) remains poorly understood. Our study aimed to measure HSV‐1 antibody prevalence (seroprevalence) and its age‐distribution among select MENA populations residing in Qatar. Sera were collected from male blood donors attending Hamad Medical Corporation 2013‐2015. A total of 2,077 sera were tested for anti‐HSV‐1 antibodies using HerpeSelect^® 1 ELISA IgG kits (Focus Diagnostics, Cypress, CA). Robust Poisson regression was conducted to estimate adjusted infection prevalence ratios. Country‐specific HSV‐1 seroprevalence was estimated for 10 national populations: 97.5% among Egyptians, 92.6% among Yemenis, 90.7% among Sudanese, 88.5% among Syrians, 86.5% among Jordanians, 82.3% among Qataris, 81.4% among Iranians, 81.4% among Lebanese, 80.5% among Palestinians, and 77.0% among Pakistanis. Age‐specific HSV‐1 seroprevalence was estimated for Egypt, the Fertile Crescent (Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria), and Qatar. Seroprevalence increased with age among Fertile Crescent and Qatari nationals. Seroprevalence increased from 70.0% among those aged ≤ 24 years up to 98.0% among those aged ≥55 years among Fertile Crescent nationals. Seroprevalence was consistently above 90% for all ages among Egyptians. HSV‐1 seroprevalence is high in MENA, though with some variation across countries. The seroprevalence appears to have declined among current young age cohorts compared to its levels a few decades ago.

A model of genital herpes simplex virus Type 1 infection in Rhesus Macaques

BACKGROUND

Although HSV-2 is the major cause of genital lesions, HSV-1 accounts for half of new cases in developed countries.

METHODS

Three healthy SHIV-SF162P3-infected Indian rhesus macaques were inoculated with 4×108 pfu of HSV-1 twice, with the second inoculation performed after the vaginal mucosa was gently abraded with a cytobrush.

RESULTS

HSV-1 DNA was detected in vaginal swabs 5 days after the second but not the first inoculation in all three macaques. An increase in inflammatory cytokines was detected in the vaginal fluids of the animals with no or intermittent shedding. Higher frequency of blood α4 β7high CD4+ T cells was measured in the animals with consistent and intermitted shedding, while a decrease in the frequency of CD69+ CD4+ T cells was present in all animals.

CONCLUSIONS

This macaque model of genital HSV-1 could be useful to study the impact of the growing epidemic of genital HSV-1 on HIV infection.

A high resolution melting (HRM) technology-based assay for cost-efficient clinical detection and genotyping of herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 and HSV-2

Genital herpes can be caused by two very similar viruses, herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 or HSV-2. These two HSV types cannot be distinguished clinically, but genotyping is recommended in the first-episodes of genital herpes to guide counselling and management. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) is the preferred diagnostic method for HSV typing. However, commercial qPCR methods use expensive fluorescent labeled probes for detection. Furthermore, most low-cost methods are not able to differentiate between HSV-1 and -2. The aim of this study was to develop a high resolution melting (HRM) technology-based assay for sensitive HSV-1 and HSV-2 detection and genotyping. Using a panel of 46 clinical specimens, the performance of the HRM assay was compared to two commercial HSV tests: the HRM assay detected HSV in all 23 positive samples, with no false positive results (100% concordance with HSV I/II Real-TM assay). Additionally, the HRM assay correctly genotyped both HSV types in a subset of these clinical samples, as determined by the Realstar HSV PCR Kit. The HSV HRM assay provides a cost-effective alternative method to conventional more expensive assays and can be used in routine clinical specimens, in cases where it is particularly necessary to detect and distinguish HSV-1 from -2.