1
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Morikawa K, Kazumi H, Tsuyama Y, Ohta R, Kitamori T. Surface Patterning of Closed Nanochannel Using VUV Light and Surface Evaluation by Streaming Current. MICROMACHINES 2021; 12:mi12111367. [PMID: 34832779 PMCID: PMC8623798 DOI: 10.3390/mi12111367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In nanofluidics, surface control is a critical technology because nanospaces are surface-governed spaces as a consequence of their extremely high surface-to-volume ratio. Various surface patterning methods have been developed, including patterning on an open substrate and patterning using a liquid modifier in microchannels. However, the surface patterning of a closed nanochannel is difficult. In addition, the surface evaluation of closed nanochannels is difficult because of a lack of appropriate experimental tools. In this study, we verified the surface patterning of a closed nanochannel by vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) light and evaluated the surface using streaming-current measurements. First, the C18 modification of closed nanochannels was confirmed by Laplace pressure measurements. In addition, no streaming-current signal was detected for the C18-modified surface, confirming the successful modification of the nanochannel surface with C18 groups. The C18 groups were subsequently decomposed by VUV light, and the nanochannel surface became hydrophilic because of the presence of silanol groups. In streaming-current measurements, the current signals increased in amplitude with increasing VUV light irradiation time, indicating the decomposition of the C18 groups on the closed nanochannel surfaces. Finally, hydrophilic/hydrophobic patterning by VUV light was performed in a nanochannel. Capillary filling experiments confirmed the presence of a hydrophilic/hydrophobic interface. Therefore, VUV patterning in a closed nanochannel was demonstrated, and the surface of a closed nanochannel was successfully evaluated using streaming-current measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyojiro Morikawa
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; (H.K.); (R.O.)
- Correspondence: (K.M.); (T.K.)
| | - Haruki Kazumi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; (H.K.); (R.O.)
| | - Yoshiyuki Tsuyama
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan;
| | - Ryoichi Ohta
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; (H.K.); (R.O.)
| | - Takehiko Kitamori
- Department of Applied Chemistry, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan; (H.K.); (R.O.)
- Collaborative Research Organization for Micro and Nano Multifunctional Devices (NMfD), The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8656, Japan
- Institute of Nanoengineering and Microsystems (iNEMS), Department of Power Mechanical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, No. 101, Section 2, Kuang-Fu Road, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (K.M.); (T.K.)
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2
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Wang S, Yang X, Wu F, Min L, Chen X, Hou X. Inner Surface Design of Functional Microchannels for Microscale Flow Control. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e1905318. [PMID: 31793747 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201905318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Fluidic flow behaviors in microfluidics are dominated by the interfaces created between the fluids and the inner surface walls of microchannels. Microchannel inner surface designs, including the surface chemical modification, and the construction of micro-/nanostructures, are good examples of manipulating those interfaces between liquids and surfaces through tuning the chemical and physical properties of the inner walls of the microchannel. Therefore, the microchannel inner surface design plays critical roles in regulating microflows to enhance the capabilities of microfluidic systems for various applications. Most recently, the rapid progresses in micro-/nanofabrication technologies and fundamental materials have also made it possible to integrate increasingly complex chemical and physical surface modification strategies with the preparation of microchannels in microfluidics. Besides, a wave of researches focusing on the ideas of using liquids as dynamic surface materials is identified, and the unique characteristics endowed with liquid-liquid interfaces have revealed that the interesting phenomena can extend the scope of interfacial interactions determining microflow behaviors. This review extensively discusses the microchannel inner surface designs for microflow control, especially evaluates them from the perspectives of the interfaces resulting from the inner surface designs. In addition, prospective opportunities for the development of surface designs of microchannels, and their applications are provided with the potential to attract scientific interest in areas related to the rapid development and applications of various microchannel systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuli Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Xian Yang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Feng Wu
- Bionic and Soft Matter Research Institute, College of Physical Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Soft Functional Materials Research, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Lingli Min
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Xinyu Chen
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
| | - Xu Hou
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering and State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
- Bionic and Soft Matter Research Institute, College of Physical Science and Technology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Soft Functional Materials Research, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361005, China
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3
