Review: Improving the performance of neonatal piglets

Newborn piglets have a high incidence of preweaning mortality that is not only associated with low birth weights but also with the presence of intra-uterine growth-restricted (IUGR) piglets. Such IUGR piglets are commonly seen in litters from hyperprolific sows as a result of insufficient placental transfer of nutrients. Nutritional strategies can be used prior to and during gestation to enhance foetal development and can also be implemented in the transition period to reduce the duration of farrowing and increase colostrum yield. Recent findings showed that the energy status of sows at the onset of farrowing is crucial to diminish stillbirth rate. Newborn piglets often fail to consume enough colostrum to promote thermostability and subsequent growth, and this is particularly problematic in very large litters when there are fewer available teats than the number of suckling piglets. One injection of 75 IU of oxytocin approximately 14 h after farrowing can prolong the colostral phase, hence increasing the supply of immunoglobulins to piglets. Nevertheless, assistance must be provided to piglets after birth in order to increase their chance of survival. Various approaches can be used, such as: (1) optimising the farrowing environment, (2) supervising farrowing and assisting newborn piglets, (3) using cross-fostering techniques, (4) providing nurse sows, and 5) providing artificial milk. Although research advances have been made in developing feeding and management strategies for sows that increase performance of their newborn piglets, much work still remains to be done to ensure that maximal outcomes are achieved.

Ethnoveterinary study of galactogenic recipes used by ruminant breeders to improve milk production of local cows in Benin Republic

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Benin, traditional recipes are used to improve livestock dairy performance, but they are not sufficient documented. The study aimed to inventory the galactogenic recipes used by herders to improve production in cow farming.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aimed to inventory the galactogenic recipes used by herders to improve production in cow farming.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We conducted semi-structured interviews among 65 peuls camps, 4 bioclimatic zones, and 565 farmers dialogue partners, including agro-pastoralist, healers and pastoralists from the rainy season April and May 2019. Detailed information about homemade herbal remedies of galactogenic recipes (plant species, plant part, manufacturing process) and the corresponding use reports (dialogue partner, category of use and route of administration) was collected. Then other to classify the various recipes identified into homogeneneous groups according to their effectiveness in stimulating milk, a numerical classification was carried out on the recipes taking into account the milk gain.

RESULTS

They showed that Peuls and Gandos sociocultural groups have a better knowledge of galactogenic recipes. Of the 295 recipes inventoried, 102 frequently cited recipes were divided into two groups. Group 2, consisting of 16 recipes, had a significantly (p < 0.001) higher milk yield than group 1. Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. and Arachis hypogaea L. were the main ingredients of the recipes (respectively 56 and 31% of incorporation rate). The composition of the recipes varied according to the agro-ecological zones. Herders in Northern Benin used more recipes based on Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Harms) J.H.Kirkbr. & Wiersema, Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A.DC.) Pichon and Euphorbia balsamifera Aiton. Those in Southern Benin mainly used recipes based on Gardenia aqualla associated with Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp or Arachis hypogaea L.. To improve the effectiveness of galactogenic recipes, socio-cultural and magical-religious practices are used when procuring the plant material to be used, preparing the galactogen and administering the recipe to the animals. These include pronounced incantations or recited Koranic verses. The most commonly used route of administration is the oral route with an average treatment duration not exceeding 5 days.

CONCLUSION

The study reveals that the majority of breeders (90%) opt for the use of galactogenic plants rather than synthetic products to improve milk production.

Rates and time trends in the consumption of breastmilk, formula, and animal milk by children younger than 2 years from 2000 to 2019: analysis of 113 countries

BACKGROUND

Previous analyses of trends in feeding indicators of children younger than 2 years have been limited to low-income and middle-income countries. We aimed to assess time trends in the consumption of different types of milk (breastmilk, formula, and animal milk) by children younger than 2 years from 2000 to 2019 at a global level.

METHODS

In this time-series analysis, we combined cross-sectional data from 487 nationally representative surveys from low-income and middle-income countries and information from high-income countries to estimate seven infant and young child feeding indicators in up to 113 countries. Multilevel linear models were used in pooled analyses to estimate annual changes in feeding practices from 2000 to 2019 for country income groups and world regions.

FINDINGS

For the absolute average annual changes, we found significant gains in any breastfeeding at age 6 months in high-income countries (1·29 percentage points [PPs] per year [95% CI 1·12 to 1·45]; p<0·0001) and at age 1 year in high-income countries (1·14 PPs per year [0·99 to 1·28]; p<0·0001) and upper-middle-income countries (0·53 PPs per year [0·23 to 0·82]; p<0·0001). We also found a small reduction in low-income countries for any breastfeeding at age 6 months (-0·07 PPs per year [-0·11 to -0·03]; p<0·0001) and age 1 year (-0·13 PPs per year [-0·18 to -0·09]; p<0·0001). Data on exclusive breastfeeding and consumption of formula and animal milk were only available for low-income and middle-income countries, where exclusive breastfeeding in the first 6 months of life increased by 0·70 PPs per year (0·51-0·88; p<0·0001) to reach 48·6% (41·9-55·2) in 2019. Exclusive breastfeeding increased in all world regions except for the Middle East and north Africa. Formula consumption in the first 6 months of life increased in upper-middle-income countries and in east Asia and the Pacific, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Middle East and north Africa, and eastern Europe and central Asia, whereas the rates remained below 8% in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia. Animal milk consumption by children younger than 6 months decreased significantly (-0·41 PPs per year [-0·51 to -0·31]; p<0·0001) in low-income and middle-income countries.

