Can the Inclusion of Forage Chicory in the Diet of Lactating Dairy Cattle Alter Milk Production and Milk Fatty Acid Composition? Findings of a Multilevel Meta-Analysis

In traditional ryegrass/white clover (Lolium perenne L./Trifolium repens L.) pastoral systems, forage herbs such as chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) present an opportunity to fill feed deficits during late spring and summer. Although multiple research publications have evaluated the efficacy of chicory for enhancing milk production and milk fatty acid (FA) profile, no publication has quantitatively synthesised the body of research. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the effect of chicory on milk production and composition, as well as on the milk fatty acid composition of dairy cattle. A total of 29 comparisons from 15 unique research publications involving 597 dairy cattle were used to develop a dataset for analysis. Three-level random-effect and robust variance estimator models were used to account for the hierarchical structure of the data and the dependency of effect sizes within publications. Chicory inclusion increased milk yield when compared to grass-based diets {weighted mean difference (WMD) = 1.07 (95% CI 0.54-1.60) kg/cow/d, p < 0.001}, but it provided a similar milk yield when compared to other forages such as legumes and herbs {dicots; WMD = -0.30, (95% CI -89-0.29) kg/cow/day, p = 0.312}. Increases in milk yield were congruent with differences in DM intake (p = 0.09) and ME intakes (p = 0.003), being similar in chicory-fed and dicot-fed cows but higher than grass-fed cows. Chicory feeding's effect on milk solids was twice as high during mid lactation {154 days in milk; WMD = 0.13, (95% 0.081-0.175) kg/cow/day, p < 0.001} as during late lactation {219 days in milk; WMD = 0.06, (95% 0.003-0.13) kg/cow/day, p = 0.041}. In line with milk yield, greater and more significant effect sizes were found for alpha linolenic acid {ALA; WMD = 0.20 (95% CI 0.06-0.35) g/100 g FA, p = 0.011} when chicory was compared to grass species only. Comparing chicory with dicots suggests that chicory inclusion did not impact ALA concentrations {WMD = 0.001 (95% CI -0.02-0.2) g/100 g FA, p = 0.99}. There were no differences in conjugated linoleic acid concentration in the milk of cows fed chicory or control diets. The study provides empirical evidence of chicory's efficacy for improved milk production and milk fatty acid composition.

Can botanically-diverse pastures positively impact the nutritional and antioxidant composition of ruminant meat? - Invited review

A desire for more sustainable pasture-based ruminant feeding systems has led to growing interest in utilising botanically-diverse pastures (BDP) over monoculture pastures. Research suggests that, from a human consumption viewpoint, grass-based ruminant feeding leads to more nutritionally desirable fatty acid (FA) and antioxidant concentrations in meat compared with concentrate feeding, which can affect meat quality. The FA, antioxidant and secondary metabolite content of plants differ, depending on species, maturity and seasonality, offering the potential through targeted feeding of BDP to produce meat with superior nutritional and antioxidant profiles. This review explores the effect, if any, that grazing ruminants on BDP has on the FA profile, fat-soluble vitamin, and antioxidant content of meat. The input-output relationship between forage and red meat constituents is complex and is likely affected by species diversity, forage consumption patterns and modulation of rumen fermentation processes. Further investigation is required to fully understand the effect that BDP may have on the composition and quality of ruminant meat.

Dietary and Animal Strategies to Reduce the Environmental Impact of Pastoral Dairy Systems Result in Altered Nutraceutical Profiles in Milk