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Carvalho RR, Pujari SP, Gahtory D, Vrouwe EX, Albada B, Zuilhof H. Mild Photochemical Biofunctionalization of Glass Microchannels. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2017; 33:8624-8631. [PMID: 28072547 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b03931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The ability to locally modify the inside of microfluidic channels with bioactive molecules is of ever-rising relevance. In this article, we show the direct photochemical coupling of a N-hydroxysuccinimide-terminated ω-alkene onto hydrogen-terminated silicon oxide, and its subsequent functionalization with a catalytically active DNAzyme. To achieve this local attachment of a DNAzyme, we prepared hydrogen-phenyl-terminated glass (H-Φ-glass) by the reaction of glass with H-SiPhCl2. The presence of a radical-stabilizing substituent on the Si atom (i.e., phenyl) enabled the covalent modification of bare glass substrates and of the inside of glass microchannels with a functional organic monolayer that allowed direct reaction with an amine-functionalized biomolecule. In this study, we directly attached an NHS-functionalized alkene to the modified glass surface using light with a wavelength of 328 nm, as evidenced by SCA, G-ATR, XPS, SEM, AFM and fluorescence microscopy. Using these NHS-based active esters on the surface, we performed a direct localized attachment of a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-mimicking hemin/G-quadruplex (hGQ) DNAzyme complex inside a microfluidic channel. This wall-coated hGQ DNAzyme effectively catalyzed the in-flow oxidation of 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) [ABTS] in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. This proof-of-concept of mild biofunctionalization will allow the facile preparation of modified microchannels for myriad biorelevant applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Rijo Carvalho
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University and Research , Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Micronit Microtechnologies B.V., Colosseum 15, 7521 PV, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Sidharam P Pujari
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University and Research , Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Digvijay Gahtory
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University and Research , Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elwin X Vrouwe
- Micronit Microtechnologies B.V., Colosseum 15, 7521 PV, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Bauke Albada
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University and Research , Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Han Zuilhof
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University and Research , Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE, Wageningen, The Netherlands
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Tianjin University , 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin, P.R. China
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, King Abdulaziz University , Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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4
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Carvalho RR, Pujari SP, Vrouwe EX, Zuilhof H. Mild and Selective C-H Activation of COC Microfluidic Channels Allowing Covalent Multifunctional Coatings. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:16644-16650. [PMID: 28481097 PMCID: PMC5437660 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b02022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Plastics, such as cyclic olefin copolymer (COC), are becoming an increasingly popular material for microfluidics. COC is used, in part, because of its (bio)-chemical resistance. However, its inertness and hydrophobicity can be a major downside for many bioapplications. In this paper, we show the first example of a surface-bound selective C-H activation of COC into alcohol C-OH moieties under mild aqueous conditions at room temperature. The nucleophilic COC-OH surface allows for subsequent covalent attachments, such as of a H-terminated silane. The resulting hybrid material (COC-Si-H) was then modified via a photolithographic hydrosilylation in the presence of ω-functionalized 1-alkenes to form a new highly stable, solvent-resistant hybrid surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Rijo Carvalho
- Laboratory of Organic
Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Micronit Microtechnologies B.V., Colosseum 15, 7521 PV Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Sidharam P. Pujari
- Laboratory of Organic
Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elwin X. Vrouwe
- Micronit Microtechnologies B.V., Colosseum 15, 7521 PV Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Han Zuilhof
- Laboratory of Organic
Chemistry, Wageningen University & Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
- School of
Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Tianjin University, 92 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300072, P.R. China
- Department of Chemical
and Materials Engineering, King Abdulaziz
University, Jeddah 23218, Saudi Arabia
- E-mail:
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5
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Kipper S, Frolov L, Guy O, Pellach M, Glick Y, Malichi A, Knisbacher BA, Barbiro-Michaely E, Avrahami D, Yavets-Chen Y, Levanon EY, Gerber D. Control and automation of multilayered integrated microfluidic device fabrication. LAB ON A CHIP 2017; 17:557-566. [PMID: 28102868 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc01534d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Integrated microfluidics is a sophisticated three-dimensional (multi layer) solution for high complexity serial or parallel processes. Fabrication of integrated microfluidic devices requires soft lithography and the stacking of thin-patterned PDMS layers. Precise layer alignment and bonding is crucial. There are no previously reported standards for alignment of the layers, which is mostly performed using uncontrolled processes with very low alignment success. As a result, integrated microfluidics is mostly