INTERPRETATION

We found some increases in exclusive and any breastfeeding at age 6 months in various regions and income groups, while formula consumption increased in upper-middle-income countries. To achieve the global target of 70% exclusive breastfeeding by 2030, however, rates of improvement will need to be accelerated.

FUNDING

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, through WHO.

Production, reproduction and some adaptation characteristics of Boran cattle breed under changing climate: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction

Climate change affects livestock production and productivity, which could threaten livestock-based food security in pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems of the tropics and sub-tropics. Boran cattle breed is one of the hardiest Zebu cattle reared by Borana Oromo pastoralists for milk and meat production. However, there is limited comprensive information on production, reproduction and adaption traits of the Boran cattle in Ethiopia. Thus, this paper aims to compile the main production, reproduction and some adaptation traits of Boran cattle based on systematic review and meta-analysis of peer reviewed published and unpublished literature.

Methodology

A combination of systematic review and meta-analysis based on PRISMA guideline was employed. Accordingly, out of 646 recorded articles identified through database searching, 64 were found to be eligible for production, reproduction and adaptation characteristics of the Boran cattle, 28 articles were included in qualitative systematic review while 36 articles were used for quantitative meta-analysis.

Result

The Boran cattle breed has the ability to survive, produce and reproduce under high ambient temperature, utilize low quality forage resources, and resist water shortage or long watering intervals and tick infestations. The review revealed that the breed employs various adaptation responses (morphological, physiological, biochemical, metabolic, cellular and molecular responses) to cope with harsh environmental conditions including climate change, rangeland degradation, seasonal feed and water shortages and high incidences of tick infestations. The meta-analysis using a random-effects model allowed provision of pooled estimates of heritability and genetic correlations for reproduction and production traits, which could be used to solve genetic prediction equations under a population level in purebred Boran cattle. In addition, heritability and genetic-correlation estimates found in the present study suggest that there is high genetic variability for most traits in Boran cattle, and that genetic progress is possible for all studied traits in this breed.

Conclusion

The Boran cattle breed has the ability to survive, produce and reproduce under high ambient temperature, utilize low quality forage resources, and resist water shortage or long watering intervals and tick infestations. However, currently there are several challenges such as recurrent droughts, pasture deterioration and lack of systematic selection and breeding programs that play to undermine the realization of the potential of the breed. Thus, we recommend systematic selection for enhancing the reproductive and production performances without compromising the adaptation traits of the breed coupled with improved management of rangelands.

Bovine Colostrum: Its Constituents and Uses

Colostrum is the milk produced during the first few days after birth and contains high levels of immunoglobulins, antimicrobial peptides, and growth factors. Colostrum is important for supporting the growth, development, and immunologic defence of neonates. Colostrum is naturally packaged in a combination that helps prevent its destruction and maintain bioactivity until it reaches more distal gut regions and enables synergistic responses between protective and reparative agents present within it. Bovine colostrum been used for hundreds of years as a traditional or complementary therapy for a wide variety of ailments and in veterinary practice. Partly due to concerns about the side effects of standard Western medicines, there is interest in the use of natural-based products of which colostrum is a prime example. Numerous preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated therapeutic benefits of bovine colostrum for a wide range of indications, including maintenance of wellbeing, treatment of medical conditions and for animal husbandry. Articles within this Special Issue of Nutrients cover the effects and use bovine colostrum and in this introductory article, we describe the main constituents, quality control and an overview of the use of bovine colostrum in health and disease.

Somatotropin increases plasma ceramide in relation to enhanced milk yield in cows

Recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST) changes metabolism to spare glucose for milk synthesis in cows. Ceramides inhibit insulin responsiveness in bovine adipocytes and are associated with insulin resistance and milk production in cows. The mechanisms by which rBST supports lactation may involve ceramide. Eight multiparous lactating Holstein cows were enrolled in a 2 × 2 replicated Latin square design with 14-d periods. Cows received a single rBST injection (Posilac; Elanco Animal Health, Indianapolis, IN; 0.062 mg/kg BW) or no injection (CON). An epinephrine challenge, insulin tolerance test, and liver biopsy were performed. Somatotropin enhanced the conversion of feed nutrients into milk components and increased plasma free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations (P < 0.01). Area-under-the-curves for FFA in response to epinephrine and insulin were greater in rBST-treated cows. In response to insulin, glucose concentrations (20- and 30-min post-challenge) and insulin area-under-the-curve were higher with rBST treatment (P < 0.05, <0.10, and <0.01), suggesting insulin resistance. Somatotropin modified the plasma lipidome. For example, rBST decreased plasma di- and triacylglycerol levels (eg, DG-50:1 and TG-18:0/16:0/16:1), phosphatidylcholines and sphingomyelins (P < 0.05). Somatotropin increased plasma total and very-long-chain (C22:0-, C24:0-, C26:0-) ceramide concentrations (P < 0.01). Liver ceramide concentrations were not modified. Plasma ceramides were positively correlated with circulating FFA (r ~ 0.57; P < 0.05) and milk yield (r ~ 0.63; P < 0.05). We conclude that rBST administration modifies the bovine lipidome and increases plasma ceramide concentrations in association with increased milk production in cows.

