Lamb dip CRDS of highly saturated transitions of water near 1.4 μm

The W2024 database of the water isotopologue H 2 16 O

The rovibrational spectrum of the water molecule is the crown jewel of high-resolution molecular spectroscopy. While its significance in numerous scientific and engineering applications and the challenges behind its interpretation have been well known, the extensive experimental analysis performed for this molecule, from the microwave to the ultraviolet, is admirable. To determine empirical energy levels forH 2 16 O , this study utilizes an improved version of the MARVEL (Measured Active Rotational-Vibrational Energy Levels) scheme, which now takes into account multiplet constraints and first-principles energy-level splittings. This analysis delivers 19027 empirical energy values, with individual uncertainties and confidence intervals, utilizing 309 290 transition wavenumbers collected from 189 (mostly experimental) data sources. Relying on these empirical, as well as some computed, energies and first-principles intensities, an extensive composite line list, named CW2024, has been assembled. The CW2024 dataset is compared to lines in the canonical HITRAN 2020 spectroscopic database, providing guidance for future experimental investigations.

A Network Approach for the Accurate Characterization of Water Lines Observable in Astronomical Masers and Extragalactic Environments

The water molecule, crucial to the chemical composition and dynamics of the universe, is typically identified in its gas phase via radio and submillimeter transitions, with frequencies up to a few THz. To understand the physicochemical behavior of astronomical objects, accurate transition frequencies are required for these lines. From a set of 26 new and 564 previous Lamb dip measurements, utilizing our ultrasensitive laser-based spectrometers in the near-infrared region, ultrahigh-precision spectroscopic networks were set up for H2 16O and H2 18O, augmented with 40 extremely accurate frequencies taken from the literature. Based on kHz-accuracy paths of these networks, considerably improved line-center frequencies have been obtained for 35 observed or predicted maser lines of H2 16O, as well as for 14 transitions of astronomical significance of H2 18O. These reference frequencies, attached with 5-25 kHz uncertainties, may help future studies in various fields of astrochemistry and astrophysics, in particular when precise information is demanded about Doppler-velocity components, including the gas flows of galactic cores, the kinematics of planetary nebulae, or the motion in exoplanetary atmospheres.

Rovibrational Energies of 13C16O2 Determined with Kilohertz Accuracy

Accurate spectroscopic data of carbon dioxide are widely used in many important applications, such as carbon monitoring missions. Here, we present comb-locked cavity ring-down saturation spectroscopy of the second most abundant isotopologue of CO2, 13C16O2. We determined the positions of 88 lines in three vibrational bands in the 1.6 μm region, 30011e/30012e/30013e-00001e, with an accuracy of a few kHz. Based on the analysis of combination differences, we obtained for the first time the ground-state rotational energies with kHz accuracy. We also provide a set of hybrid line positions for 150 13C16O2 transitions. The rotational energies (J < 50) in the 30013e vibrational state can be fitted by a set of rotational and centrifugal constants with deviations within a few kHz, indicating that the 30013e state is free of perturbations. These precise isotopic line positions will be utilized to improve the Hamiltonian model and quantitative remote sensing of carbon dioxide. Moreover, they will help to track changes in the carbon source and sink through isotopic analysis.

All paths lead to hubs in the spectroscopic networks of water isotopologues H216O and H218O

Network theory has fundamentally transformed our comprehension of complex systems, catalyzing significant advances across various domains of science and technology. In spectroscopic networks, hubs are the quantum states involved in the largest number of transitions. Here, utilizing network paths probed via precision metrology, absolute energies have been deduced, with at least 10-digit accuracy, for almost 200 hubs in the experimental spectroscopic networks of H216O and H218O. These hubs, lying on the ground vibrational states of both species and the bending fundamental of H216O, are involved in tens of thousands of observed transitions. Relying on the same hubs and other states, benchmark-quality line lists have been assembled, which supersede and improve, by three orders of magnitude, the accuracy of the massive amount of data reported in hundreds of papers dealing with Doppler-limited spectroscopy. Due to the omnipresence of water, these ultraprecise line lists could be applied to calibrate high-resolution spectra and serve ongoing and upcoming space missions.

Frequency stable and low phase noise THz synthesis for precision spectroscopy

We present a robust approach to generate a continuously tunable, low phase noise, Hz linewidth and mHz/s stability THz emission in the 0.1 THz to 1.4 THz range. This is achieved by photomixing two commercial telecom, distributed feedback lasers locked by optical-feedback onto a single highly stable V-shaped optical cavity. The phase noise is evaluated up to 1.2 THz, demonstrating Hz-level linewidth. To illustrate the spectral performances and agility of the source, low pressure absorption lines of methanol and water vapors have been recorded up to 1.4 THz. In addition, the hyperfine structure of a water line at 556.9 GHz, obtained by saturation spectroscopy, is also reported, resolving spectral features displaying a full-width at half-maximum of 10 kHz. The present results unambiguously establish the performances of this source for ultra-high resolution molecular physics.