used in academia rather than in the many potential industrial applications. We have designed and manufactured a semiautomatic Microfluidic Device Assembly System (μDAS) for full device production. μDAS comprises an electrooptic mechanical system consisting of four main parts: optical system, smart media holder (for PDMS), a micropositioning xyzθ system and a macropositioning XY mechanism. The use of the μDAS yielded valuable information regarding PDMS as the material for device fabrication, revealed previously unidentified errors, and enabled optimization of a robust fabrication process. In addition, we have demonstrated the utilization of the μDAS technology for fabrication of a complex 3 layered device with over 12 000 micromechanical valves and an array of 64 × 64 DNA spots on a glass substrate with high yield and high accuracy. We increased fabrication yield from 25% to about 85% with an average layer alignment error of just ∼4 μm. It also increased our protein expression yields from 80% to over 90%, allowing us to investigate more proteins per experiment. The μDAS has great potential to become a valuable tool for both advancing integrated microfluidics in academia and producing and applying microfluidic devices in the industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarit Kipper
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Ludmila Frolov
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Ortal Guy
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Michal Pellach
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Yair Glick
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Asaf Malichi
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Binyamin A Knisbacher
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Efrat Barbiro-Michaely
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Dorit Avrahami
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Yehuda Yavets-Chen
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Erez Y Levanon
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Doron Gerber
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel.
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6
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Thiele J. Polymer Material Design by Microfluidics Inspired by Cell Biology and Cell-Free Biotechnology. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.201600429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Julian Thiele
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e. V; Leibniz Research Cluster (LRC); Hohe Straße 6 01069 Dresden Germany
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7
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Zhang Y, van Nieuwkasteele JW, Qiang M, Tsai PA, Lammertink RGH. Spatial Site-Patterning of Wettability in a Microcapillary Tube. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:10657-10660. [PMID: 27081782 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b01842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Substrate functionalization is of great importance in successfully manipulating flows and liquid interfaces in microdevices. Herein, we propose an alternative approach for spatial patterning of wettability in a microcapillary tube. The method combines a photolithography process with self-assembled monolayer formation. The modified microcapillaries show very sharp boundaries between the alternating hydrophilic/hydrophobic segments with an achieved smallest domain dimension down to 60 μm inside a 580 μm inner diameter capillary. Our two-step method allows us to pattern multiple types of functional groups in an enclosed channel. Such structures are promising regarding the manipulation of segmented flows inside capillaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yali Zhang
- Soft Matter, Fluidics and Interfaces, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jan W van Nieuwkasteele
- Soft Matter, Fluidics and Interfaces, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Meng Qiang
- Mechanical Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing , Beijing, China
| | - Peichun Amy Tsai
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta , Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Rob G H Lammertink
- Soft Matter, Fluidics and Interfaces, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
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8
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Lin YL, Huang YJ, Teerapanich P, Leïchlé T, Chou CF. Multiplexed immunosensing and kinetics monitoring in nanofluidic devices with highly enhanced target capture efficiency. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2016; 10:034114. [PMID: 27375819 PMCID: PMC4902814 DOI: 10.1063/1.4953140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Nanofluidic devices promise high reaction efficiency and fast kinetic responses due to the spatial constriction of transported biomolecules with confined molecular diffusion. However, parallel detection of multiple biomolecules, particularly proteins, in highly confined space remains challenging. This study integrates extended nanofluidics with embedded protein microarray to achieve multiplexed real-time biosensing and kinetics monitoring. Implementation of embedded standard-sized antibody microarray is attained by epoxy-silane surface modification and a room-temperature low-aspect-ratio bonding technique. An effective sample transport is achieved by electrokinetic pumping via electroosmotic flow. Through the nanoslit-based spatial confinement, the antigen-antibody binding reaction is enhanced with ∼100% efficiency and may be directly observed with fluorescence microscopy without the requirement of intermediate washing steps. The image-based data provide numerous spatially distributed reaction kinetic curves and are collectively modeled using a simple one-dimensional convection-reaction model. This study represents an integrated nanofluidic solution for real-time multiplexed immunosensing and kinetics monitoring, starting from device fabrication, protein immobilization, device bonding, sample transport, to data analysis at Péclet number less than 1.