A novel modelling approach to quantify the response of dairy goats to a high-concentrate diet

High-producing ruminants need high-concentrate diets to satisfy their nutrient requirements and meet performance objectives. However, such diets induce sub-acute ruminal acidosis (SARA), which will adversely affect dry matter intake and lead to lower production performance. This work develops a novel modelling approach to quantify the capacity of dairy goats to adapt to a high-concentrate diet challenge at the individual level. The animal model used was dairy goats (from Saanen or Alpine breed), and rumen pH was used as the indicator of the response. A three-step modelling procedure was developed to quantify daily scores and produce a single global index for animals' adaptive response to the new diet. The first step summarizes the post-prandial kinetics of rumen acid status using three synthetic variables. In the second step, the effect of time on the response of goats is described, in the short and long terms. In the last step, a metric based on phase trajectories ranks goats for their resilience capacity. This modelling procedure showed a high variability among the goats in response to the new diet, highlighting in particular their daily and general strategies to buffer the effect of the diet change. Two main categories of adaptive strategies were observed: (i) acid status increased, but the goats tried to minimize its variations, and (ii) acid status oscillated between increases and decreases. Such phenotyping, alongside other behavioral, digestive, and metabolic measures, can help to determine biomarkers of goats' capacity to adapt to diets of higher nutritive value and to increase production performance without compromising their health status. Quantifying the capacity of goats to buffer the effect of highly fermentable diets helps to better adapt feed to animals in precision livestock farming. This procedure is generic and can be adapted to any indicator of animal health and performance. In particular, several indicators can be combined to assess multi-performance, which is of major interest in the context of selection for robust animals.

Fenugreek Stimulates the Expression of Genes Involved in Milk Synthesis and Milk Flow through Modulation of Insulin/GH/IGF-1 Axis and Oxytocin Secretion

We previously demonstrated galactagogue effect of fenugreek in a rat model of lactation challenge, foreshadowing its use in women's breastfeeding management. To assess longitudinal molecular mechanisms involved in milk synthesis/secretion in dams submitted to fenugreek supplementation, inguinal mammary, pituitary glands and plasma were isolated in forty-three rats nursing large 12 pups-litters and assigned to either a control (CTL) or a fenugreek-supplemented (FEN) diet during lactation. RT-PCR were performed at days 12 and 18 of lactation (L12 and L18) and the first day of involution (Inv1) to measure the relative expression of genes related to both milk synthesis and its regulation in the mammary gland and lactogenic hormones in the pituitary gland. Plasma hormone concentrations were measured by ELISA. FEN diet induced 2- to 3-times higher fold change in relative expression of several genes related to macronutrient synthesis (Fasn, Acaca, Fabp3, B4galt1, Lalba and Csn2) and energy metabolism (Cpt1a, Acads) and in IGF-1 receptor in mammary gland, mainly at L12. Pituitary oxytocin expression and plasma insulin concentration (+77.1%) were also significantly increased. Altogether, these findings suggest fenugreek might extend duration of peak milk synthesis through modulation of the insulin/GH/IGF-1 axis and increase milk ejection by activation of oxytocin secretion.

Milk production, nitrogen utilization, and methane emissions of dairy cows grazing grass, forb, and legume-based pastures

Achieving high animal productivity without degrading the environment is the primary target in pasture-based dairy farming. This study investigated the effects of changing the forage base in spring from grass-clover pastures to forb or legume-based pastures on milk yield, N utilization, and methane emissions of Jersey cows in Western Oregon. Twenty-seven mid-lactation dairy cows were randomly assigned to one of three pasture treatments: grass-clover-based pasture composed of festulolium, tall fescue, orchardgrass, and white clover (Grass); forb-based pasture composed of chicory, plantain, and white clover (Forb); and legume-based pasture composed of red clover, bird's-foot trefoil, berseem clover, and balansa clover (Legume). Pastures were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replicates (i.e., blocks) with each replicate grazed by a group of three cows. Production and nutritive quality of the forages, animal performance, milk components, nitrogen partitioning, and methane emissions were measured. Feed quality and dry matter intake (DMI) of cows were greater (P ≤ 0.05) for Legume and Forb vs. Grass, with consequent greater milk and milk solids yields (P < 0.01). Cows grazing Forb also had more (P < 0.01) lactose and linoleic acid in milk compared with cows grazing the other pastures, and less (P = 0.04) somatic cell counts compared with Grass. Cows grazing Forb had substantially less (P < 0.01) N in urine, milk, and blood compared with cows grazing the other pastures, with not only a greater (P < 0.01) efficiency of N utilization for milk synthesis calculated using milk urea nitrogen but also a larger (P < 0.01) fecal N content, indicating a shift of N from urine to feces. Both Forb and Legume had a diuretic effect on cows, as indicated by the lower (P < 0.01) creatinine concentration in urine compared with Grass. Methane emissions tended to be less (P = 0.07) in cows grazed on Forb vs. the other pastures. The results indicate that Forb pasture can support animal performance, milk quality, and health comparable to Legume pasture; however, Forb pasture provides the additional benefit of reduced environmental impact of pasture-based dairy production.

Night-restricted feeding of dairy cows modifies daily rhythms of feed intake, milk synthesis and plasma metabolites compared with day-restricted feeding

The timing of feed intake can alter circadian rhythms of peripheral tissues. Milk synthesis displays a daily rhythm across several species, but the effect of feeding time on these rhythms is poorly characterised. The objective of this experiment was to determine if the time of feed intake modifies the daily patterns of milk synthesis, plasma metabolites and body temperature in dairy cows. Sixteen lactating Holstein dairy cows were randomly assigned to one of the two treatment sequences in a cross-over design with 17 d periods. Treatments included day-restricted feeding (DRF; feed available from 07.00 to 23.00 hours) and night-restricted feeding (NRF; feed available from 19.00 to 11.00 hours). Cows were milked every 6 h on the last 7 d of each period, and blood samples were collected to represent every 4 h over the day. Peak milk yield was shifted from morning in DRF to evening in NRF, while milk fat, protein and lactose concentration peaked in the evening in DRF and the morning in NRF. Plasma glucose, insulin, NEFA and urea nitrogen concentration fit daily rhythms in all treatments. Night feeding increased the amplitude of glucose, insulin and NEFA rhythms and shifted the daily rhythms by 8 to 12 h (P < 0·05). Night feeding also phase-delayed the rhythm of core body temperature and DRF increased its amplitude. Altering the time of feed availability shifts the daily rhythms of milk synthesis and plasma hormone and metabolite concentrations and body temperature, suggesting that these rhythms may be entrained by food intake.

