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Vaeggemose M, Schulte RF, Hansen ESS, Miller JJ, Rasmussen CW, Pilgrim-Morris JH, Stewart NJ, Collier GJ, Wild JM, Laustsen C. A Framework for Predicting X-Nuclei Transmitter Gain Using 1H Signal. Tomography 2023; 9:1603-1616. [PMID: 37736981 PMCID: PMC10514872 DOI: 10.3390/tomography9050128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Commercial human MR scanners are optimised for proton imaging, containing sophisticated prescan algorithms with setting parameters such as RF transmit gain and power. These are not optimal for X-nuclear application and are challenging to apply to hyperpolarised experiments, where the non-renewable magnetisation signal changes during the experiment. We hypothesised that, despite the complex and inherently nonlinear electrodynamic physics underlying coil loading and spatial variation, simple linear regression would be sufficient to accurately predict X-nuclear transmit gain based on concomitantly acquired data from the proton body coil. We collected data across 156 scan visits at two sites as part of ongoing studies investigating sodium, hyperpolarised carbon, and hyperpolarised xenon. We demonstrate that simple linear regression is able to accurately predict sodium, carbon, or xenon transmit gain as a function of position and proton gain, with variation that is less than the intrasubject variability. In conclusion, sites running multinuclear studies may be able to remove the time-consuming need to separately acquire X-nuclear reference power calibration, inferring it from the proton instead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Vaeggemose
- GE HealthCare, 2605 Brondby, Denmark;
- MR Research Centre, Aarhus University, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark; (E.S.S.H.); (J.J.M.)
| | | | - Esben S. S. Hansen
- MR Research Centre, Aarhus University, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark; (E.S.S.H.); (J.J.M.)
| | - Jack J. Miller
- MR Research Centre, Aarhus University, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark; (E.S.S.H.); (J.J.M.)
| | - Camilla W. Rasmussen
- MR Research Centre, Aarhus University, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark; (E.S.S.H.); (J.J.M.)
| | - Jemima H. Pilgrim-Morris
- POLARIS Group, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK; (J.H.P.-M.); (N.J.S.); (G.J.C.); (J.M.W.)
| | - Neil J. Stewart
- POLARIS Group, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK; (J.H.P.-M.); (N.J.S.); (G.J.C.); (J.M.W.)
| | - Guilhem J. Collier
- POLARIS Group, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK; (J.H.P.-M.); (N.J.S.); (G.J.C.); (J.M.W.)
| | - Jim M. Wild
- POLARIS Group, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK; (J.H.P.-M.); (N.J.S.); (G.J.C.); (J.M.W.)
| | - Christoffer Laustsen
- MR Research Centre, Aarhus University, 8200 Aarhus, Denmark; (E.S.S.H.); (J.J.M.)
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2
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Huang Y, Jiang L, Lei H, Gao G, Wu P, Zhang J, Huang Z. Magnetic field influence analysis on the large-caliber steady-state magnetic field testing system. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2022; 93:044707. [PMID: 35489957 DOI: 10.1063/5.0082972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The large-caliber steady-state magnetic field testing system is an important device for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, which is mainly used for electromagnetic compatibility tests in a strong magnetic field environment. Magnetic field performance is the most important parameter of equipment. In the design process, it is necessary to analyze the magnetic field performance and study the influencing factors. This paper mainly studies the axial and radial magnetic fields in the uniform region and the magnetic field characteristics in several typical cases and then analyzes the influence of external ferromagnetic materials and the environmental magnetic field in detail. Finally, an experimental platform is built for a three-dimensional hall test. The results verify the correctness of the analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya Huang
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Li Jiang
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Hong Lei
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Ge Gao
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Peng Wu
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
| | - Zhengyi Huang
- Institute of Plasma Physics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei 230031, China
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3
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Yue L, Cheng D, Wang Y, Wang M, Zhao J. A comprehensive calibration method for non-orthogonal error and scale factor error of triaxial Helmholtz coil. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2021; 92:085105. [PMID: 34470400 DOI: 10.1063/5.0049784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In order to calibrate the non-orthogonal error and scale factor error of triaxial Helmholtz coil, a comprehensive error calibration method is proposed in this paper. The comprehensive error model is established first, and then the method to generate a frequency-controllable spatial rotating magnetic field whose magnetic field intensity is constant based on triaxial Helmholtz coil is introduced. Based on the fact that the magnetic field intensity generated by the current through the coil is constant, the objective function is constructed and the error parameters are solved using the least-squares fitting method. Simulation experiments and field tests prove the effectiveness and feasibility of this method. The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is that the proposed method is not only suitable for the electromagnetic shielding room environment but also suitable for the field tests in the presence of a background geomagnetic field far away from urban electricity interference. The root mean square error value is reduced to 0.7 nT from 298.2 nT in the electromagnetic shielding room, and it is reduced to 0.8 nT from 299.0 nT in the wild. Compared to the two-step calibration method, the proposed method reduces the sampling time by controlling the frequency of the rotating magnetic field and reduces the influence of the changes of the background geomagnetic field on the experimental results. This method has better anti-interference ability. Because the modulus of the background geomagnetic field has no effect on this method, it gets rid of the dependence on large current or background geomagnetic field shielding devices. Comparative experiments and repetitive experiments verify the practicability and stability of this method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liangguang Yue
- College of Instrumentation and Electrical Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
| | - Defu Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Geophysical Exploration Equipment, Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
| | - Yi Wang
- College of Instrumentation and Electrical Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
| | - Mingchao Wang
- College of Instrumentation and Electrical Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