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9
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Carvalho RR, Pujari SP, Lange SC, Sen R, Vrouwe EX, Zuilhof H. Local Light-Induced Modification of the Inside of Microfluidic Glass Chips. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2016; 32:2389-2398. [PMID: 26976049 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b04621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The ability to locally functionalize the surface of glass allows for myriad biomedical and chemical applications. This would be the case if the surface functionalization can be induced using light with wavelengths for which standard glass is almost transparent. To this aim, we present the first example of a photochemical modification of hydrogen-terminated glass (H-glass) with terminal alkenes. Both flat glass surfaces and the inside of glass microchannels were modified with a well-defined, covalently attached organic monolayer using a range of wavelengths, including sub-band-gap 302 nm ultraviolet light. A detailed characterization thereof was conducted by measurements of the static water contact angle, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and scanning Auger microscopy (SAM). Germanium attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (GATR-FTIR) indicates that the mechanism of the surface modification proceeds via an anti-Markovnikov substitution. Reacting H-glass with 10-trifluoro-acetamide-1-decene (TFAAD) followed by basic hydrolysis affords the corresponding primary amine-terminated monolayer, enabling additional functionalization of the substrate. Furthermore, we show the successful formation of a photopatterned amine layer by the specific attachment of fluorescent nanoparticles in very discrete regions. Finally, a microchannel was photochemically patterned with a functional linker allowing for surface-directed liquid flow. These results demonstrate that H-glass can be modified with a functional tailor-made organic monolayer, has highly tunable wetting properties, and displays significant potential for further applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Rijo Carvalho
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University , Dreijenplein 8, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Micronit Microfluidics B.V., Colosseum 15, 7521 PV Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Sidharam P Pujari
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University , Dreijenplein 8, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Stefanie C Lange
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University , Dreijenplein 8, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rickdeb Sen
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University , Dreijenplein 8, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Elwin Xander Vrouwe
- Micronit Microfluidics B.V., Colosseum 15, 7521 PV Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Han Zuilhof
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University , Dreijenplein 8, 6703 HB Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, King Abdulaziz University , Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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10
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Liu Y, Zhang L, Wu W, Zhao M, Wang W. Restraining non-specific adsorption of protein using Parylene C-caulked polydimethylsiloxane. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2016; 10:024126. [PMID: 27158294 PMCID: PMC4841793 DOI: 10.1063/1.4946870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Non-specific adsorption (NSA) of proteins on surface is a critical issue in polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based microfluidics, which may either considerably decrease the efficiency of a continuous flow reaction or cause a large background noise in a heterogeneous sensing. This work introduced a new method to restrain NSA of protein by caulking PDMS with Parylene C, i.e., forming a Parylene C-caulked PDMS (pcPDMS) surface. The caulking depth of Parylene C inside PDMS matrix was characterized by laser scanning confocal microscopy based on a detectable autofluorescence intensity difference between Parylene C and PDMS after being annealed at 270 °C for 2 h in nitrogen. NSA of bovine serum albumin (BSA) on the inner surfaces of PDMS and pcPDMS microchannels was experimentally compared. The results indicated that the adsorbed BSA on the pcPDMS surface were 35.2% of that on the pristine PDMS surface after the BSA solution flowing through the microchannels at a flow rate of 2000 nL/min, a typical scenario of the continuous flow reaction. In a case mimicking the heterogeneous sensing, after a 60 min washing of phosphate buffered saline flow on a pre-saturated BSA adsorbed surface, the residual BSA on the pcPDMS surface was only 4.5% of that on the pristine PDMS surface. Adsorption/desorption coefficients of BSA on the PDMS and the pcPDMS surfaces were extracted from the experimental results based on the first-order Langmuir model, which indicated that the pcPDMS has a lower adsorption coefficient (Ka ) and a higher desorption coefficient (Kd ), compared to those of the pristine PDMS. A preliminary experiment also indicated that Taq polymerase kept 93.0% activity after flowing through a pcPDMS microchannel, while only 28.9% activity was left after passing a pristine PDMS microchannel under the same operation condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaoping Liu
- Institute of Microelectronics, Peking University , 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Lingqian Zhang
- Institute of Microelectronics, Peking University , 100871 Beijing, China
| | | | - Meiping Zhao
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences and MOE Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University , Beijing 100871, China
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11