Genes encoding equine β-lactoglobulin (LGB1 and LGB2): Polymorphism, expression, and impact on milk composition

β-lactoglobulin is one of the most abundant milk whey proteins in many mammal species, including the domestic horse. The aim of this study was to screen for polymorphism in the equine LGB1 and LGB2 gene sequences (all exons, introns, and 5’-flanking region) and to assess potential relationship of particular genotypes with gene expression levels (measured in milk somatic cells) and milk composition traits (protein, fat, lactose, and total β-lactoglobulin content). Direct DNA sequencing analysis was performed for twelve horse breeds: Polish Primitive Horse (PPH), Polish Coldblood Horse (PCH), Polish Warmblood Horse (PWH), Silesian, Hucul, Fjording, Haflinger, Shetland Pony, Welsh Pony, Arabian, Thoroughbred, and Percheron—and revealed the presence of 83 polymorphic sites (47 and 36 for LGB1 and LGB2 genes, respectively), including eight that were previously unknown. Association analysis of the selected polymorphisms, gene expression, and milk composition traits (conducted for the PPH, PCH, and PWH breeds) showed several statistically significant relationships; for example, the two linked LGB1 SNPs (rs1143515669 and rs1144647991) were associated with total milk protein content (p < 0.01). Our study also confirmed that horse breed had significant impact on both gene transcript levels (p < 0.01) and on milk LGB content (p < 0.05), whereas an influence of lactation period was seen only for gene relative mRNA abundances (p < 0.01).

Fenpropathrin induces testicular damage, apoptosis, and genomic DNA damage in adult rats: Protective role of camel milk

Fenpropathrin (FNP) is a member of the synthetic pyrethroids. Herein, the present study was conducted to investigate, for the first time, the potentially harmful effects of FNP on the reproductive system of male rats. In addition, the prophylactic or concurrent influence of camel milk (CM) was assessed. Adult male rats were divided into five groups; control, vehicle control (oil), CM (2ml/rat/day), FNP (15mg/kg bwt/60 days), CM/FNP (prophylaxis) and FNP /CM (co-treated) groups. Sperm morphology, count, serum testosterone (TES), luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), testicular enzymes, and comet assay analysis were estimated. In addition, histopathology, the ultrastructure of testicular tissue and apoptosis were evaluated. Reduced body weight and gonadosomatic index were observed in the FNP exposed group. TES, LH, FSH were markedly declined following FNP treatment. SOD and TAC concentrations were reduced while PC and TBARS were significantly elevated in FNP group indicating oxidative stress. Furthermore, FNP induced DNA damage and apoptosis in the testis which was evidenced histopathologically and by electron microscope examination. CM significantly counteracted FNP reprotoxic effects, particularly at the prophylactic routine (CM/FNP) than the co-exposure (FNP/CM) one. Conclusively, these findings verified that CM could be a potential candidate therapy against FNP reprotoxic impacts.

Synergy between Probiotic Lactobacillus casei and Milk to Maintain Barrier Integrity of Intestinal Epithelial Cells

We hypothesized that Lactobacillus casei BL23 and milk work synergistically to prevent damage to epithelial barrier integrity induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines. To test this, barrier disruption was induced in polarized Caco-2 monolayers by sequential, basolateral treatment with IFN-γ and TNF-α. Apical application of either 25% v/v reconstituted skim milk (RSM) or ultra high temperature (UHT) milk (2% fat) prior to cytokine exposure reduced losses to transepithelial electrical resistance (TER). Permeability to fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FD-4; 4 kDa) was also significantly reduced in the presence of 25% v/v UHT milk ( P < 0.05) but not RSM. Protection against increases in paracellular permeability was even greater when cell-free preparations of L. casei BL23 fermented UHT milk or fermented RSM were applied. The permeability coefficients of cells incubated with BL23 fermented UHT milk were equivalent to the untreated controls ( P = 0.12) and those cells also produced 247.6 ± 35.5 pg/mL IL-8, quantities significantly lower than found for cytokine-treated controls (353.9 ± 40.0 pg/mL). The benefits of the fermented milk were also confirmed by the reduced expression of TNF receptor 2 (TNFR2), myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK), and claudin-encoding genes relative to the controls. By comparison, apical application of viable L. casei onto the Caco-2 cells did not result in protection from the barrier-disruptive actions of IFN-γ and TNF-α. These results indicate that milk can maintain intestinal barrier integrity during pro-inflammatory cytokine exposure and that this is enhanced by modifications to milk matrix caused by prior incubation with L. casei BL23.