| | - Jing Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Geophysical Exploration Equipment, Jilin University, Changchun 130000, China
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4
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Fishbein LA. On the possibility of creating a magnetic field with a given degree of spatial inhomogeneity. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2021; 92:064705. [PMID: 34243586 DOI: 10.1063/5.0040871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Proposed here is a method for constructing systems of circular thin Helmholtz coils (conic coils), which makes it possible to obtain a magnetic field with any degree of inhomogeneity by doubling the number of coils. A functional relationship is obtained between the currents of the coils and their distances to the center, which allows zeroing all derivatives in the expansion of the magnetic field in a series in spatial variables in the center of the system to a derivative of arbitrary order. An analytical expression is obtained for the magnitude of the magnetic field of the systems along the axis of symmetry. All the systems considered here have the same parity (oddness) of the projections of the magnetic field with respect to spatial variables and equal inhomogeneity in all directions in the center of symmetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Fishbein
- Ural State University of Railway Transport, Yekaterinburg 620034, Russian Federation
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5
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Nieves FJ, Bayón A, Gascón F. Optimization of the magnetic field homogeneity of circular and conical coil pairs. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2019; 90:045120. [PMID: 31042999 DOI: 10.1063/1.5079476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Accepted: 03/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The magnetic field generated by a pair of coaxial circular loops is analyzed in order to find the optimum separation between the loops for each value of a prescribed homogeneity. For the maximum heterogeneities considered here, 0.1%, 1%, and 10%, the optimum loop spacing is obtained following a graphical procedure so that the length of the homogeneous field region along the axis is the longest possible. This study is extended to regions near the axis and to the entire region surrounding the center, calculating the loop separation that produces the largest homogeneous volume. The field homogeneity of a pair of "Helmholtz" coaxial conical coils is also investigated to obtain the optimum spacing between the conical coils; the volumes calculated with the desired homogeneity are compared with those obtained with a single pair of optimum coaxial loops. A new arrangement is hereby proposed based on double conical coils with optimum separation between the coils and optimum aperture of the cones. Some of the proposed arrangements are carried out in the laboratory where the experimental results are in good agreement with the theoretical predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Nieves
- ETS Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, Reina Mercedes, 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
| | - A Bayón
- ETSI Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Ríos Rosas, 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain
| | - F Gascón
- ETS Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, Reina Mercedes, 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
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Lambinet V, Hayden ME, Reid C, Gries G. Honey bees possess a polarity-sensitive magnetoreceptor. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2017; 203:1029-1036. [PMID: 28916947 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-017-1214-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Revised: 08/27/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Honey bees, Apis mellifera, exploit the geomagnetic field for orientation during foraging and for alignment of their combs within hives. We tested the hypothesis that honey bees sense the polarity of magnetic fields. We created an engineered magnetic anomaly in which the magnetic field generally either converged toward a sugar reward in a watch glass, or away from it. After bees in behavioral field studies had learned to associate this anomaly with a sugar water reward, we subjected them to two experiments performed in random order. In both experiments, we presented bees with two identical sugar water rewards, one of which was randomly marked by a magnetic field anomaly. During the control experiment, the polarity of the magnetic field anomaly was maintained the same as it was during the training session. During the treatment experiment, it was reversed. We predicted that bees would not respond to the altered anomaly if they were sensitive to the polarity of the magnetic field. Our findings that bees continued to respond to the magnetic anomaly when its polarity was in its unaltered state, but did not respond to it when its polarity was reversed, support the hypothesis that honey bees possess a polarity-sensitive magnetoreceptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Lambinet
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Michael E Hayden
- Department of Physics, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
| | - Chloe Reid
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Gerhard Gries
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
- Department of Physics, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
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7
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Salazar FJ, Nieves FJ, Bayón A, Gascón F. Magnetic field homogeneity of a conical coaxial coil pair. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2017; 88:095107. [PMID: 28964184 DOI: 10.1063/1.5002572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
An analytical study of the magnetic field created by a double-conical conducting sheet is presented. The analysis is based on the expansion of the magnetic field in terms of Legendre polynomials. It is demonstrated analytically that the angle of the conical surface that produces a nearly homogeneous magnetic field coincides with that of a pair of loops that fulfills the Helmholtz condition. From the results obtained, we propose an electric circuit formed by pairs of isolated conducting loops tightly wound around a pair of conical surfaces, calculating numerically the magnetic field produced by this system and its heterogeneity. An experimental setup of the proposed circuit was constructed and its magnetic field was measured. The results were compared with those obtained by numerical calculation, finding a good agreement. The numerical results demonstrate a significant improvement in homogeneity in the field of the proposed pair of conical coils compared with that achieved with a simple pair of Helmholtz loops or with a double solenoid. Moreover, a new design of a double pair of conical coils based on Braunbek's four loops is also proposed to achieve greater homogeneity. Regarding homogeneity, the rating of the analyzed configurations from best to worst is as follows: (1) double pair of conical coils, (2) pair of conical coils, (3) Braunbek's four loops, (4) Helmholtz pair, and (5) solenoid pair.