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Wang C, Chen YC, Wu F, Luo MB. Simulation on the translocation of homopolymers through sandwich-like compound channels. J Chem Phys 2015; 143:234902. [PMID: 26696074 DOI: 10.1063/1.4937942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The forced translocation of homopolymers through αβα sandwich-like compound channels was investigated by Monte Carlo simulation. The interaction between polymer and part α is strongly attractive, whereas that between polymer and part β is purely repulsive. Simulation results show that the translocation is influenced obviously by the length of part β (Lβ) and the starting position of part β (Lα1). For small Lβ, the translocation is mainly governed by the escaping process, and polymer is trapped near the exit of the channel. However, the translocation time can be tuned by varying Lα1 and the fastest translocation can be achieved at relatively large Lα1. Whereas for large Lβ and small Lα1, the translocation is mainly controlled by the filling process. It is difficult for polymer to enter the channel, and polymer is trapped at the first αβ interface. Finally, the dynamics for the filling process and the escaping process are discussed from the view of free-energy landscape, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Wang
- Department of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Ying-Cai Chen
- Department of Physics, Taizhou University, Taizhou 318000, China
| | - Fan Wu
- Department of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Meng-Bo Luo
- Department of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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12
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Yang L, Okamura Y, Kimura H. Surface modification on polydimethylsiloxane-based microchannels with fragmented poly(l-lactic acid) nanosheets. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2015; 9:064108. [PMID: 26634016 PMCID: PMC4654732 DOI: 10.1063/1.4936350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Surface modification is a critical issue in various applications of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based microfluidic devices. Here, we describe a novel method through which PDMS-based microchannels were successfully modified with fragmented poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) nanosheets through a simple patchwork technique that exploited the high level of adhesiveness of PLLA nanosheets. Compared with other surface modification methods, our method required neither complicated chemical modifications nor the use of organic solvents that tend to cause PDMS swelling. The experimental results indicated that the modified PDMS exhibited excellent capacity for preventing the adhesion and activation of platelets. This simple yet efficient method can be used to fabricate the special PDMS microfluidic devices for biological, medical, and even hematological purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Yang
- Micro/Nano Technology Center, Tokai University , 4-1-1 Kitakaname, Hiratsuka, Kanagawa 259-1292, Japan
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13
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Fluorescence-based bioassays for the detection and evaluation of food materials. SENSORS 2015; 15:25831-67. [PMID: 26473869 PMCID: PMC4634490 DOI: 10.3390/s151025831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We summarize here the recent progress in fluorescence-based bioassays for the detection and evaluation of food materials by focusing on fluorescent dyes used in bioassays and applications of these assays for food safety, quality and efficacy. Fluorescent dyes have been used in various bioassays, such as biosensing, cell assay, energy transfer-based assay, probing, protein/immunological assay and microarray/biochip assay. Among the arrays used in microarray/biochip assay, fluorescence-based microarrays/biochips, such as antibody/protein microarrays, bead/suspension arrays, capillary/sensor arrays, DNA microarrays/polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based arrays, glycan/lectin arrays, immunoassay/enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based arrays, microfluidic chips and tissue arrays, have been developed and used for the assessment of allergy/poisoning/toxicity, contamination and efficacy/mechanism, and quality control/safety. DNA microarray assays have been used widely for food safety and quality as well as searches for active components. DNA microarray-based gene expression profiling may be useful for such purposes due to its advantages in the evaluation of pathway-based intracellular signaling in response to food materials.
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Xu Y, Matsumoto N, Wu Q, Shimatani Y, Kawata H. Site-specific nanopatterning of functional metallic and molecular arbitrary features in nanofluidic channels. LAB ON A CHIP 2015; 15:1989-1993. [PMID: 25786899 DOI: 10.1039/c5lc00190k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We established a versatile method for site-specific nanopatterning of functional metallic and molecular arbitrary features in glass nanofluidic channels, with well-controlled feature sizes ranging from tens to hundreds of nanometers and precisely controlled placements in the range of several tens of nanometers. With the method, we achieved the fabrication of quasi-0D, quasi-1D, 2D, and 3D gold nanopatterns in nanofluidic channels, as well as a high-density fluorescent molecular nanoarray in arrayed femtoliter nanofluidic channels. The method opens the way for precise functionalization of nanofluidic channels, which has been greatly challenging in the field of nanofluidics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Xu
- Nanoscience and Nanotechnology Research Center, Research Organization for the 21st Century, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-2, Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8570, Japan.