Off axis integrated cavity output spectroscopy of deuterated water isotopologues in 7178-7196 cm-1 spectral region

Water is one of the most abundant molecules on the earth and its isotopic composition measurements find application in various fields. Even though it is an extensively studied molecule, many absorption lines of its isotopologues are still unknown. In the recent years, a significantly improved sensitivity of spectroscopic methods has brought forth a scope of studying the weak and extremely challenging molecular transitions. The paper describes an off axis integrated cavity output spectroscopic investigation the deuterated water isotopologues, viz. HD¹⁶O, HD¹⁷O and HD¹⁸O, in the 7178-7196 cm^-1 spectral region. A few new ro-vibrational transitions of HD¹⁸O are reported along with their line strengths and assignments. Apart from this, observation of extremely weak transitions of deuterated water isotopologues and comparison with existing database and published data is also presented. The present study will find application in field of accurate and sensitive HD¹⁶O, HD¹⁷O and HD¹⁸O detections.

The (2-0) R(0) and R(1) transition frequencies of HD determined to a 10-10 relative accuracy by Doppler spectroscopy at 80 K

The Doppler broadened R(0) and R(1) lines of the (2-0) vibrational band of HD have been measured at liquid nitrogen temperature and at pressures of 2 Pa, with a comb referenced continuous-wave cavity ring-down spectrometer set-up. Transition frequencies of 214905335185 kHz and 217105181898 kHz were derived from 33 and 83 recordings, with corresponding root mean squared deviation of 53 and 33 kHz for the R(0) and R(1) transition, respectively. This is the first sub-MHz frequency determination of the R(0) transition frequency and represents a three order of magnitude accuracy improvement compared to literature. The R(1) transition frequency is in very good agreement with previous determinations in saturation regime reported with similar accuracy. To achieve such accuracy, the transition frequency of the (101)-(000) 2₁₁-3₁₂ line of H₂¹⁶O interfering with the R(0) line had to be precisely determined and is reported with a standard error of 100 Hz at 214904329826.49(10) kHz (relative uncertainty of 5 × 10^-13). These measurement sets provide stringent reference values for validating future advances in the theoretical description of the hydrogen (and water) molecule.

Comb coherence-transfer and cavity ring-down saturation spectroscopy around 1.65 μm: kHz-accurate frequencies of transitions in the 2ν3 band of 12CH4

Comb Coherence Transfer (CCT) uses a feed-forward frequency correction to transfer the optical phase of a frequency comb to the beam of a free-running diode laser. This allows the amplification of a selected comb tooth by 50 dB while adding agile and accurate frequency tuning. In the present work, SI-traceable frequency calibration and comb tooth narrowing down to 20 kHz is additionally provided by comb frequency locking to an ultrastable optical frequency reference distributed from Paris to Grenoble through the RENATER optical fiber network [Lisdat et al., Nat. Commun., 2016, 7, 12443]. We apply this CCT broadly tunable source for saturated cavity ring-down spectroscopy of ro-vibrational R0 to R10 multiplets in the 2ν₃ band of ¹²CH₄ (from 6015 to 6115 cm^-1). Indeed, efficient cavity injection with large intra-cavity power build-up induces saturation of the ro-vibrational transitions at low pressure and Doppler-free Lamb dips are observed with high signal/noise. kHz-accurate transition frequencies are derived improving by three orders of magnitude previous values from spectra in the Doppler regime, which are strongly affected by line blending. While previous saturation spectroscopy investigations addressed specific 2ν₃ multiplets (R6 or R9), the CCT approach allowed for a rapid coverage of the entire R0-R10 series. Measured transition frequencies are compared with experimental and theoretical line lists available in the literature.

Spectroscopic-network-assisted precision spectroscopy and its application to water

Frequency combs and cavity-enhanced optical techniques have revolutionized molecular spectroscopy: their combination allows recording saturated Doppler-free lines with ultrahigh precision. Network theory, based on the generalized Ritz principle, offers a powerful tool for the intelligent design and validation of such precision-spectroscopy experiments and the subsequent derivation of accurate energy differences. As a proof of concept, 156 carefully-selected near-infrared transitions are detected for H₂¹⁶O, a benchmark system of molecular spectroscopy, at kHz accuracy. These measurements, augmented with 28 extremely-accurate literature lines to ensure overall connectivity, allow the precise determination of the lowest ortho-H₂¹⁶O energy, now set at 23.794 361 22(25) cm⁻¹, and 160 energy levels with similarly high accuracy. Based on the limited number of observed transitions, 1219 calibration-quality lines are obtained in a wide wavenumber interval, which can be used to improve spectroscopic databases and applied to frequency metrology, astrophysics, atmospheric sensing, and combustion chemistry.

