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Raub AAM, Hamidah I, Nandiyanto ABD, Ridwan J, Mohamed MA, Buyong MR, Yunas J. ZnO NRs/rGO Photocatalyst in a Polymer-Based Microfluidic Platform. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15071749. [PMID: 37050362 PMCID: PMC10097181 DOI: 10.3390/polym15071749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
This paper reports the development of ZnO NRs/rGO-based photocatalysts integrated into a tree-branched polymer-based microfluidic reactor for efficient photodegradation of water contaminants. The reactor system includes a photocatalytic reactor, tree-branched microfluidic channels, and ZnO nanorods (NRs) coated with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) on a glass substrate within an area of 0.6 × 0.6 cm2. The ZnO NRs/rGO acts as a photocatalyst layer grown hydrothermally and then spray-coated with rGO. The microfluidic system is made of PDMS and fabricated using soft lithography (micro molding using SU-8 master mold patterned on a silicon wafer). The device geometry is designed using AutoCAD software and the flow properties of the microfluidics are simulated using COMSOL Multiphysics. The microfluidic platform’s photocatalytic process aims to bring the nanostructured photocatalyst into very close proximity to the water flow channel, reducing the interaction time and providing effective purification performance. Our functionality test showed that a degradation efficiency of 23.12 %, within the effective residence time of less than 3 s was obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aini Ayunni Mohd Raub
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics (IMEN), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia
| | - Ida Hamidah
- Faculty of Engineering Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Jl. Dr. Setiabudhi 207, Bandung 40154, Indonesia
| | - Asep Bayu Dani Nandiyanto
- Faculty of Engineering Education, Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Jl. Dr. Setiabudhi 207, Bandung 40154, Indonesia
| | - Jaenudin Ridwan
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics (IMEN), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Ambri Mohamed
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics (IMEN), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia
| | - Muhamad Ramdzan Buyong
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics (IMEN), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia
| | - Jumril Yunas
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics (IMEN), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia
- Correspondence:
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Li C, Wan L, Wang N, Chen B, Luo F, Cheng Z, Zhang M. Photothermal Localization in an Optofluidic Microreactor for Rapid Pretreatment toward Online Pollutant Analysis. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:40939-40950. [PMID: 36049235 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c10261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The realization of high-efficient digestion in a microfluidic reactor is considered to be advantageous for pretreatment toward online pollutant detection. However, it is difficult to achieve satisfactory device performance due to the gap between the low digestion reaction efficiency and the demand for rapid pretreatment for online detection. Herein, we design and manufacture an optofluidic microreactor combined with a MnO2 nanofilm localizing the heat inside the reaction chamber under solar irradiation, which contributes a lot to the on-chip nutrient digestion efficiency enhancement. The overall temperature of the water sample in the reactor chamber can be dramatically increased in a fleeting time of less than 1 s and maintained at 78 °C. The digestion rate constant of the microreactor is improved by about 100 times compared with that obtained by the traditional method in the national standard, which is attributed to temperature enhancement and various oxidation reactions in the heated reaction chamber. Notably, when pretreating the actual total phosphorus water samples, the digestion efficiency is demonstrated to be higher than 95% within 12 s under solar light irradiation. The optofluidic platform brings many benefits to accelerate the various photochemically enhanced reactions using solar light and is extremely adapted for rapid pretreatment of biochemical samples to further develop their online analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Li
- National Engineering Research Center for Optical Fiber Sensing Technology and Network, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Liang Wan
- National Engineering Research Center for Optical Fiber Sensing Technology and Network, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Ning Wang
- National Engineering Research Center for Optical Fiber Sensing Technology and Network, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Bolei Chen
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Fangzhou Luo
- National Engineering Research Center for Optical Fiber Sensing Technology and Network, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhiliang Cheng
- National Engineering Research Center for Optical Fiber Sensing Technology and Network, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
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A Comparative Study on Optofluidic Fenton Microreactors Integrated with Fe-Based Materials for Water Treatment. MICROMACHINES 2022; 13:mi13071125. [PMID: 35888942 PMCID: PMC9317202 DOI: 10.3390/mi13071125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Revised: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
The catalysts employed in catalytic reactors greatly affect the reaction efficiency of the reaction system and the reactor’s performance. This work presents a rapid comparative study on three kinds of Fe-based materials integrated into an optofluidic Fenton reactor for water treatment. The Fe-based sheets (FeSiB, FeNbCuSiB, and FeNi) were respectively implanted into the reaction chamber to degrade the organic dyes with the assistance of H2O2. In the experiment, by adjusting the hydrogen peroxide concentration, flow rate, and light irradiation, the applicable conditions of the Fe-based materials for the dye degradation could be evaluated quickly to explore the optimal design of the Fenton reaction system. The results indicated that FeNi (1j85) exhibits excellent degradability in the microreactor, the reaction rate can reach 23.4%/s at the flow rate of 330 μL/min, but its weak corrosion resistance was definitely demonstrated. Although the initial degradability of the microreactor by using FeNbCuSiB (1k107) was not as good as that of 1j85, it increased after being reused several times instead, and the degradation efficiency reached >98% after being reused five times. However, the FeSiB (1k101) material shows the worst degradability and recycling. Therefore, in contrast, 1k107 has the greatest potential to be used in Fenton reactors for practical water treatment.