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Affiliation(s)
- F J Salazar
- ETSI Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Ríos Rosas, 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain
| | - F J Nieves
- ETS Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, Reina Mercedes, 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
| | - A Bayón
- ETSI Minas y Energía, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Ríos Rosas, 21, 28003 Madrid, Spain
| | - F Gascón
- ETS Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, Reina Mercedes, 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
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8
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Zhou X, Huang CC, Hall DA. Giant Magnetoresistive Biosensor Array for Detecting Magnetorelaxation. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMS 2017; 11:755-764. [PMID: 28749344 DOI: 10.1109/tbcas.2017.2682080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, a time-domain magnetorelaxometry biosensing scheme is presented using giant magnetoresistive (GMR) sensors to measure the fast relaxation response of superparamagnetic magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) in a pulsed magnetic field. The system consists of an 8 × 10 GMR sensor array, a Helmholtz coil, an electromagnet driver, and an integrator-based analog front-end needed to capture the fast relaxation dynamics of MNPs. A custom designed electromagnet driver and Helmholtz coil improve the switch-off speed to >5 Oe/μs, limiting the dead zone time to <10 μs, and thus enables the system to monitor fast relaxation processes of 30 nm MNPs. A magnetic correlated double sampling technique is proposed to reduce sensor-to-sensor variation by 99.98% while also reducing temperature drift, circuit offset, and nonlinearity below the noise level. An optimum integration time is calculated and experimentally verified to maximize the SNR. Experiments with dried MNPs have shown successful relaxation detection, and immunoassay experiments have demonstrated their binding kinetics.
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9
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Calabrò E, Magazù S. Induced-orientation of nitrogen monoxide and azide ion vibrations in human hemoglobin in bidistilled water solution under a static magnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics 2017; 38:447-455. [PMID: 28453873 DOI: 10.1002/bem.22056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we report the effects of static magnetic fields (SMFs) at 200 mT on different hemoglobin aqueous solutions, in the absence and in the presence of sucrose and trehalose, studied by FTIR spectroscopic techniques. Significant decrease in intensity of Amide I and Amide II vibration bands was observed after 6 h exposure for hemoglobin in bidistilled water solution. Also, it was observed that the decrease in intensity of the Amide I band was larger than the Amide II after exposure. This result can be explained assuming that an SMF induces increase of hydrogen bonding in hemoglobin in bidistilled water solution. In particular, the use of second-derivative analysis highlighted two absorption peaks at 1907 and 2022 cm-1 that can be attributed to nitrogen monoxide vibration and antisymmetric stretch of azide ion bound, respectively. These vibrations increased significantly after exposure to the SMF (P < 0.01). This result can be explained assuming that exposure to an SMF induces the orientation of nitrogen monoxide and azide ion ligands toward the direction of the field. Finally, it was observed that the addition of sucrose and trehalose in hemoglobin aqueous solution inhibited such alterations, suggesting that bioprotective effectiveness of these disaccharides occurs after exposure to an SMF. Bioelectromagnetics. 38:447-455, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Calabrò
- Department of Mathematics and Informatics Sciences, Physics Sciences and Earth Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Salvatore Magazù
- Department of Mathematics and Informatics Sciences, Physics Sciences and Earth Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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10
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Abbott JJ. Parametric design of tri-axial nested Helmholtz coils. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2015; 86:054701. [PMID: 26026540 DOI: 10.1063/1.4919400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This paper provides an optimal parametric design for tri-axial nested Helmholtz coils, which are used to generate a uniform magnetic field with controllable magnitude and direction. Circular and square coils, both with square cross section, are considered. Practical considerations such as wire selection, wire-wrapping efficiency, wire bending radius, choice of power supply, and inductance and time response are included. Using the equations provided, a designer can quickly create an optimal set of custom coils to generate a specified field magnitude in the uniform-field region while maintaining specified accessibility to the central workspace. An example case study is included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jake J Abbott
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, USA
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11