Associations between age at first calving and subsequent lactation performance in UK Holstein and Holstein-Friesian dairy cows

Lactation records from 396,534 pedigree Holstein and Holstein-Friesian primiparous cows from 6,985 UK milk recorded herds, calving for the first time during the period between the 1^st of January 2006 and the 31^st of December 2008, were examined in order to determine the associations between age at first calving (AFC) and subsequent production, udder health, fertility and survivability parameters. Heifers were grouped by AFC into single month classes ranging from 21 to 42 months. Mixed effects multivariable regression modelling was used for data analysis. Mean and median AFC were 29.1 and 28 months respectively. Within the study, only 48,567 heifers (12.3% of the studied population) calved for the first time at 24 months of age or younger. 162,157 heifers (40.9%) were 30 months or older at their first calving. An increased AFC was associated with increased first lactation milk, fat and protein yields. The lowest predicted mean 305-day yield (6,617kgs; 95% confidence interval (CI): 6,546–6,687 kgs) was recorded for the 21 month AFC class, significantly lower than any other class. The 36 month AFC class had the highest predicted mean (7,774 kgs; 95% CI: 7,737–7,811 kgs). However, an increased AFC was also associated with increased calving interval and increased first lactation somatic cell count (SCC). Animals calving at 21 months had a predicted mean lactation SCC of 72,765 (95% CI: 68427–77378). Animals calving at 36 months of age had a predicted mean lactation SCC of 86,648 (95% CI: 84,499–88,853). Importantly, an increased AFC was also associated with decreased lifetime daily milk yield and decreased likelihood of calving for a second successive time. Animals calving at 22 months of age had a predicted mean daily lifetime milk yield of 15.24 kgs (95% CI: 15.06–15.35); animals calving at 36 months of age had a predicted mean daily lifetime milk yield of 12.83 kgs (95% CI: 12.76–12.91). Our results highlight the importance of achieving a lower age at first calving which was here associated with improved udder health, increased lifetime daily milk yield, improved reproductive performance and increased likelihood of calving for a second time.

A Longitudinal Study of Estrogen-Responsive Tissues and Hormone Concentrations in Infants Fed Soy Formula

PURPOSE

Chemicals with hormonelike activity, such as estrogenic isoflavones, may perturb human development. Infants exclusively fed soy-based formula are highly exposed to isoflavones, but their physiologic responses remain uncharacterized. Estrogen-responsive postnatal development was compared in infants exclusively fed soy formula, cow-milk formula, and breast milk.

METHODS

We enrolled 410 infants born in Philadelphia-area hospitals between 2010 and 2014; 283 were exclusively fed soy formula (n = 102), cow-milk formula (n = 111), or breast milk (n = 70) throughout the study (birth to 28 or 36 weeks for boys and girls, respectively). We repeatedly measured maturation index (MI) in vaginal and urethral epithelial cells using standard cytological methods, uterine volume and breast-bud diameter using ultrasound, and serum estradiol and follicle-stimulating hormone levels. We estimated MI, organ-growth, and hormone trajectories by diet using mixed-effects regression splines.

RESULTS

Maternal demographics did not differ between cow-milk-fed and soy-fed infants but did differ between formula-fed and breastfed infants. Vaginal-cell MI trended higher (P = 0.01) and uterine volume decreased more slowly (P = 0.01) in soy-fed girls compared with cow-milk-fed girls; however, their trajectories of breast-bud diameter and hormone concentrations did not differ. We observed no significant differences between boys fed cow-milk vs soy formula; estradiol was not detectable. Breastfed infants differed from soy-formula-fed infants in vaginal-cell MI, uterine volume, and girls' estradiol and boys' breast-bud diameter trajectories.

CONCLUSIONS

Relative to girls fed cow-milk formula, those fed soy formula demonstrated tissue- and organ-level developmental trajectories consistent with response to exogenous estrogen exposure. Studies are needed to further evaluate the effects of soy on child development.

[Small amounts of milk added to coffee or tea can be allowed before surgery]

The ingestion of milk is not allowed within six hours before elective procedures requiring anaesthesia or sedation, because milk is considered a solid food. However, the impact of milk suspended in coffee or tea consumed up to two hours before anaesthesia is less certain, yet fasting guidelines demand surgery to be delayed or rescheduled. Studies investigating ingestion of liquids with small amounts of milk have not demonstrated delayed emptying of the stomach, thereby increasing the risk of aspiration in elective procedures. Maybe it is time to adjust the fasting recommendations.

Regulation of fluid flow through the mammary gland of dairy cows and its effect on milk production: a systematic review

Dairy milk consists of more than 85% water. Therefore, understanding the regulation of fluid absorption in the mammary gland is relevant to improving milk production. In recent decades, studies using different approaches, including blood flow, transmembrane fluid flow, tight junction, fluid flow of the paracellular pathway and functional mammary epithelial cell state, have been conducted aiming to investigate how mammary gland fluid absorption is regulated. However, the relationship between regulation mechanisms of fluid flow and milk production has not been studied systematically. The present review summarizes a series of key milk yield regulatory factors mediated by whole-mammary fluid flow, including milk, mammary blood flow, blood/tissue fluid-cell fluid flow and cell-alveolus fluid flow. Whole-mammary fluid flow regulates milk production by altering transporter activity, ion channels, local microcirculation-related factors, driving force of fluid transport (osmotic pressure or electrochemical gradient), cellular connection state and a cell volume sensitive mechanism. In addition, whole-mammary fluid flow plays important roles in milk synthesis and secretion. Knowledge gained from fluid flow-mediated regulatory mechanisms of the dairy mammary gland will lead to a fundamental understanding of lactation biology and will be beneficial for the improvement of dairy productivity. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Age at reproductive debut: Developmental predictors and consequences for lactation, infant mass, and subsequent reproduction in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

OBJECTIVES

The age at which females initiate their reproductive career is a critical life-history parameter with potential consequences on their residual reproductive value and lifetime fitness. The age at reproductive debut may be intimately tied to the somatic capacity of the mother to rear her young, but relatively little is known about the influence of age of first birth on milk synthesis within a broader framework of reproductive scheduling, infant outcomes, and other life-history tradeoffs.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Our study investigated the predictors of age at first reproduction among 108 captive rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) females, and associations with their milk synthesis at peak lactation, infant mass, and ability to subsequently conceive and reproduce.

