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Milton LA, Viglione MS, Ong LJY, Nordin GP, Toh YC. Vat photopolymerization 3D printed microfluidic devices for organ-on-a-chip applications. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:3537-3560. [PMID: 37476860 PMCID: PMC10448871 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00094j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
Organs-on-a-chip, or OoCs, are microfluidic tissue culture devices with micro-scaled architectures that repeatedly achieve biomimicry of biological phenomena. They are well positioned to become the primary pre-clinical testing modality as they possess high translational value. Current methods of fabrication have facilitated the development of many custom OoCs that have generated promising results. However, the reliance on microfabrication and soft lithographic fabrication techniques has limited their prototyping turnover rate and scalability. Additive manufacturing, known commonly as 3D printing, shows promise to expedite this prototyping process, while also making fabrication easier and more reproducible. We briefly introduce common 3D printing modalities before identifying two sub-types of vat photopolymerization - stereolithography (SLA) and digital light processing (DLP) - as the most advantageous fabrication methods for the future of OoC development. We then outline the motivations for shifting to 3D printing, the requirements for 3D printed OoCs to be competitive with the current state of the art, and several considerations for achieving successful 3D printed OoC devices touching on design and fabrication techniques, including a survey of commercial and custom 3D printers and resins. In all, we aim to form a guide for the end-user to facilitate the in-house generation of 3D printed OoCs, along with the future translation of these important devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Milton
- School of Mechanical, Medical and Process Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
- Centre for Biomedical Technologies, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Matthew S Viglione
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA.
| | - Louis Jun Ye Ong
- School of Mechanical, Medical and Process Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
- Centre for Biomedical Technologies, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Max Planck Queensland Centre (MPQC) for the Materials Science of Extracellular Matrices, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Gregory P Nordin
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA.
| | - Yi-Chin Toh
- School of Mechanical, Medical and Process Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
- Centre for Biomedical Technologies, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Max Planck Queensland Centre (MPQC) for the Materials Science of Extracellular Matrices, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Centre for Microbiome Research, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
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Behrsing H, Raabe H, Tice R, Devlin R, Pinkerton K, Oberdörster G, Wright C, Wieczorek R, Aufderheide M, Steiner S, Krebs T, Asgharian B, Corley R, Oldham M, Adamson J, Li X, Rahman I, Grego S, Chu PH, McCullough S, Hill E, Curren R, Curren R. In vitro exposure systems and dosimetry assessment tools for inhaled tobacco products: Workshop proceedings, conclusions and paths forward for in vitro model use. Altern Lab Anim 2017; 45:117-158. [PMID: 28816053 PMCID: PMC9878375 DOI: 10.1177/026119291704500305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In 2009, the passing of the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act facilitated the establishment of the FDA Center for Tobacco Products (CTP), and gave it regulatory authority over the marketing, manufacture and distribution of tobacco products, including those termed 'modified risk'. On 4-6 April 2016, the Institute for In Vitro Sciences, Inc. (IIVS) convened a workshop conference entitled, In Vitro Exposure Systems and Dosimetry Assessment Tools for Inhaled Tobacco Products, to bring together stakeholders representing regulatory agencies, academia and industry to address the research priorities articulated by the FDA CTP. Specific topics were covered to assess the status of current in vitro smoke and aerosol/vapour exposure systems, as well as the various approaches and challenges to quantifying the complex exposures in in vitro pulmonary models developed for evaluating adverse pulmonary events resulting from tobacco product exposures. The four core topics covered were: a) Tobacco Smoke and E-Cigarette Aerosols; b) Air-Liquid Interface-In Vitro Exposure Systems; c) Dosimetry Approaches for Particles and Vapours/In Vitro Dosimetry Determinations; and d) Exposure Microenvironment/Physiology of Cells. The 2.5-day workshop included presentations from 20 expert speakers, poster sessions, networking discussions, and breakout sessions which identified key findings and provided recommendations to advance these technologies. Here, we will report on the proceedings, recommendations, and outcome of the April 2016 technical workshop, including paths forward for developing and validating non-animal test methods for tobacco product smoke and next generation tobacco product aerosol/vapour exposures. With the recent FDA publication of the final deeming rule for the governance of tobacco products, there is an unprecedented necessity to evaluate a very large number of tobacco-based products and ingredients. The questionable relevance, high cost, and ethical considerations for the use of in vivo testing methods highlight the necessity of robust in vitro approaches to elucidate tobacco-based exposures and how they may lead to pulmonary diseases that contribute to lung exposure-induced mortality worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hans Raabe