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15
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Wang JC, Liu W, Tu Q, Ma C, Zhao L, Wang Y, Ouyang J, Pang L, Wang J. High throughput and multiplex localization of proteins and cells for in situ micropatterning using pneumatic microfluidics. Analyst 2015; 140:827-36. [DOI: 10.1039/c4an01972e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We present a micropatterning method for protein/cell localization by using pneumatically controllable microstructures in an integrated microfluidic device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Chun Wang
- Colleges of Science and Veterinary Medicine
- Northwest A&F University
- Yangling
- China
- Energy Research Institute of Shandong Academy of Sciences
| | - Wenming Liu
- Colleges of Science and Veterinary Medicine
- Northwest A&F University
- Yangling
- China
| | - Qin Tu
- Colleges of Science and Veterinary Medicine
- Northwest A&F University
- Yangling
- China
| | - Chao Ma
- Colleges of Science and Veterinary Medicine
- Northwest A&F University
- Yangling
- China
| | - Lei Zhao
- Colleges of Science and Veterinary Medicine
- Northwest A&F University
- Yangling
- China
| | - Yaolei Wang
- Colleges of Science and Veterinary Medicine
- Northwest A&F University
- Yangling
- China
| | - Jia Ouyang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Northwestern Polytechnical University
- Xi'an
- China
| | - Long Pang
- Colleges of Science and Veterinary Medicine
- Northwest A&F University
- Yangling
- China
| | - Jinyi Wang
- Colleges of Science and Veterinary Medicine
- Northwest A&F University
- Yangling
- China
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16
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Larsen EKU, Mikkelsen MBL, Larsen NB. Protein and cell patterning in closed polymer channels by photoimmobilizing proteins on photografted poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2014; 8:064127. [PMID: 25587375 PMCID: PMC4282676 DOI: 10.1063/1.4905093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Definable surface chemistry is essential for many applications of microfluidic polymer systems. However, small cross-section channels with a high surface to volume ratio enhance passive adsorption of molecules that depletes active molecules in solution and contaminates the channel surface. Here, we present a one-step photochemical process to coat the inner surfaces of closed microfluidic channels with a nanometer thick layer of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), well known to strongly reduce non-specific adsorption, using only commercially available reagents in an aqueous environment. The coating consists of PEG diacrylate (PEGDA) covalently grafted to polymer surfaces via UV light activation of the water soluble photoinitiator benzoyl benzylamine, a benzophenone derivative. The PEGDA coating was shown to efficiently limit the adsorption of antibodies and other proteins to <5% of the adsorbed amount on uncoated polymer surfaces. The coating could also efficiently suppress the adhesion of mammalian cells as demonstrated using the HT-29 cancer cell line. In a subsequent equivalent process step, protein in aqueous solution could be anchored onto the PEGDA coating in spatially defined patterns with a resolution of <15 μm using an inverted microscope as a projection lithography system. Surface patterns of the cell binding protein fibronectin were photochemically defined inside a closed microfluidic device that was initially homogeneously coated by PEGDA. The resulting fibronectin patterns were shown to greatly improve cell adhesion compared to unexposed areas. This method opens for easy surface modification of closed microfluidic systems through combining a low protein binding PEG-based coating with spatially defined protein patterns of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esben Kjær Unmack Larsen
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, DTU Nanotech, Technical University of Denmark , DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Morten Bo Lindholm Mikkelsen
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, DTU Nanotech, Technical University of Denmark , DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Niels B Larsen
- Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, DTU Nanotech, Technical University of Denmark , DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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17
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Ikonen T. Driven polymer transport through a periodically patterned channel. J Chem Phys 2014; 140:234906. [PMID: 24952567 DOI: 10.1063/1.4883055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We study the driven transport of polymers in a periodically patterned channel using Langevin dynamics simulations in two dimensions. The channel walls are patterned with periodically alternating patches of attractive and non-attractive particles that act as trapping sites for the polymer. We find that the system shows rich dynamical behavior, observing giant diffusion, negative differential mobility, and several different transition mechanisms between the attractive patches. We also show that the channel can act as an efficient high-pass filter for polymers longer than a threshold length Nthr, which can be tuned by adjusting the length of the attractive patches and the driving force. Our findings suggest the possibility of fabricating polymer filtration devices based on patterned nanochannels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Ikonen
