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Lin C, Hu R, Xie P, Zhang G, Liu X, Tong J, Liu W. A three-channel thermal dissociation cavity ring-down spectrometer for simultaneous measurement of ambient total peroxy nitrates, total alkyl nitrates, and NO 2. Talanta 2024; 270:125524. [PMID: 38128285 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.125524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
A newly constructed thermal dissociation cavity ring-down spectrometer (TD-CRDS) for the simultaneous measurement of ambient total peroxy nitrates (ΣPNs, RO2NO2), total alkyl nitrates (ΣANs, RONO2), and NO2 was presented in this work. ΣPNs and ΣANs were detected as NO2 with the CRDS instrument after thermal dissociation. PNs and ANs completely dissociated at 180 °C and 360 °C, with conversion efficiencies of 96 % and 99 %, respectively. The effects of NO2 and NO on measurement in different temperatures and two types of thermal dissociation inlet (TDI) were further explored. The influence of ambient NO2 and NO on PNs and ANs in the improved TDI (TDI-2) was significantly improved. To further enhance the measurement accuracy, the consistency of the observed NO2 in the three channels was tested, which achieved good agreement. The detection limits of the TD-CRDS instrument for NO2, ΣPNs, and ΣANs were determined as 6.5, 6.8, and 8.6 pptv (10 s, 1σ), respectively. Observations of PNs and ANs were conducted in a suburban site in Hefei, China, from September 2-30, 2021, using the TD-CRDS instrument, and the consecutive time series of PNs and ANs were derived, verifying the capability of the TD-CRDS instrument for continuous field observations of ΣPNs and ΣANs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan Lin
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China; University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, China
| | - Renzhi Hu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China.
| | - Pinhua Xie
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China; University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Guoxian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
| | - Xiaoyan Liu
- College of Pharmacy, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, China
| | - Jinzhao Tong
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230027, China
| | - Wenqing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Optics and Technology, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
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2
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Ohara N, Shioji T, Matsumoto J, Inomata S, Sakamoto Y, Kajii Y, Shiigi H, Sadanaga Y. Improved continuous measurement system for atmospheric total peroxy and total organic nitrate under the high NOx condition. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2024; 95:045101. [PMID: 38557884 DOI: 10.1063/5.0172219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
We improved the thermal dissociation cavity attenuated phase shift spectroscopy (TD-CAPS) instrument to measure atmospheric total peroxy nitrates (PNs) and organic nitrates (ONs) continuously under the condition of high NOx. In TD-CAPS, PNs and ONs are dissociated in heated quartz tubes to form NO2, and the NO2 concentration is measured by cavity attenuated phase shift spectroscopy (CAPS). The original TD-CAPS system overestimates PN and ON concentrations in the presence of high NO concentrations. Our laboratory experiments and numerical simulations showed that the main cause of the overestimation was NO oxidation to NO2 by peroxy radicals generated in the heated quartz tubes. In the improved system, NO was converted to NO2 by adding excess O3 after the quartz tubes so that CAPS detected NOx (NO and NO2) instead of NO2. The uncertainty of the improved system was less than 20% with ∼15 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) NO and ∼80 ppbv NO2. The estimated detection limit (3σ) was 0.018 ppbv with an integration time of 2 min in the presence of 64 ppbv NO2. The improved system was tested for measurement of PNs and ONs in an urban area, and the results indicated that interference from NO was successfully suppressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagomi Ohara
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Takahiro Shioji
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Jun Matsumoto
- Faculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, 2-579-15, Mikajima, Tokorozawa, Saitama 359-1192, Japan
| | - Satoshi Inomata
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
| | - Yosuke Sakamoto
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honcho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honcho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Yoshizumi Kajii
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, Japan
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honcho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
- Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-honcho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Shiigi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Sadanaga
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Metropolitan University, 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai, Osaka 599-8531, Japan
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Wang Y, Takeuchi M, Wang S, Nizkorodov SA, France S, Eris G, Ng NL. Photolysis of Gas-Phase Atmospherically Relevant Monoterpene-Derived Organic Nitrates. J Phys Chem A 2023; 127:987-999. [PMID: 36651914 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.2c04307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Organic nitrates (ONs) can impact spatial distribution of reactive nitrogen species and ozone formation in the atmosphere. While photolysis of ONs is known to result in the release of NO2 back to the atmosphere, the photolysis rate constants and mechanisms of monoterpene-derived ONs (MT-ONs) have not been well constrained. We investigated the gas-phase photolysis of three synthetic ONs derived from α-pinene, β-pinene, and d-limonene through chamber experiments. The measured photolysis rate constants ranged from (0.55 ± 0.10) × 10-5 to (2.3 ± 0.80) × 10-5 s-1 under chamber black lights. When extrapolated to solar spectral photon flux at a solar zenith angle of 28.14° in summer, the photolysis rate constants were in the range of (4.1 ± 1.4) × 10-5 to (14 ± 6.7) × 10-5 s-1 (corresponding to lifetimes of 2.0 ± 0.96 to 6.8 ± 2.4 h) and (1.7 ± 0.60) × 10-5 to (8.3 ± 4.0) ×10-5 s-1 (3.3 ± 1.6 to 17 ± 6.0 h lifetimes) by using wavelength-dependent and average quantum yields, respectively. Photolysis mechanisms were proposed based on major products detected during photolysis. A zero-dimensional box model was further employed to simulate the photolysis of α-pinene-derived ON under ambient conditions. We found that more than 99% of α-pinene-derived ON can be converted to inorganic nitrogen within 12 h of irradiation and ozone was formed correspondingly. Together, these findings show that photolysis is an important atmospheric sink for MT-ONs and highlight their role in NOx recycling and ozone chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Wang