Precision-spectroscopy techniques can accurately measure lines in constrained frequency and intensity ranges. The authors propose a spectroscopic-network-assisted precision spectroscopy method by which transitions measured in a narrow range provide information in other, extended regions of the spectrum.

A uniform flow-cavity ring-down spectrometer (UF-CRDS): A new setup for spectroscopy and kinetics at low temperature

The UF-CRDS (Uniform Flow-Cavity Ring Down Spectrometer) is a new setup coupling for the first time a pulsed uniform (Laval) flow with a continuous wave CRDS in the near infrared for spectroscopy and kinetics at low temperature. This high resolution and sensitive absorption spectrometer opens a new window into the phenomena occurring within UFs. The approach extends the detection range to new electronic and rovibrational transitions within Laval flows and offers the possibility to probe numerous species which have not been investigated yet. This new tool has been designed to probe radicals and reaction intermediates but also to follow the chemistry of hydrocarbon chains and PAHs which play a crucial role in the evolution of astrophysical environments. For kinetics measurements, the UF-CRDS combines the CRESU technique (French acronym meaning reaction kinetics in uniform supersonic flows) with the SKaR (Simultaneous Kinetics and Ring-Down) approach where, as indicated by its name, the entire reaction is monitored during each intensity decay within the high finesse cavity. The setup and the approach are demonstrated with the study of the reaction between CN (v = 1) and propene at low temperature. The recorded data are finally consistent with a previous study of the same reaction for CN (v = 0) relying on the CRESU technique with laser induced fluorescence detection.

Accurate empirical rovibrational energies and transitions of H216O

Several significant improvements are proposed to the computational molecular spectroscopy protocol MARVEL (Measured Active Rotational-Vibrational Energy Levels) facilitating the inversion of a large set of measured rovibrational transitions to energy levels. The most important algorithmic changes include the use of groups of transitions, blocked by their estimated experimental (source segment) uncertainties, an inversion and weighted least-squares refinement procedure based on sequential addition of blocks of decreasing accuracy, the introduction of spectroscopic cycles into the refinement process, automated recalibration, synchronization of the combination difference relations to reduce residual uncertainties in the resulting dataset of empirical (MARVEL) energy levels, and improved classification of the lines and energy levels based on their accuracy and dependability. The resulting protocol, through handling a large number of measurements of similar accuracy, retains, or even improves upon, the best reported uncertainties of the spectroscopic transitions employed. To show its advantages, the extended MARVEL protocol is applied for the analysis of the complete set of highly accurate H216O transition measurements. As a result, almost 300 highly accurate energy levels of H216O are reported in the energy range of 0-6000 cm-1. Out of the 15 vibrational bands involved in accurately measured rovibrational transitions, the following three have definitely highly accurate empirical rovibrational energies of 8-10 digits of accuracy: (v1v2v3) = (0 0 0), (0 1 0), and (0 2 0), where v1, v2, and v3 stand for the symmetric stretch, bend, and antisymmetric stretch vibrational quantum numbers. The dataset of experimental rovibrational transitions and empirical rovibrational energy levels assembled during this study, both with improved uncertainties, is considerably larger and more accurate than the best previous datasets.

Sensitivity improvement by optimized optical switching and curve fitting in a cavity ring-down spectrometer

We presented methods for the improvement of the sensitivity of a cavity ring-down spectrometer other than modifying the cavity length and the mirrors. As for the light switching, a fast driving scheme was proposed to address the slow switching speed of the boost optical amplifier, which makes it have only half of the switching time of that for the common acoustic-optical modulators and electro-optical modulators, as well as have higher extinction ratios. This effectively suppressed the distortions of the ring-down signals. We further adopted a realistic non-exponential curve-fitting method, taking into account the switching speed and the delayed triggering of the optical switch. These methods help accurately determine the ring-down time constants, which in turn reduced the Allan variance of the measurement results and increased the sensitivity. We performed tests at different repetition rates and all of them revealed more than 30% sensitivity improvement. At a rate of 16 kHz, we increased the minimal detectable absorption of 9.1×10^-11  cm^-1 to 5.7×10^-11  cm^-1. The effectiveness of these upgrades could benefit many spectroscopic applications of the cavity ring-down spectroscopy, especially for frontier research that requires sensitive measurement and high-quality spectral data.