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Beiranvand R. Magnetic field uniformity of the practical tri-axial Helmholtz coils systems. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2014; 85:055115. [PMID: 24880423 DOI: 10.1063/1.4876480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, effects of the assembly misalignments and the manufacturing mismatches on the magnetic field uniformity of a practical tri-axial Helmholtz coils system have been modeled mathematically. These undesired effects regularly occur in any practical tri-axial Helmholtz coils system. To confirm the mathematical calculations, a tri-axial Helmholtz coils system has been constructed and the uniformity of its magnetic field has been measured under different conditions. The experimental results are in good agreement with the mathematical analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Beiranvand
- Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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12
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Calabrò E, Condello S, Currò M, Ferlazzo N, Caccamo D, Magazù S, Ientile R. Effects of low intensity static magnetic field on FTIR spectra and ROS production in SH-SY5Y neuronal-like cells. Bioelectromagnetics 2013; 34:618-29. [PMID: 24217848 DOI: 10.1002/bem.21815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 08/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Biological effects of man-made electromagnetic fields (EMFs) have been studied so far by experimental approaches exposing animals and cell cultures to EMFs. However, the evidence for cell toxicity induced by static magnetic field (SMF) is still uncertain. We investigated the effects produced by the exposure of human SH-SY5Y neuronal-like cells to a uniform magnetic field at intensities of 2.2 mT, which is less than the recommended public exposure limits set by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). A decrease of membrane mitochondrial potential up to 30% was measured after 24 h of exposure to SMF in SH-SY5Y cells, and this effect was associated with reactive oxygen species production increase. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis showed that exposure to a static magnetic intensity around 2.2 mT changed the secondary structure of cellular proteins and lipid components. The vibration bands relative to the methylene group increased significantly after 4 h of exposure, whereas further exposure up to 24 h produced evident shifts of amide I and II modes and a relative increase in β-sheet contents with respect to α-helix components. Our study demonstrated that a moderate SMF causes alteration in cell homeostasis, as indicated by FTIR spectroscopy observations of changes in protein structures that are part of cell response to magnetic field exposure.
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13
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Beiranvand R. Analyzing the uniformity of the generated magnetic field by a practical one-dimensional Helmholtz coils system. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2013; 84:075109. [PMID: 23902108 DOI: 10.1063/1.4813275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Using the Helmholtz coils system is one of the most suitable approaches which have been introduced for generating uniform magnetic fields. In this paper, uniformity of the generated magnetic field by a practical one-dimensional (1D) Helmholtz coils system has been analyzed, mathematically. For this purpose, relationships between the magnetic field uniformity and different practical unavoidable mismatches have been extracted. The theoretical analysis clearly demonstrates the effect of assembly misalignments and manufacturing mismatches on the magnetic field achieved by a practical 1D Helmholtz coils system. The given analyses have been confirmed by the experimental results which are in good agreement with the calculated values. This analysis and the experimental results illustrate that to achieve a very high uniform magnetic field, practical assembly misalignments, and manufacturing mismatches must be as small as possible, and the background magnetic field distortion must be avoided, too. The results of this work are important in the design of instruments and systems where Helmholtz coils are used.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Beiranvand
- Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115194, Iran.
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14
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Battesti R, Rizzo C. Magnetic and electric properties of a quantum vacuum. REPORTS ON PROGRESS IN PHYSICS. PHYSICAL SOCIETY (GREAT BRITAIN) 2013; 76:016401. [PMID: 23242306 DOI: 10.1088/0034-4885/76/1/016401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
In this report we show that a vacuum is a nonlinear optical medium and discuss what the optical phenomena are that should exist in the framework of the standard model of particle physics. We pay special attention to the low energy limit. The predicted effects for photons of energy smaller than the electron rest mass are of such a level that none have yet been observed experimentally. Progress in field sources and related techniques seem to indicate that in a few years vacuum nonlinear optics will be accessible to human investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Battesti
- Laboratoire National des Champs Magnétiques Intenses (UPR 3228, CNRS, UPS, UJF, INSA), 143 avenue de Rangueil, 31400 Toulouse, France.
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