- School of Chemical and Bimolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia30332, United States
| | - Masayuki Takeuchi
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia30332, United States
| | - Siyuan Wang
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado80309-0216, United States.,National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Chemical Sciences Laboratory (CSL), Boulder, Colorado80305, United States
| | - Sergey A Nizkorodov
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California92697, United States
| | - Stefan France
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia30332, United States
| | - Gamze Eris
- School of Chemical and Bimolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia30332, United States
| | - Nga Lee Ng
- School of Chemical and Bimolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia30332, United States.,School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia30332, United States.,School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia30332, United States
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Zhou J, Zhao W, Zhang Y, Fang B, Cheng F, Xu X, Ni S, Zhang W, Ye C, Chen W, Venables DS. Amplitude-Modulated Cavity-Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy with Phase-Sensitive Detection: A New Approach Applied to the Fast and Sensitive Detection of NO 2. Anal Chem 2022; 94:3368-3375. [PMID: 35143171 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c05484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Accurate and sensitive measurements of NO2 play an extremely important role in atmospheric studies. Increasingly, studies require NO2 measurements with parts per trillion by volume (pptv-level) detection limits. Other desirable instrument attributes include ease of use, long-term stability, and low maintenance. In this work, we report the development of an amplitude-modulated multimode-diode-laser-based cavity-enhanced absorption spectroscopy (AM-CEAS) system operating at 406 nm that uses phase-sensitive detection for extremely sensitive NO2 detection. The laser was TTL-modulated at 35 kHz. The mirror reflectivity was determined to be 99.985% based on the ring-down time measurement. The cavity base length was 47.5 cm, giving an effective absorption pathlength of ∼3.26 km. AM-CEAS achieved a 1σ detection precision of 35 pptv in a 1 s data acquisition time (4.98 × 10-10 cm-1), over 4 times lower than that attained using a ring-down approach and the same optical system. The AM-CEAS precision improved to 8 pptv over a data acquisition time of 30 s (1.14 × 10-10 cm-1). The AM-CEAS method with the multimode diode laser integrates the advantages of high light injection efficiency like on-axis alignment cavity ring-down spectroscopy, low cavity-mode noise like off-axis alignment CEAS, and narrow-bandwidth high-sensitivity weak signal detection of modulation spectroscopy, providing a powerful, straightforward, and general method for ultrasensitive absorption and extinction measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiacheng Zhou
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031 Anhui, China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026 Anhui, China
| | - Weixiong Zhao
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031 Anhui, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031 Anhui, China
| | - Bo Fang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031 Anhui, China
| | - Feihu Cheng
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031 Anhui, China
| | - Xuezhe Xu
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031 Anhui, China
| | - Shichuan Ni
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031 Anhui, China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026 Anhui, China
| | - Weijun Zhang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Physico-Chemistry, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, HFIPS, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031 Anhui, China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026 Anhui, China
| | - Chunxiang Ye
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Weidong Chen
- Laboratoire de Physicochimie de l'Atmosphère, Université du Littoral Côte d'Opale, 59140 Dunkerque, France
| | - Dean S Venables
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Research Institute, University College Cork, T23 XE10 Cork, Ireland
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Garner NM, Matchett LC, Osthoff HD. Quantification of Non-refractory Aerosol Nitrate in Ambient Air by Thermal Dissociation Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:9854-9861. [PMID: 32639152 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c01156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A thermal dissociation cavity ring-down spectrometer (TD-CRDS) for real-time quantification of non-refractory aerosol nitrate in ambient air is described. The instrument uses four parallel detection channels and heated quartz inlets to convert particulate organic nitrate (pON) (at 350 °C) and ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) aerosol (at 540 °C) to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), whose mixing ratio is monitored via its absorption at 405 nm. Concentrations of aerosol nitrate are determined by difference relative to a parallel TD-CRDS channel in which aerosol is removed by in-line filtering. The method was validated by sampling gas streams containing laboratory-generated NH4NO3 aerosol in parallel to a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS). Scatter plots of TD-CRDS and SMPS data correlated (r2 > 0.9) with slopes near unity, confirming quantitative TD-CRDS response to NH4NO3 aerosol. In contrast, no response was observed when sampling (NH4)2SO4 aerosol. Instrument limits of detection (LOD; 2σ, 10 s) were 120 parts per trillion by volume (10-12, pptv) for NO2 and 148 pptv for ammonium nitrate. Partial and unsustained conversion of refractory sodium nitrate (NaNO3) was observed at the inlet temperature used for complete dissociation of HNO3 and NH4NO3, suggesting that this channel may not constitute a robust measurement of total odd nitrogen (NOy) in environments where NaNO3 particles may be present (e.g., the polluted marine boundary layer). A potential application of the TD-CRDS is the calibration of particle counters, for which convenient methods are not currently available. Sample ambient air measurements of pON and total aerosol nitrate in Calgary are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha M Garner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Laura C Matchett