The objective of this study was to evaluate and provide further insights into how dairy cows genetically divergent for milk urea N breeding values [MUNBV, high (2.21 ± 0.21) vs. low (−1.16 ± 0.21); µ ± SEM], consuming either fresh cut Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L., PL) or Ryegrass (Lolium perenne L., RG) herbage, impacted the nutraceutical profile of whole milk by investigating amino and fatty acid composition and applying metabolomic profiling techniques. Both diet and MUNBV, and their interaction term, were found to affect the relative abundance of alanine, glycine, histidine, and phenylalanine in the milk (p < 0.05), but their minor absolute differences (up to ~0.13%) would not be considered biologically relevant. Differences were also detected in the fatty acid profile based on MUNBV and diet (p < 0.05) with low MUNBV cows having a greater content of total unsaturated fatty acids (+16%) compared to high MUNBV cows and cows consuming PL having greater content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (+92%), omega 3 (+101%) and 6 (+113%) compared to RG. Differences in the metabolomic profile of the milk were also detected for both MUNBV and dietary treatments. Low MUNBV cows were found to have greater abundances of choline phosphate, phosphorylethanolamine, N-acetylglucosamine 1-phosphate, and 2-dimethylaminoethanol (p < 0.05). High MUNBV cows had a greater abundance of methionine sulfoxide, malate, 1,5-anhydroglucitol (1,5-AG), glycerate, arabitol/xylitol, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutarate, 5-hydroxylysine and cystine (p < 0.05). Large differences (p < 0.05) were also detected as a result of diet with PL diets having greater abundances of the phytochemicals 4-acetylcatechol sulfate, 4-methylcatechol sulfate, and p-cresol glucuronide whilst RG diets had greater abundances of 2,6-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 2-acetamidophenol sulfate, and 2-hydroxyhippurate. The results of this study indicate the potential to alter the nutraceutical value of milk from dietary and genetic strategies that have been previously demonstrated to reduce environmental impact.

Effect of feeding fresh forage plantain (Plantago lanceolata) or ryegrass-based pasture on methane emissions, total-tract digestibility, and rumen fermentation of nonlactating dairy cows

Plantain (Plantago lanceolata) is an herb used to reduce the forage deficit of ryegrass-based pastures during the summer. This herb is being promoted for its reduced environmental impact in terms of nitrogen emissions, particularly reducing urinary nitrogen. However, the effect of plantain on emissions of enteric CH₄, the main greenhouse gas produced from ruminant-based production systems, is not known. The aim of the present trial was to determine CH₄ emissions and rumen fermentation characteristics of nonlactating dairy cows fed 100% plantain (PLT) or 100% perennial ryegrass (RG; Lolium perenne) in 2 experiments (E1 and E2). The forages were in a vegetative growth stage in E1 and were in a reproductive growth stage in E2. Methane emissions from 16 cows in each experiment were measured in respiration chambers for 2 d. Methane emissions per unit of dry matter intake (CH₄ yield) were 15 and 28% less for cows fed PLT than those fed RG in E1 and E2, respectively. Dry matter digestibility of PLT was 7 and 27% less than that of RG in E1 and E2, respectively, and CH₄ per unit of dry matter digested was similar for PLT and RG in both experiments. There were only minor (but some significant) differences in rumen fermentation characteristics between cows fed PLT and RG in both experiments. In conclusion, CH₄ yield was lower for cows fed PLT compared with those fed RG in both experiments and this reduction was largely explained by the lesser dry matter digestibility of PLT.

Relationships between intramuscular fat percentage and fatty acid composition in M. longissimus lumborum of pasture-finished lambs in New Zealand

This paper reports relationships between fatty acids (FAs) and intramuscular fat (IMF)% in M. longissimus lumborum samples from 108 pasture-fed ewe lambs. Samples ranged in IMF from 1 to 6%. Relationships between %FA with total IMF% were mainly linear with percentages of saturated and monounsaturated FAs (MUFA), including trans-FAs, increasing and polyunsaturated FAs decreasing as IMF% increased. Normalized FA content data at 5.5% relative to 1.5% IMF, showed the highest relative increase for C14:0 as rates of endogenous synthesis increase with higher IMF deposition. This can be related to enhanced C12:0 elongation and lower rates of C14:0 desaturation, supported by a preferential desaturation of C18:1 trans-11 and C18:0 compared with C14:0 and C16:0 as IMF increased. The greatest normalized increase after C14:0 was anteisoC17:0 followed by other branched chain FAs and then trans-MUFA and C18:2 cis-9,trans-11. Finally, C22:6 and C22:5 showed higher relative increase than C20:5 indicating greater rates of elongation and desaturation past C20:5 at higher levels of fatness.