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland and Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University School of Science, P.O. Box 11000, FI-00076 Aalto, Finland
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18
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Kovach KM, Capadona JR, Sen Gupta A, Potkay JA. The effects of PEG-based surface modification of PDMS microchannels on long-term hemocompatibility. J Biomed Mater Res A 2014; 102:4195-205. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Revised: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle M. Kovach
- Advanced Platform Technology Center (APT Center); Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center; Cleveland Ohio 44106
| | - Jeffrey R. Capadona
- Advanced Platform Technology Center (APT Center); Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center; Cleveland Ohio 44106
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Case Western Reserve University; Cleveland Ohio 44106
| | - Anirban Sen Gupta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering; Case Western Reserve University; Cleveland Ohio 44106
| | - Joseph A. Potkay
- VA Ann Arbor Healthcare System; Ann Arbor Michigan 48105
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science; Case Western Reserve University; Cleveland Ohio 44106
- Department of Surgery; University of Michigan; Ann Arbor MI 48109
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Xu J, Wu D, Hanada Y, Chen C, Wu S, Cheng Y, Sugioka K, Midorikawa K. Electrofluidics fabricated by space-selective metallization in glass microfluidic structures using femtosecond laser direct writing. LAB ON A CHIP 2013; 13:4608-4616. [PMID: 24104603 DOI: 10.1039/c3lc50962a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Space-selective metallization of the inside of glass microfluidic structures using femtosecond laser direct-write ablation followed by electroless plating is demonstrated. Femtosecond laser direct writing followed by thermal treatment and successive chemical etching allows us to fabricate three-dimensional microfluidic structures inside photosensitive glass. Then, femtosecond laser ablation followed by electroless metal plating enables flexible deposition of patterned metal films on desired locations of not only the top and bottom walls but also the sidewalls of fabricated microfluidic structures. A volume writing scheme for femtosecond laser irradiation inducing homogeneous ablation on the sidewalls of microfluidic structures is proposed for sidewall metallization. The developed technique is used to fabricate electrofluidics in which microelectric components are integrated into glass microchannels. The fabricated electrofluidics are applied to control the temperature of liquid samples in the microchannels for the enhancement of chemical reactions and to manipulate the movement of biological samples in the microscale space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Xu
- Laser Technology Laboratory, Advanced Science Institute, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan.
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20
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Kim D, Herr AE. Protein immobilization techniques for microfluidic assays. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2013; 7:41501. [PMID: 24003344 PMCID: PMC3747845 DOI: 10.1063/1.4816934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic systems have shown unequivocal performance improvements over conventional bench-top assays across a range of performance metrics. For example, specific advances have been made in reagent consumption, throughput, integration of multiple assay steps, assay automation, and multiplexing capability. For heterogeneous systems, controlled immobilization of reactants is essential for reliable, sensitive detection of analytes. In most cases, protein immobilization densities are maximized, while native activity and conformation are maintained. Immobilization methods and chemistries vary significantly depending on immobilization surface, protein properties, and specific assay goals. In this review, we present trade-offs considerations for common immobilization surface materials. We overview immobilization methods and chemistries, and discuss studies exemplar of key approaches-here with a specific emphasis on immunoassays and enzymatic reactors. Recent "smart immobilization" methods including the use of light, electrochemical, thermal, and chemical stimuli to attach and detach proteins on demand with precise spatial control are highlighted. Spatially encoded protein immobilization using DNA hybridization for multiplexed assays and reversible protein immobilization surfaces for repeatable assay are introduced as immobilization methods. We also describe multifunctional surface coatings that can perform tasks that were, until recently, relegated to multiple functional coatings. We consider the microfluidics literature from 1997 to present and close with a perspective on future approaches to protein immobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dohyun Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Myongji University, 116 Myongji-ro, Cheoin-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 449-728, South Korea
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21