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Hans D Osthoff
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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6
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Ng NL, Brown SS, Archibald AT, Atlas E, Cohen RC, Crowley JN, Day DA, Donahue NM, Fry JL, Fuchs H, Griffin RJ, Guzman MI, Herrmann H, Hodzic A, Iinuma Y, Jimenez JL, Kiendler-Scharr A, Lee BH, Luecken DJ, Mao J, McLaren R, Mutzel A, Osthoff HD, Ouyang B, Picquet-Varrault B, Platt U, Pye HOT, Rudich Y, Schwantes RH, Shiraiwa M, Stutz J, Thornton JA, Tilgner A, Williams BJ, Zaveri RA. Nitrate radicals and biogenic volatile organic compounds: oxidation, mechanisms, and organic aerosol. ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 2017; 17:2103-2162. [PMID: 30147712 PMCID: PMC6104845 DOI: 10.5194/acp-17-2103-2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Oxidation of biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOC) by the nitrate radical (NO3) represents one of the important interactions between anthropogenic emissions related to combustion and natural emissions from the biosphere. This interaction has been recognized for more than 3 decades, during which time a large body of research has emerged from laboratory, field, and modeling studies. NO3-BVOC reactions influence air quality, climate and visibility through regional and global budgets for reactive nitrogen (particularly organic nitrates), ozone, and organic aerosol. Despite its long history of research and the significance of this topic in atmospheric chemistry, a number of important uncertainties remain. These include an incomplete understanding of the rates, mechanisms, and organic aerosol yields for NO3-BVOC reactions, lack of constraints on the role of heterogeneous oxidative processes associated with the NO3 radical, the difficulty of characterizing the spatial distributions of BVOC and NO3 within the poorly mixed nocturnal atmosphere, and the challenge of constructing appropriate boundary layer schemes and non-photochemical mechanisms for use in state-of-the-art chemical transport and chemistry-climate models. This review is the result of a workshop of the same title held at the Georgia Institute of Technology in June 2015. The first half of the review summarizes the current literature on NO3-BVOC chemistry, with a particular focus on recent advances in instrumentation and models, and in organic nitrate and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation chemistry. Building on this current understanding, the second half of the review outlines impacts of NO3-BVOC chemistry on air quality and climate, and suggests critical research needs to better constrain this interaction to improve the predictive capabilities of atmospheric models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nga Lee Ng
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Steven S. Brown
- NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Chemical Sciences Division, Boulder, CO, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | | | - Elliot Atlas
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, RSMAS, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Ronald C. Cohen
- Department of Chemistry, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - John N. Crowley
- Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie, Division of Atmospheric Chemistry, Mainz, Germany
| | - Douglas A. Day
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Neil M. Donahue
- Center for Atmospheric Particle Studies, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Juliane L. Fry
- Department of Chemistry, Reed College, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Hendrik Fuchs
- Institut für Energie und Klimaforschung: Troposphäre (IEK-8), Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Robert J. Griffin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Hartmut Herrmann
- Atmospheric Chemistry Department, Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Alma Hodzic
- Atmospheric Chemistry Observations and Modeling, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Yoshiteru Iinuma
- Atmospheric Chemistry Department, Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research, Leipzig, Germany
| | - José L. Jimenez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Astrid Kiendler-Scharr
- Institut für Energie und Klimaforschung: Troposphäre (IEK-8), Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Ben H. Lee
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Deborah J. Luecken
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Jingqiu Mao
- Program in Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
- Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory/National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Robert McLaren
- Centre for Atmospheric Chemistry, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anke Mutzel
- Atmospheric Chemistry Department, Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Hans D. Osthoff
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Bin Ouyang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Benedicte Picquet-Varrault
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire des Systemes Atmospheriques (LISA), CNRS, Universities of Paris-Est Créteil and ì Paris Diderot, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace (IPSL), Créteil, France
| | - Ulrich Platt
- Institute of Environmental Physics, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Havala O. T. Pye
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Yinon Rudich
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Weizmann Institute, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Rebecca H. Schwantes
- Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Jochen Stutz
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Joel A. Thornton
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Andreas Tilgner
- Atmospheric Chemistry Department, Leibniz Institute for Tropospheric Research, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Brent J. Williams
- Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rahul A. Zaveri
- Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
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