RESULTS

The majority of females reproduced in their fourth year (typical breeders); far fewer initiated their reproductive career one year earlier or one year later (respectively early and late breeders). Early breeders (3-year-old) benefited from highly favorable early life development (better juvenile growth, high dominance rank) to accelerate reproduction, but were impaired in milk synthesis due to lower somatic resources and their own continued growth. Comparatively, late breeders suffered from poor developmental conditions, only partially compensated by their delayed reproduction, and evinced compromised milk synthesis. Typical breeders not only produced higher available milk energy but also had best reproductive performance during the breeding and birth seasons following primiparity.

DISCUSSION

Here, we refine and extend our understanding of how life-history tradeoffs manifest in the magnitude, sources, and consequences of variation in age of reproductive debut. These findings provide insight into primate reproductive flexibility in the context of constraints and opportunities.

Protective effect of Rumenic acid rich cow's milk against colitis is associated with the activation of Nrf2 pathway in a murine model

Dietary supplementation with pure cis9, trans11 isomer of Conjugated Linoleic Acid -known as Rumenic Acid (RA)- improves cytoprotective defenses downstream through the activation of nuclear factor-E2-related factor-2(Nrf2). This capability, when Rumenic Acid is consumed in the form of foods, is still unknown. The ability of standard (St) or cow milk naturally-enriched in RA (En) to activate Nrf2 pathway and its impact on dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis was comparatively evaluated. Activity of Nrf2 pathway was investigated in colonic tissue of BALB/c mice, receiving 4-week supplement with skimmed milk (SK), St or St reinforced with pure RA (RSt) providing increasing RA dose (0, 124 or 404mg RA/kg^-1 b.w, respectively). Next, the anti-oxidant/ anti-inflammatory effect produced by St or En treatment (383mg RA/kg^-1 b.w.) was explored. Finally, macroscopic and histomorphologic features of colitis were evaluated in animals challenged with 5% (w/v) DSS, at the end of St or En treatment. Significant activation of Nrf2 pathway is associated with RSt and En intake (P<0.05), but not with SK or En treatment. En pre-treatment offers better protection, in comparison with St, against pro-oxidant, pro-inflammatory signs (P<0.01) and macroscopic signs triggered by DSS. It can be concluded that Nrf2 activation by higher RA amount contained in En is, at least in part, responsible for the improved protection associated with En intake against DSS-induced colitis.

Milk, Fruit and Vegetable, and Total Antioxidant Intakes in Relation to Mortality Rates: Cohort Studies in Women and Men

High milk consumption might shorten life span through increased oxidative stress. We aimed to determine whether higher mortality rates with high milk consumption are modified by fruit and vegetable intake or total antioxidant intake (oxygen radical absorbance capacity). We used information from food frequency questionnaires completed by 61,420 women in a Swedish cohort (22,391 deaths from the 1987–1990 baseline onward), 36,714 women from a second survey (1997) of this cohort, and 45,280 Swedish men (15,478 deaths from the 1998 baseline onward). Compared with low consumption of milk (<1 glass/day) and high consumption of fruits/vegetables (≥5 servings/day), time-updated information revealed an adjusted hazard ratio for death of 2.79 (95% confidence interval (CI): 2.42, 3.21) in women who consumed ≥3 glasses of milk/day and <1 serving/day of fruit/vegetables and a hazard ratio of 1.60 (95% CI: 1.40, 1.82) in women who consumed the same amount of milk but ≥5 servings/day of fruits/vegetables. The same comparisons in men, based on a single food frequency questionnaire, displayed hazard ratios of 1.31 (95% CI: 1.14, 1.51) and 1.07 (95% CI: 0.97, 1.18), respectively. Total antioxidant consumption showed similar patterns as fruit/vegetable intakes. Dietary antioxidant intake, especially in women, seems to modify the elevated death rate associated with high milk consumption.

The Many Axes of Deer Lactation

In undomesticated animals information about the production and composition of milk over time is still scarce. In general, for most mammals it is known that milk composition changes across lactation, is different for male and female offspring, and even that marsupials, such as kangaroos, can simultaneously produce milk of different compositions for young of different ages. Such parallel milk production of differing compositions has not yet been studied in single-offspring placental mammals, but may help to explain behavioural processes like allosuckling (feeding the young of other adults) and lateralized suckling preferences. In this study we analysed the production and composition of milk in red deer throughout the lactation period and now confirm for the first time that there are axial differences present. The front teats, which are the favoured suckling positions of the deer's offspring, produce milk with a greater protein-to-fat ratio. Also, from the beginning of lactation the yield is greater on the left side, the side preferred by calves in all of the studied species, both at population and individual level. The links between milk production and calf behaviour in deer deserve further study.

Cattle management practices and milk production on mixed smallholder organic pineapple farms in Central Uganda

A longitudinal study to assess animal management practices and milk production was conducted for a period of 12 months on 30 smallholder farms keeping dairy cattle and certified organic pineapple production in Luwero and Kayunga districts, based on questionnaire and on-farm collected data. Farm sizes were 9.3 ± 6.7 acres in tethering system and 4.3 ± 2.6 acres in zero-grazing. Fifty-four percent of the zero-grazing herds had animal housing facilities. All farmers in tethering system kept cows on earthen floors and calves without bedding. Hygiene level in existing farms was low. Majority of calves were fed once a day by restricted suckling (77 %). Seventy-four percent of tethered cows were only fed on natural grass, while cows under zero-grazing system had a more diversified diet but with 82 % feeding mainly Napier grass. Most farms (87 %) used bulls for breeding. Milk production was higher (P < 0.05) in zero-grazing (6.5 L/cow/day) than tethering system, and higher (P < 0.05) for Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows (5.2 L/cow/day) than local breed cows (2.6 L/cow/day). Less than 1 L of milk per farm per day on average was sold. Disease treatments were exclusively for helminths, East Coast fever, and trypanasomiasis. Spraying of ticks and deworming were important control measures of vector-borne diseases. There is potential to develop alternative feed resources for dairy cattle and biorational pesticides for control and treatment of vector-borne diseases.