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Dong G, Chen B, Liu B, Hounjet LJ, Cao Y, Stoyanov SR, Yang M, Zhang B. Advanced oxidation processes in microreactors for water and wastewater treatment: Development, challenges, and opportunities. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 211:118047. [PMID: 35033742 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The miniaturization of reaction processes by microreactors offers many significant advantages over the use of larger, conventional reactors. Microreactors' interior structures exhibit comparatively higher surface area-to-volume ratios, which reduce reactant diffusion distances, enable faster and more efficient heat and mass transfer, and better control over process conditions. These advantages can be exploited to significantly enhance the performance of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) commonly used for the removal of water pollutants. This comprehensive review of the rapidly emerging area of environmental microfluidics describes recent advances in the development and application of microreactors to AOPs for water and wastewater treatment. Consideration is given to the hydrodynamic properties, construction materials, fabrication techniques, designs, process features, and upscaling of microreactors used for AOPs. The use of microreactors for various AOP types, including photocatalytic, electrochemical, Fenton, ozonation, and plasma-phase processes, showcases how microfluidic technology enhances mass transfer, improves treatment efficiency, and decreases the consumption of energy and chemicals. Despite significant advancements of microreactor technology, organic pollutant degradation mechanisms that operate during microscale AOPs remain poorly understood. Moreover, limited throughput capacity of microreactor systems significantly restrains their industrial-scale applicability. Since large microreactor-inspired AOP systems are needed to meet the high-throughput requirements of the water treatment sector, scale-up strategies and recommendations are suggested as priority research opportunities. While microstructured reactor technology remains in an early stage of development, this work offers valuable insight for future research and development of AOPs in microreactors for environmental purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guihua Dong
- Northern Region Persistent Organic Pollution Control (NRPOP) Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X5, Canada
| | - Bing Chen
- Northern Region Persistent Organic Pollution Control (NRPOP) Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X5, Canada.
| | - Bo Liu
- Northern Region Persistent Organic Pollution Control (NRPOP) Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X5, Canada
| | - Lindsay J Hounjet
- Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY Devon, 1 Oil Patch Drive, Devon, AB T9G 1A8, Canada
| | - Yiqi Cao
- Northern Region Persistent Organic Pollution Control (NRPOP) Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X5, Canada
| | - Stanislav R Stoyanov
- Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY Devon, 1 Oil Patch Drive, Devon, AB T9G 1A8, Canada.