Animal Design Through Functional Dietary Diversity for Future Productive Landscapes

Pastoral livestock production systems are facing considerable societal pressure to reduce environmental impact, enhance animal welfare, and promote product integrity, while maintaining or increasing system profitability. Design theory is the conscious tailoring of a system for a specific or set of purposes. Then, animals—as biological systems nested in grazing environments—can be designed in order to achieve multi-faceted goals. We argue that phytochemical rich diets through dietary taxonomical diversity can be used as a design tool for both current animal product integrity and to develop future multipurpose animals. Through conscious choice, animals offered a diverse array of plants tailor a diet, which better meets their individual requirements for nutrients, pharmaceuticals, and prophylactics. Phytochemical rich diets with diverse arrangements of plant secondary compounds also reduce environmental impacts of grazing animals by manipulating the use of C and N, thereby reducing methane production and excretion of N. Subsequently functional dietary diversity (FDD), as opposed to dietary monotony, offers better nourishment, health benefits and hedonic value (positive reward increasing “liking” of feed), as well as the opportunity for individualism; and thereby eudaimonic well-being. Moreover, phytochemical rich diets with diverse arrangements of plant secondary compounds may translate in animal products with similar richness, enhancing consumer human health and well-being. Functional dietary diversity also allows us to design future animals. Dietary exposure begins in utero, continues through mothers' milk, and carries on in early-life experiences, influencing dietary preferences later in life. More specifically, in utero exposure to specific flavors cause epigenetic changes that alter morphological and physiological mechanisms that influence future “wanting,” “liking” and learning of particular foods and foodscapes. In this context, we argue that in utero and early life exposure to designed flavors of future multifunctional foodscapes allow us to graze future ruminants with enhanced multiple ecosystem services. Collectively, the strategic use of FDD allows us to “create” animals and their products for immediate and future food, health, and wealth. Finally, implementing design theory provides a link between our thoughtscape (i.e., the use of FDD as design) to future landscapes, which provides a beneficial foodscape to the animals, an subsequently to us.

Evaluation of PEETER V1.0 urine sensors for measuring individual urination behavior of dairy cows

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PEETER V1.0 sensors are a simple and inexpensive way to monitor cow urination behavior

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PEETER V1.0 sensors were found to have excellent accuracy

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PEETER V1.0 sensors were shown to have excellent precision

Due to environmental concerns around N leaching and NO₂ emissions from intensive pastoral dairying systems, there has been an increase in research focused on mitigation strategies and on-animal technologies to evaluate urination behavior of grazing dairy cows. Nitrogen leaching and NO₂ emissions are associated with urine nitrogen loading onto pasture, which is a function of urine nitrogen concentration and urine volume per urination event. The PEETER V1.0 urine sensor (Lincoln University, Christchurch, New Zealand) is a promising on-animal measurement technology; however, it has yet to be validated in vivo. The objective of this work was to validate the PEETER V1.0 urine sensor's estimations of individual urination events (i.e., urine volume). We fitted 15 Holstein-Friesian × Jersey lactating dairy cows (506 ± 35 kg of live weight, body condition score of 3.75 ± 0.25, and 150.4 ± 20.7 d in milk) with individual PEETER V1.0 sensors and placed them in metabolism crates for 72 h. Every urination event (n = 480) was collected manually and compared with the urine volume estimated by the PEETER V1.0 sensor to determine precision and accuracy using Lin's concordance correlation coefficient (CCC). The CCC is calculated as a function of the Pearson's correlation (precision) and bias correction factor (C_b; C_b = 1 is perfect), and it demonstrates how far the values of the 2 methods are from perfect agreement (accuracy; i.e., a 45° line). The mean urination event volume (mean ± standard deviation) was 2.7 ± 0.94 and 2.6 ± 0.92 L for the actual and PEETER V1.0 sensor, respectively. The PEETER V1.0 sensor showed excellent precision (r = 0.90) with near-perfect accuracy (C_b = 1.00), and the CCC value was high (CCC = 0.90), indicating excellent agreement. Based on these results, the PEETER V1.0 urine sensor provides estimates that are precise and accurate. We conclude that the PEETER V1.0 sensor can be used to evaluate urination behavior of grazing dairy cows.