Essential role for a novel population of binucleated mammary epithelial cells in lactation

The mammary gland represents a unique tissue to study organogenesis as it predominantly develops in the post-natal animal and undergoes dramatic morphogenetic changes during puberty and the reproductive cycle. The physiological function of the mammary gland is to produce milk to sustain the newborn. Here we view the lactating gland through three-dimensional confocal imaging of intact tissue. We observed that the majority of secretory alveolar cells are binucleated. These cells first arise in very late pregnancy due to failure of cytokinesis and are larger than mononucleated cells. Augmented expression of Aurora kinase-A and Polo-like kinase-1 at the lactogenic switch likely mediates the formation of binucleated cells. Our findings demonstrate an important physiological role for polyploid mammary epithelial cells in lactation, and based on their presence in five different species, suggest that binucleated cells evolved to maximize milk production and promote the survival of offspring across all mammalian species.

Improved milk production performance of smallholder farms in West Java (Indonesia)

In Indonesia, because of the rapidly growing demand for dairy products, the development of milk production in rural communities can play a strong role in reducing poverty. However, the development of smallholder dairy production requires adequate support from the government, development organizations, and private firms. To assess the needs and situations of poor dairy farmers, we conducted a study in Ciater sub-district in West Java Province to compare the current situation with the situation that prevailed 4 years ago, i.e., before the implementation of a dairy development project. Data were collected from 61 farms in June 2014. The average number of cows on the farms surveyed was three to four, and each relied on cultivating an average of 0.4 ha of forage. Results showed that thanks to the project activities, milk productivity per cow and net income from milk production increased by 25% between 2010 and 2014. These results underline the importance of providing training and technical support for the development of the livelihoods of dairy smallholders.

The effectiveness of chocolate milk as a post-climbing recovery aid

AIM

Recovery is essential to effective performance in climbing competitions which often involve repeated bouts, and sport climbing where climbers may work a route over a number of days prior to a complete ascent.

METHODS

This study employed a cross-over design to compare water with chocolate milk as recovery aids following an exhaustive bout of high intensity endurance climbing. Ten male climbers (age: 22±1 years; height: 178.5±7.9 cm; mass: 74.7±11.3 kg) climbed a Tredwall (Brewer Ledge M6) until volitional exhaustion. The participants consumed either water or chocolate milk 20 minutes after the climb and then again with their evening meal. The exercise protocol was repeated 24 hours after the original climb. The second condition was completed 7 days later. Workload indicators of heart rate, rate of perceived exertion (RPE), blood lactate and muscle soreness scores were recorded alongside climbing performance measures of duration and distance of the climb. A improved performance was found after the consumption of chocolate milk, with both a greater distance climbed (F(1,9)=11.704, P=0.008) and duration (F(1,9) =10.922, P=0.009), there were no differences in end of climb heart rate or RPE.

RESULTS

Muscle soreness scores were lower three days after exercise following chocolate milk (t(8)=3.773, P=0.005). Chocolate milk as a recovery drink resulted in further sustained climbing, a decrease in muscle soreness, compared to water. It may be pertinent for climbers to consider its use as a recovery aid during repeated climbing bouts. Chocolate milk is a relatively unexplored recovery aid and warrants further attention.

Danish holsteins favor bull offspring: biased milk production as a function of fetal sex, and calving difficulty

In a previous study from 2014 it was found that US Holstein cows that gave birth to heifer calves produced more milk than cows having bull calves. We wanted to assess whether this is also true for Danish cattle. Data from 578 Danish Holstein herds were analysed with a mixed effect model and contrary to the findings in the US, we found that cows produced higher volumes of milk if they had a bull calf compared to a heifer calf. We found a significantly higher milk production of 0.28% in the first lactation period for cows giving birth to a bull calf, compared to a heifer calf. This difference was even higher when cows gave birth to another bull calf, so having two bull calves resulted in a difference of 0.52% in milk production compared to any other combination of sex of the offspring. Furthermore, we found that farmer assisted calvings were associated with a higher milk yield. Cows with no farmer assistance or with veterinary assistance during the most recent calving produced less milk. There were also indications that dams would favor a bull fetus by decreasing milk production during the second pregnancy if the calf born in the first parity was a heifer. We hypothesize that size of calves is a confounding factor for milk production. However, calving weight was not available in the present data set to test this hypothesis.

Iron deficiency screening in the first three years of life: a three-decade-long retrospective case study

A three-decade-long retrospective study of iron status in a cohort of 1250 children aged 8-36 months was carried out at the Pediatric Department at the Second University Naples. Iron status was evaluated with independent variables such as family income, weight for height, introduction of cow's milk (CM), iron supplementation and weaning. Iron deficiency (ID) is prevalent in children with low income, early introduction of CM, delayed weaning, over-weight, and in those not receiving iron supplementation (P < 0.05). The first decade (1980-1990) was marked by low family income, while early introduction of CM characterized the first two decades (1980-1990, 1990-2000) (P < 0.05). ID depends on a variety of social and dietary factors. Hematological tests should be performed early to identify children at risk for ID.

Cariogenicity of different commercially available bovine milk types in a biofilm caries model

PURPOSE

This study's purpose was to assess the cariogenicity of commercial bovine milk types in an experimental biofilm/caries model.