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O’Loughlin M, Priest C, Popescu MN, Ralston J. Patterning of wettability for controlling capillary-driven flow in closed channels. J Colloid Interface Sci 2013; 402:259-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2013.03.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 02/14/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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22
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Levaché B, Azioune A, Bourrel M, Studer V, Bartolo D. Engineering the surface properties of microfluidic stickers. LAB ON A CHIP 2012; 12:3028-3031. [PMID: 22855124 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc40284j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We introduce a simple and effective method to tailor the wetting and adhesion properties of thiolene-based microfluidic devices. This one-step lithographic scheme combines most of the advantages offered by the current methods employed to pattern microchannels: (i) the channel walls can be modified in situ or ex situ, (ii) their wettability can be varied in a continuous manner, (iii) heterogeneous patterning can be easily accomplished, with contact-angle contrasts extending from 0 to 90° for pure water, (iv) the surface modification has proven to be highly stable upon aging and heating. We first characterize the wetting properties of the modified surfaces. We then provide the details of two complementary methods to achieve surface patterning. Finally, we demonstrate the two methods with three examples of applications: the capillary guiding of fluids, the production of double emulsions, and the culture of cells on adhesive micropatterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertrand Levaché
- Laboratoire PMMH, ESPCI ParisTech, CNRS UMR 7636, Université Pierre et Marie Curie et Université Paris Diderot, 10, rue Vauquelin 75005, Paris, France.
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23
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Szili EJ, Al-Bataineh SA, Ruschitzka P, Desmet G, Priest C, Griesser HJ, Voelcker NH, Harding FJ, Steele DA, Short RD. Microplasma arrays: a new approach for maskless and localized patterning of materials surfaces. RSC Adv 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2ra21504g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Glass NR, Tjeung R, Chan P, Yeo LY, Friend JR. Organosilane deposition for microfluidic applications. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2011; 5:36501-365017. [PMID: 22662048 PMCID: PMC3364836 DOI: 10.1063/1.3625605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2011] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Treatment of surfaces to change the interaction of fluids with them is a critical step in constructing useful microfluidics devices, especially those used in biological applications. Silanization, the generic term applied to the formation of organosilane monolayers on substrates, is both widely reported in the literature and troublesome in actual application for the uninitiated. These monolayers can be subsequently modified to produce a surface of a specific functionality. Here various organosilane deposition protocols and some application notes are provided as a basis for the novice reader to construct their own silanization procedures, and as a practical resource to a broader range of techniques even for the experienced user.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick R Glass
- Micro/Nanophysics Research Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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Priest C, Gruner PJ, Szili EJ, Al-Bataineh SA, Bradley JW, Ralston J, Steele DA, Short RD. Microplasma patterning of bonded microchannels using high-precision "injected" electrodes. LAB ON A CHIP 2011; 11:541-544. [PMID: 21031179 DOI: 10.1039/c0lc00339e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
A rapid, high-precision method for localised plasma-treatment of bonded PDMS microchannels is demonstrated. Patterned electrodes were prepared by injection of molten gallium into preformed microchannel guides. The electrode guides were prepared without any additional fabrication steps compared to conventional microchannel fabrication. Alignment of the "injected" electrodes is precisely controlled by the photomask design, rather than positioning accuracy of alignment tools. Surface modification is detected using a fluorescent dye (Rhodamine B), revealing a well-defined micropattern with regions less than 100 µm along the length of the microchannel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig Priest
- Ian Wark Research Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095, Australia.
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26
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Ralston J, Zhou J. Preface to special topic: surface modification, wetting, and biological interfaces (guest editors: john ralston and jingfang zhou). BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2010; 4:32101. [PMID: 21045922 PMCID: PMC2967233 DOI: 10.1063/1.3493644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
This Special Topic section of Biomicrofluidics on "Surface Modification, Wetting, and Biological Interfaces," is discussed. The topic is very timely and one that is tremendously relevant to the microfluidics and nanofluidics community.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Ralston
- Ian Wark Research Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, Adelaide, SA 5095, Australia
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