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD
| | | | - Robert Devlin
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kent Pinkerton
- Center for Health and the Environment, University of California, Davis
| | | | - Chris Wright
- British American Tobacco (Investments) Ltd., Southampton, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Jason Adamson
- British American Tobacco (Investments) Ltd., Southampton, UK
| | - Xiang Li
- Zhengzhou Tobacco Research Institute of CNTC, Zhengzhou City, China
| | - Irfan Rahman
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Sonia Grego
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Pei-Hsuan Chu
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences/National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Shaun McCullough
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Erin Hill
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD
| | - Rodger Curren
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD
| | - Rodger Curren
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD, USA
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Xu Z, Li E, Guo Z, Yu R, Hao H, Xu Y, Sun Z, Li X, Lyu J, Wang Q. Design and Construction of a Multi-Organ Microfluidic Chip Mimicking the in vivo Microenvironment of Lung Cancer Metastasis. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:25840-25847. [PMID: 27606718 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b08746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Metastasis is a complex pathophysiological process. As the main cause of cancer mortality in humans it represents a serious challenge to both basic researchers and clinicians. Here we report the design and construction of a multi-organ microfluidic chip that closely mimics the in vivo microenvironment of lung cancer metastasis. This multi-organs-on-a-chip includes an upstream "lung" and three downstream "distant organs", with three polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) layers and two thin PDMS microporous membranes bonded to form three parallel microchannels. Bronchial epithelial, lung cancer, microvascular endothelial, mononuclear, and fibroblast cells were grown separated by the biomembrane in upstream "lung", while astrocytes, osteocytes, and hepatocytes were grown in distant chambers, to mimic lung cancer cell metastasis to the brain, bone, and liver. After culture in this system, lung cancer cells formed a "tumor mass", showed epithelial-mesenchymal transition (with altered expression of E-cadherin, N-cadherin, Snail1, and Snail2) and invasive capacity. A549 cells co-cultured with astrocytes overexpressed CXCR4 protein, indicating damage of astrocytes after cancer cell metastasis to the brain. Osteocytes overexpressed RANKL protein indicates damage of osteocytes after cancer cell metastasis to the bone, and hepatocytes overexpressed AFP protein indicates damage to hepatocytes after cancer cell metastasis to the liver. Finally, in vivo imaging of cancer growth and metastasis in a nude mice model validated the performance of metastasis in the organs-on-chip system. This system provides a useful tool to mimic the in vivo microenvironment of cancer metastasis and to investigate cell-cell interactions during metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyun Xu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
- Department of Respiratology, Qilu Hospital Shandong University , Jinan 250012, China
| | - Encheng Li
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
| | - Zhe Guo
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
| | - Ruofei Yu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
| | - Hualong Hao
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
| | - Yitong Xu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
| | - Zhao Sun
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
| | - Xiancheng Li
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
| | - Jianxin Lyu
- Chinese Educational Ministry-Designated Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine and Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Genetics, College of Laboratory Medicine and Life Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University , Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University , Dalian 116027, China
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Sellgren KL, Hawkins BT, Grego S. An optically transparent membrane supports shear stress studies in a three-dimensional microfluidic neurovascular unit model. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2015; 9:061102. [PMID: 26594261 PMCID: PMC4644144 DOI: 10.1063/1.4935594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 10/31/2015] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
We report a microfluidic blood-brain barrier model that enables both physiological shear stress and optical transparency throughout the device. Brain endothelial cells grown in an optically transparent membrane-integrated microfluidic device were able to withstand physiological fluid shear stress using a hydrophilized polytetrafluoroethylene nanoporous membrane instead of the more commonly used polyester membrane. A functional three-dimensional microfluidic co-culture model of the neurovascular unit is presented that incorporates astrocytes in a 3D hydrogel and enables physiological shear stress on the membrane-supported endothelial cell layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn L Sellgren
- RTI International , Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2194, USA
| | - Brian T Hawkins
- RTI International , Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2194, USA
| | - Sonia Grego
- RTI International , Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2194, USA