Effect of increasing dietary proportion of plantain on milk production and nitrogen use of grazing dairy cows in late lactation

Abstract Context Plantain has shown promise as a forage that can mitigate nitrogen (N) losses from farm systems, although adoption and regulation requires knowledge of the minimum amount of forage area or diet quantity to observe an effect. Aims A grazing study was conducted to evaluate the effect of offering increasing proportions of spatially adjacent plantain (PL) and perennial ryegrass–white clover (PRGWC) on milk production and N utilisation of dairy cows. Methods Forty-eight late lactating cows blocked into replicated (n = 3) groups of four cows were randomly allocated to one of the following four forage treatments based on percentage area of plantain: 0%, 15%, 30%, or 60%. Cows were allocated 25 kg DM/cow.day of forage above ground level daily on the basis of metabolisable energy requirements. Dry matter intake was estimated from the difference between pre- and post-grazing pasture mass, using a calibrated electronic rising-plate meter. Milk production was measured as yield and milk solids, while N use was estimated from total milk N excretion and spot subsamples of blood, urine and faeces. Key results Offering cows spatially adjacent strips of PL increased apparent dry matter intake compared with PRGWC pasture alone (16.4 vs 15.1 kg DM/cow.day, P = 0.027) and apparent metabolisable energy intake (203 vs 188 MJ/kg.cow.day, P &lt; 0.001). Milk yield (16.1 kg/cow.day), milk solids production (1.6 kg/cow.day) and fat concentration (5.69%) were unaffected by the proportion of plantain in the diet. PL offered at 60% of the area increased milk protein concentration compared with PRGWC (4.65 vs 4.36%, P &lt; 0.01). There was no treatment effect on total apparent N intake (563 g N/cow.day), N excretion in milk (113 g N/cow.day) and N-utilisation efficiency (20 g milk N/100 g N consumed). However, total milk urea, blood urea and urine urea N concentrations declined with increasing plantain in the diet, reflecting an influence on urea metabolism. Conclusions Offering plantain to grazing dairy cows did not improve milk yield or N-use efficiency, but influenced urea metabolism. Implications Sowing plantain in spatially separate strips within perennial ryegrass–white clover pastures is a useful option to achieve target levels of plantain in the diet and, in conjunction with other mitigation strategies, can be used to improve the sustainability of pastoral dairy farming.

Plantain (Plantago lanceolata) reduces the environmental impact of farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.) on water dynamics and balance, as well as nitrogen (N) excretion by red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) as a potential forage tool to reduce negative environmental impacts. This experiment used a crossover design with red deer (n = 8) in metabolism crates to determine how fresh-cut herbage diets of either plantain or ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) compared in terms of dry matter intake (DMI), diet digestibility, water dynamics, and N dynamics. Deer consuming plantain had greater water intake from herbage (P < 0.01) compared with ryegrass. Additionally, when fed plantain, deer had greater water excretion from urine (P < 0.01; 69.4%) and feces (P < 0.01; 29.4%) and, thus, total water excretion (P < 0.01; 61.7%) than when fed ryegrass. When consuming plantain, deer had greater DMI (P = 0.02; +11.2%) and fecal output (P < 0.01; +36.8%) and lower apparent dry matter digestibility (P = 0.03; -8.3%) compared with ryegrass. Plantain (15.9%) contained 30% less crude protein than ryegrass (22.8%) so that even with the greater DMI of plantain, plantain had lower (P < 0.01; -23%) N intake (g/d). Deer consuming plantain had lower urine N concentration (P < 0.01) than when consuming ryegrass. Additionally, deer consuming plantain had much less daily urine N (P < 0.01; -34.9%) excretions. Our results indicate deer fed plantain had greater DMI, ingested more water, and excreted more water than those consuming ryegrass, with lower urinary N (UN) concentration and lesser daily urine N excretion. Thus, we conclude that offering red deer plantain may reduce the environmental impact associated with UN output, such as nitrate leaching or N₂O emissions to the atmosphere.

Milk Production, N Partitioning, and Methane Emissions in Dairy Cows Grazing Mixed or Spatially Separated Simple and Diverse Pastures

Increasing pasture diversity and spatially separated sowing arrangements can potentially increase the dry matter intake of high-quality forages leading to improved animal production. This study investigated the effects of simple (two-species) and diverse (six-species) pastures planted either in mixed or spatially separated adjacent pasture strips on performance, N partitioning, and methane emission of dairy cows. Thirty-six mid-lactation Jersey cows grazed either (1) simple mixed, (2) simple spatially separated, (3) diverse mixed, or (4) diverse spatially separated pastures planted in a complete randomized block design with three replicates. Compared to simple pasture, diverse pasture had lower CP content but higher condensed tannins and total phenolic compounds with an overall positive effect on yield of milk solids, nitrogen utilization, including a reduction of N output from urine, and methane yields per dry matter eaten. The spatial separation increased legume and CP content in simple pasture but decreased NDF in both diverse and simple pastures. In conclusion, increasing diversity using pasture species with higher nutritive value and secondary compounds can help improving the production while decreasing the environmental effect of dairy farming, while spatial separation had a minor effect on feed intake and yield, possibly due to overall high-quality pastures in early spring.