| | - Min Yang
- Northern Region Persistent Organic Pollution Control (NRPOP) Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X5, Canada
| | - Baiyu Zhang
- Northern Region Persistent Organic Pollution Control (NRPOP) Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X5, Canada
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Peng Z, Wang G, Moghtaderi B, Doroodchi E. A review of microreactors based on slurry Taylor (segmented) flow. Chem Eng Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2021.117040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Erfan M, Gnambodoe-Capochichi M, Sabry YM, Khalil D, Leprince-Wang Y, Bourouina T. Spatiotemporal dynamics of nanowire growth in a microfluidic reactor. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2021; 7:77. [PMID: 34712489 PMCID: PMC8505653 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-021-00308-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Co-integration of nanomaterials into microdevices poses several technological challenges and presents numerous scientific opportunities that have been addressed in this paper by integrating zinc oxide nanowires (ZnO-NWs) into a microfluidic chamber. In addition to the applications of these combined materials, this work focuses on the study of the growth dynamics and uniformity of nanomaterials in a tiny microfluidic reactor environment. A unique experimental platform was built through the integration of a noninvasive optical characterization technique with the microfluidic reactor. This platform allowed the unprecedented demonstration of time-resolved and spatially resolved monitoring of the in situ growth of NWs, in which the chemicals were continuously fed into the microfluidic reactor. The platform was also used to assess the uniformity of NWs grown quickly in a 10-mm-wide microchamber, which was intentionally chosen to be 20 times wider than those used in previous attempts because it can accommodate applications requiring a large surface of interaction while still taking advantage of submillimeter height. Further observations included the effects of varying the flow rate on the NW diameter and length in addition to a synergetic effect of continuous renewal of the growth solution and the confined environment of the chemical reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mazen Erfan
- ESYCOM, CNRS UMR 9007, Université Gustave Eiffel, ESIEE Paris, Noisy-le-Grand, France
| | | | - Yasser M. Sabry
- Ain Shams University, Faculty of Engineering, ECE Department, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Diaa Khalil
- Ain Shams University, Faculty of Engineering, ECE Department, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Yamin Leprince-Wang
- ESYCOM, CNRS UMR 9007, Université Gustave Eiffel, ESIEE Paris, Noisy-le-Grand, France
| | - Tarik Bourouina
- ESYCOM, CNRS UMR 9007, Université Gustave Eiffel, ESIEE Paris, Noisy-le-Grand, France
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Microfluidic Reactors for Plasmonic Photocatalysis Using Gold Nanoparticles. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:mi10120869. [PMID: 31835674 PMCID: PMC6952777 DOI: 10.3390/mi10120869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This work reports a microfluidic reactor that utilizes gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for the highly efficient photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants under visible light. The bottom of microchamber has a TiO2 film covering a layer of AuNPs (namely, TiO2/AuNP film) deposited on the F-doped SnO2 (FTO) substrate. The rough surface of FTO helps to increase the surface area and the AuNPs enables the strong absorption of visible light to excite electron/hole pairs, which are then transferred to the TiO2 film for photodegradation. The TiO2 film also isolates the AuNPs from the solution to avoid detachment and photocorrosion. Experiments show that the TiO2/AuNP film has a strong absorption over 400–800 nm and enhances the reaction rate constant by 13 times with respect to the bare TiO2 film for the photodegradation of methylene blue. In addition, the TiO2/AuNP microreactor exhibits a negligible reduction of photoactivity after five cycles of repeated tests, which verifies the protective function of the TiO2 layer. This plasmonic photocatalytic microreactor draws the strengths of microfluidics and plasmonics, and may find potential applications in continuous photocatalytic water treatment and photosynthesis. The fabrication of the microreactor uses manual operation and requires no photolithography, making it simple, easy, and of low cost for real laboratory and field tests.
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Rashmi Pradhan S, Colmenares-Quintero RF, Colmenares Quintero JC. Designing Microflowreactors for Photocatalysis Using Sonochemistry: A Systematic Review Article. Molecules 2019; 24:E3315. [PMID: 31547232 PMCID: PMC6767219 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24183315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Use of sonication for designing and fabricating reactors, especially the deposition of catalysts inside a microreactor, is a modern approach. There are many reports that prove that a microreactor is a better setup compared with batch reactors for carrying out catalytic reactions. Microreactors have better energy efficiency, reaction rate, safety, a much finer degree of process control, better molecular diffusion, and heat-transfer properties compared with the conventional batch reactor. The use of microreactors for photocatalytic reactions is also being considered to be the appropriate reactor configuration because of its improved irradiation profile, better light penetration through the entire reactor depth, and higher spatial illumination homogeneity. Ultrasound has been used efficiently for the synthesis of materials, degradation of organic compounds, and fuel production, among other applications. The recent increase in energy demands, as well as the stringent environmental stress due to pollution, have resulted in the need to develop green chemistry-based processes to generate and remove contaminants in a more environmentally friendly and cost-effective manner. It is possible to carry out the synthesis and deposition of catalysts inside the reactor using the ultrasound-promoted method in the microfluidic system. In addition, the synergistic effect generated by photocatalysis and sonochemistry in a microreactor can be used for the production of different chemicals, which have high value in the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. The current review highlights the use of both photocatalysis and sonochemistry for developing microreactors and their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swaraj Rashmi Pradhan
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland.