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Kung YC, Huang KW, Fan YJ, Chiou PY. Fabrication of 3D high aspect ratio PDMS microfluidic networks with a hybrid stamp. LAB ON A CHIP 2015; 15:1861-8. [PMID: 25710255 DOI: 10.1039/c4lc01211a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
We report a novel methodology for fabricating large-area, multilayer, thin-film, high aspect ratio, 3D microfluidic structures with through-layer vias and open channels that can be bonded between hard substrates. It is realized by utilizing a hybrid stamp with a thin plastic sheet embedded underneath a PDMS surface. This hybrid stamp solves an important edge protrusion issue during PDMS molding while maintaining necessary stamp elasticity to ensure the removal of PDMS residues at through-layer regions. Removing edge protrusion is a significant progress toward fabricating 3D structures since high aspect ratio PDMS structures with flat interfaces can be realized to facilitate multilayer stacking and bonding to hard substrates. Our method also allows for the fabrication of 3D deformable channels, which can lead to profound applications in electrokinetics, optofluidics, inertial microfluidics, and other fields where the shape of the channel cross section plays a key role in device physics. To demonstrate, as an example, we have fabricated a microfluidic channel by sandwiching two 20 μm wide, 80 μm tall PDMS membranes between two featureless ITO glass substrates. By applying electrical bias to the two ITO substrates and pressure to deform the thin membrane sidewalls, strong electric field enhancement can be generated in the center of a channel to enable 3D sheathless dielectrophoretic focusing of biological objects including mammalian cells and bacteria at a flow speed up to 14 cm s(-1).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Chun Kung
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, USA.
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Puchberger-Enengl D, van den Driesche S, Krutzler C, Keplinger F, Vellekoop MJ. Hydrogel-based microfluidic incubator for microorganism cultivation and analyses. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2015; 9:014127. [PMID: 25784966 PMCID: PMC4344467 DOI: 10.1063/1.4913647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
This work presents an array of microfluidic chambers for on-chip culturing of microorganisms in static and continuous shear-free operation modes. The unique design comprises an in-situ polymerized hydrogel that forms gas and reagent permeable culture wells in a glass chip. Utilizing a hydrophilic substrate increases usability by autonomous capillary priming. The thin gel barrier enables efficient oxygen supply and facilitates on-chip analysis by chemical access through the gel without introducing a disturbing flow to the culture. Trapping the suspended microorganisms inside a gel well allows for a much simpler fabrication than in conventional trapping devices as the minimal feature size does not depend on cell size. Nutrients and drugs are provided on-chip in the gel for a self-contained and user-friendly handling. Rapid antibiotic testing in static cultures with strains of Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli is presented. Cell seeding and diffusive medium supply is provided by phaseguide technology, enabling simple operation of continuous culturing with a great flexibility. Cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae are utilized as a model to demonstrate continuous on-chip culturing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sander van den Driesche
- Institute for Microsensors, -actuators and -systems (IMSAS), MCB, University of Bremen , 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Christian Krutzler
- Austrian Center for Medical Innovation and Technology (ACMIT) , 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria
| | - Franz Keplinger
- Institute of Sensor and Actuator Systems (ISAS), Vienna University of Technology , 1040 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael J Vellekoop
- Institute for Microsensors, -actuators and -systems (IMSAS), MCB, University of Bremen , 28359 Bremen, Germany
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Sellgren KL, Butala EJ, Gilmour BP, Randell SH, Grego S. A biomimetic multicellular model of the airways using primary human cells. LAB ON A CHIP 2014; 14:3349-58. [PMID: 25000964 DOI: 10.1039/c4lc00552j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic cell cultures enable investigation of complex physiological tissue properties and functionalities. For convenience, they are often implemented with immortalized cell lines, but primary cells more closely approximate the in vivo biology. Our aim was to develop a biomimetic microfluidic model of the human airway using all primary cells. The model is comprised of airway epithelial cells cultured at an air-liquid interface, lung fibroblasts and polarized microvascular endothelial cells, respectively positioned in three vertically stacked, individually accessible compartments separated by nanoporous membranes. We report device fabrication, a gravity fed microfluidic system, and culture medium able to support functional co-cultures of all three primary human cell types. As characterized by imaging and permeability measurements, airway epithelial cells in microfluidic devices displayed mucociliary differentiation and barrier function. Subjacent fibroblasts and microvascular endothelial cells were added under conditions enabling co-culture for at least 5 days. Microfluidic airway models based on primary human cells in a relevant biomimetic configuration will improve physiological relevance and will enable novel disease modeling and drug development studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katelyn L Sellgren
- RTI International, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2194, USA.
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