Milk production, nitrogen utilization, and methane emissions of dairy cows grazing grass, forb, and legume-based pastures

Achieving high animal productivity without degrading the environment is the primary target in pasture-based dairy farming. This study investigated the effects of changing the forage base in spring from grass-clover pastures to forb or legume-based pastures on milk yield, N utilization, and methane emissions of Jersey cows in Western Oregon. Twenty-seven mid-lactation dairy cows were randomly assigned to one of three pasture treatments: grass-clover-based pasture composed of festulolium, tall fescue, orchardgrass, and white clover (Grass); forb-based pasture composed of chicory, plantain, and white clover (Forb); and legume-based pasture composed of red clover, bird's-foot trefoil, berseem clover, and balansa clover (Legume). Pastures were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replicates (i.e., blocks) with each replicate grazed by a group of three cows. Production and nutritive quality of the forages, animal performance, milk components, nitrogen partitioning, and methane emissions were measured. Feed quality and dry matter intake (DMI) of cows were greater (P ≤ 0.05) for Legume and Forb vs. Grass, with consequent greater milk and milk solids yields (P < 0.01). Cows grazing Forb also had more (P < 0.01) lactose and linoleic acid in milk compared with cows grazing the other pastures, and less (P = 0.04) somatic cell counts compared with Grass. Cows grazing Forb had substantially less (P < 0.01) N in urine, milk, and blood compared with cows grazing the other pastures, with not only a greater (P < 0.01) efficiency of N utilization for milk synthesis calculated using milk urea nitrogen but also a larger (P < 0.01) fecal N content, indicating a shift of N from urine to feces. Both Forb and Legume had a diuretic effect on cows, as indicated by the lower (P < 0.01) creatinine concentration in urine compared with Grass. Methane emissions tended to be less (P = 0.07) in cows grazed on Forb vs. the other pastures. The results indicate that Forb pasture can support animal performance, milk quality, and health comparable to Legume pasture; however, Forb pasture provides the additional benefit of reduced environmental impact of pasture-based dairy production.

Functional Traits, Morphology, and Herbage Production of Vernalised and Non-Vernalised Chicory cv. Choice (Cichorium intybus L.) in Response to Defoliation Frequency and Height

Chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) used in pastoral systems has the attributes required of a forage species to reduce animal urinary nitrogen loading to soil, increase milk production, and enhance milk fatty acid profile to improve pastoral farm systems for matching increasing global demand for dairy products and environmental standards of livestock systems. Greater adoption of chicory requires confidence in management decisions that can control risks to farm production, namely bolting after vernalisation or a decline in persistence of chicory swards, which have slowed its adoption in pastoral systems. We, therefore, measured functional traits, morphology and herbage production of chicory under irrigated field conditions before and after vernalisation in Canterbury, New Zealand. The experimental site was laid out in a complete randomized block design with four replications where two regrowth intervals and two defoliation heights were applied. Regrowth interval had a stronger influence over functional traits and herbage production than defoliation height, with more pronounced effects after vernalisation. Plants managed under shorter regrowth intervals had narrower roots with lower concentration of sugars than plants under longer intervals, which might compromise their longevity. In addition, plants managed under shorter intervals remained mostly vegetative with heavier and longer leaves, though with reduced photosynthetic capacity than those managed under longer intervals. The thermal time to initiate stem elongation in plants managed under longer intervals was ~274 growing degree-days, with a mean stem elongation rate increasing linearly at 1.4 ± 0.08 mm/growing degree-days. The key outcomes of this research quantify the growing degree-days to initiate stem elongation post vernalisation, which provides management directive for timing of defoliation of chicory in order to maintain feed quality for grazing livestock. Alternating frequent and infrequent defoliation regimes might be used to optimise vegetative growth, root reserves, and pasture persistence.