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Cao C, Dang D, Li Y, Xu J, Cheng Y. Strategy for multiscale numbering-up of microstructured catalytic reactors: A numerical study based on the resistance network model. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2018.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Huang X, Wang J, Li T, Wang J, Xu M, Yu W, El Abed A, Zhang X. Review on optofluidic microreactors for artificial photosynthesis. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 9:30-41. [PMID: 29379698 PMCID: PMC5769083 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Artificial photosynthesis (APS) mimics natural photosynthesis (NPS) to store solar energy in chemical compounds for applications such as water splitting, CO2 fixation and coenzyme regeneration. NPS is naturally an optofluidic system since the cells (typical size 10 to 100 µm) of green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria enable light capture, biochemical and enzymatic reactions and the related material transport in a microscale, aqueous environment. The long history of evolution has equipped NPS with the remarkable merits of a large surface-area-to-volume ratio, fast small molecule diffusion and precise control of mass transfer. APS is expected to share many of the same advantages of NPS and could even provide more functionality if optofluidic technology is introduced. Recently, many studies have reported on optofluidic APS systems, but there is still a lack of an in-depth review. This article will start with a brief introduction of the physical mechanisms and will then review recent progresses in water splitting, CO2 fixation and coenzyme regeneration in optofluidic APS systems, followed by discussions on pending problems for real applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Huang
- Energy Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, Shandong 250014, China
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Jianchun Wang
- Energy Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, Shandong 250014, China
| | - Tenghao Li
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Jianmei Wang
- Energy Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, Shandong 250014, China
| | - Min Xu
- Energy Research Institute, Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, Shandong 250014, China
| | - Weixing Yu
- Key Laboratory of Spectral Imaging Technology, Xi’an Institute of Optics and Precision Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710119, China
| | - Abdel El Abed
- Laboratoire de Photonique Quantique et Moléculaire, UMR 8537, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan, CentraleSupélec, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 61 avenue du Président Wilson, 94235 Cachan, France
| | - Xuming Zhang
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
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Azzopardi CL, Lacour V, Manceau JF, Barthès M, Bonnet D, Chollet F, Leblois T. A Fluidic Interface with High Flow Uniformity for Reusable Large Area Resonant Biosensors. MICROMACHINES 2017; 8:mi8100308. [PMID: 30400497 PMCID: PMC6190451 DOI: 10.3390/mi8100308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Resonant biosensors are known for their high accuracy and high level of miniaturization. However, their fabrication costs prevent them from being used as disposable sensors and their effective commercial success will depend on their ability to be reused repeatedly. Accordingly, all the parts of the sensor in contact with the fluid need to tolerate the regenerative process which uses different chemicals (H3PO4, H2SO4 based baths) without degrading the characteristics of the sensor. In this paper, we propose a fluidic interface that can meet these requirements, and control the liquid flow uniformity at the surface of the vibrating area. We study different inlet and outlet channel configurations, estimating their performance using numerical simulations based on finite element method (FEM). The interfaces were fabricated using wet chemical etching on Si, which has all the desirable characteristics for a reusable biosensor circuit. Using a glass cover, we could observe the circulation of liquid near the active surface, and by using micro-particle image velocimetry (μPIV) on large surface area we could verify experimentally the effectiveness of the different designs and compare with simulation results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles-Louis Azzopardi
- FEMTO-ST Institute, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 15B avenue des Montboucons, 25030 Besançon, CEDEX, France.
| | - Vivien Lacour
- FEMTO-ST Institute, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 15B avenue des Montboucons, 25030 Besançon, CEDEX, France.
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Innovations in Technology (3IT), Faculty of Engineering, Université de Sherbrooke, 3000 Boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke, QC J1K OA5, Canada.
| | - Jean-François Manceau
- FEMTO-ST Institute, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 15B avenue des Montboucons, 25030 Besançon, CEDEX, France.
| | - Magali Barthès
- FEMTO-ST Institute, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 15B avenue des Montboucons, 25030 Besançon, CEDEX, France.
| | - Dimitri Bonnet
- FEMTO-ST Institute, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 15B avenue des Montboucons, 25030 Besançon, CEDEX, France.
| | - Franck Chollet
- FEMTO-ST Institute, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 15B avenue des Montboucons, 25030 Besançon, CEDEX, France.
| | - Thérèse Leblois
- FEMTO-ST Institute, Univ. Bourgogne Franche-Comté, CNRS, 15B avenue des Montboucons, 25030 Besançon, CEDEX, France.
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