Milk and meat fatty acids from sheep fed a plantain-chicory mixture or a grass-based permanent sward

Plantain and chicory are interesting forage species since they present good nutritional quality and are more resistant to drought than many temperate grasses. The fatty acid (FA) profile in milk and meat is related to a growing concern for the consumption of healthy foods, that is, with a lower content of saturated FA, higher polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) and a favourable n-6 : n-3 FAs ratio. Our objective was to evaluate the FA content in ewe's milk and lamb's meat fed a plantain-chicory mixture (PCH) or a grass-based permanent sward (GBS) dominated by perennial ryegrass. Eighteen Austral ewes in mid-lactation were allocated to PCH and GBS treatments. Milk samples were obtained during September (spring). Thirty weaned lambs were finished on both treatments from November to December (7 weeks), slaughtered and their meat sampled. Fat from milk and meat samples was extracted and stored until analysed by gas chromatography. Milk fat from GBS was higher than from PCH (P < 0.05) in C18:0 (11 385 v. 5874 mg/100 g FA), 9c-18:1 (15 750 v. 8565 mg/100 g FA), 11 t-18:1 (4576 v. 2703 mg/100 g FA) and 9c,11 t-18:2 (1405 v. 921 mg/100 g FA) and lower in 18:2n-6 (827 v. 1529 mg/100 g FA) and 18:3n-3 (943 v. 1318 mg/100 g FA) FA. Total mono-unsaturated FA was higher in GBS than PCH (P < 0.05). Meat fat from PCH swards presented a higher (P < 0.05) content than GBS for 18:2n-6 (46.8 v. 28.2 mg/100 g FA), linolenic (24.6 v. 14.2 mg/100 g FA), polyunsaturated FA (119.7 v. 73.4 mg/100 g FA), n-6 (65.9 v. 40.8 mg/100 g FA) and n-3 (53.8 v. 32.5 mg/100 g FA), respectively. No effect of treatment (P > 0.05) was detected for 9c-18:1 (283.9 v. 205.8 mg/100 g FA), 11 t-18:1 (26.2 v. 19.3 mg/100 g FA) and 9c,11 t-18:2 (10.1 v. 7.6 mg/100 g FA), for PCH and GBS. These results suggest that grazing a PCH mixture results in a higher concentration of PUFA in ewes' milk and in lambs' fat, as compared to a GBS sward.

Rumen Fermentation and Fatty Acid Composition of Milk of Mid Lactating Dairy Cows Grazing Chicory and Ryegrass

The goals of the current study were to investigate the effects of including chicory (Cichorium intybus L.) into the traditional feeding regime of ryegrass/white clover (Lolium perenne L./Trifolium repens L.), and time of its allocation on milk production, rumen fermentation, and FA composition of milk and rumen digesta of dairy cows. Nine groups of four cows were allocated one of three replicated feeding regimes: (1) ryegrass/white clover only (RGWC), (2) ryegrass/white clover + morning allocation of chicory (CHAM), and (3) ryegrass/white clover + afternoon allocation of chicory (CHPM). One cow per group had a rumen cannulae fitted. Treatment did not affect total grazing time or estimated dry matter intake, but cows ruminated more when fed RGWC than chicory. Allocating chicory in the afternoon elevated milk production compared with RGWC and CHAM. Milk from cows grazing chicory contained greater concentrations of polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) such as C18:3 c9, 12, 15 and C18:2 c9, 12 than those on RGWC. As with milk, rumen digesta concentration of PUFA increased when cows grazed on chicory rather than RGWC, which corresponded with lower concentrations of intermediate vaccenic and biohydrogenation end-product stearic acid for cows grazing on chicory. Mean ruminal pH was lower for cows offered chicory than those on RGWC, reflecting greater rumen concentrations of volatile fatty acids (VFA) for cows fed chicory. Allocating chicory during the afternoon is a useful strategy that can translate to improved milk production. The lower rumen pH, lower concentration of vaccenic and stearic acids, and elevated concentration of PUFA in the rumen of cows fed chicory suggest reduced biohydrogenation and may explain the elevated concentration of PUFA in the milk of cows fed chicory compared with those fed RGWC.