METHODS

Enamel and dentin slabs were used to grow biofilms of Streptococcus mutans UA159. Slabs/biofilms were exposed three times per day to commercial skim, semi-skim, whole, whole lactose-free, and whole with 10 percent sucrose-added bovine milk and to 10 percent sucrose and 0.9 percent sodium chloride as positive and negative caries-control, respectively. Biofilms were analyzed for bacterial counts, biomass, proteins, and polysaccharide production. Slab's demineralization was assessed by loss of surface microhardness and the biofilm acidogenicity by medium pH.

RESULTS

Only whole and whole lactose-free milk kept pH above the demineralization threshold, inducing the lowest demineralization in both enamel and dentin (P<.05). Skim and semi-skim milk induced similar demineralization to the sucrose control, albeit slightly lower for semi-skim milk (P<.05). Whole and whole lactose-free milk produced lower biomass and less insoluble polysaccharides than the other treatments in enamel and dentin (P<.05). Adding 10 percent sucrose to whole milk turned it as cariogenic as 10 percent sucrose solution.

CONCLUSION

Bovine whole milk seemed less cariogenic than sucrose and the other commercial milk types, but not anticariogenic. Fat content in milk seemed to reduce cariogenicity of the fluid.

An effective increase in milk production through triticale feeding

Since the first studies in Algeria in 1999, 2002 and 2005, triticale has been used in arid and semi-arid areas mainly for livestock production. Efforts have been done for the utilization of triticale as hay, silage and hole grain to feed dairy cattle and small ruminants (sheep). Studies have shown that triticale could be easily integrated in the existing crop-livestock system of northern Algeria. In spite of the good results in the yield performance and adaptation to diverse environments, decision makers are not giving the necessary attention to triticale. Dairy cattle holders that tested the crop have adopted it quickly and developed it in an informal way. Now, more than 90% of the triticale seed business is in the hands of private farmers without any help or subsidies nor a good price policy to develop strongly this crop. The utilization of triticale in Algeria is roughly as follow: human consumption 5%, forage crop (hay or silage) 60% and 30% as feed grain, the remaining 5% are kept for sowing seed. In our studies we have compared different feed sources (barley, triticale, concentrate diet and mixtures) to dairy cattle and sheep. Triticale showed highly significantly better results for meat production and gave also an amazing response for dairy and sheep milk production in Algeria. Milk production of animals fed with triticale over exceeded the other feed sources by 26% to 53%; mean weight gain exhibited the same rates.

Low levels of aflatoxin B1, ricin, and milk enhance recombinant protein production in mammalian cells

Gene expression in transduced mammalian cells correlates with virus titer, but high doses of vector for gene therapy leads to toxicity in humans and in animals. Changing the optimal tissue culture medium by adding low levels of environmental stressors, such as 1 µM of the fungal toxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), 1 ng of the castor bean protein toxin ricin, or 1% reconstituted milk, enhances transcription and increases production of proteins in transduced mammalian cells as demonstrated by production of the following three recombinant proteins: firefly luciferase, β-galactosidase, and green fluorescent protein (GFP). Higher concentrations of the stress-producing substances damage the cells beyond recovery, resulting in inhibited gene expression and cell death. We also evaluated the effect of the stressor substances on the enhanced infectivity of virus. The presented findings extend methods for large-scale transient recombinant protein production in mammalian cells and suggest that it may be possible to reduce the cytotoxicity of the adenovirus by reducing the virus titer without adversely affecting gene expression levels.

Prevalence and consequences of subacute ruminal acidosis in German dairy herds

BACKGROUND

The prevalence and the clinical consequences of subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) in dairy cows are still poorly understood. In order to evaluate the prevalence of SARA, 26 German dairy farms were included in a field study. In each herd, between 11 and 14 lactating dairy cows were examined for their ruminal pH using rumenocentesis. Milk production data and farm management characteristics were recorded. Each farm was scored for lameness prevalence among lactating animals, and body condition score was recorded three times four to five weeks apart in all animals examined. Farms were grouped on basis of ruminal pH and compared for lameness, body condition, milk production parameters and style of management. Animals were grouped on basis of their measured ruminal pH and compared accordingly for milk production parameters and body condition score.

RESULTS

Of 315 cows examined, 63 individuals (20%) exhibited a ruminal pH of ≤ 5.5 at time of rumenocentesis. Of 26 farms examined, eleven farms had three or more of their cows experiencing a ruminal pH of ≤ 5.5 and were classified as likely experiencing subacute ruminal acidosis. These farms tended to be bigger than the others and offered less lying space to the lactating cows. There was no clear tendency regarding lameness. Among individual cows, animals with a low ruminal pH of ≤ 5.5 were found to be in significantly poorer body condition than animals with higher pH values (p < 0,05).

CONCLUSIONS

The study shows 11 out of 26 of herds likely experiencing SARA. Bigger herds tend to be at a higher risk for SARA, while individuals with low ruminal pH tend to be lower in body condition. The study points to the importance of management in preventing SARA.

Effects of different polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementations during the postpartum periods of early lactating dairy cows on milk yield, metabolic responses, and reproductive performances

In spite of the difficulties in delivering PUFA to ruminants, studies have generally indicated that the PUFA of the omega-6 (linoleic acid) and omega-3 [α-linolenic acid; eicosapentaenoic (EPA), C20:5 omega-3; docosahexaenoic (DHA), C22:6 omega-3] families are the most beneficial to improving reproduction in cows. The objectives were to determine if a diet enriched in α-linolenic acid (omega-3) or linoleic acid (omega-6) would influence milk production and composition, metabolic status, and reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows. High-yielding multiparous Holstein dairy cows (n = 120) with no overt clinical illnesses were blocked according to calving date and parity. Cows were assigned randomly to be fed 1) soybean whole roast (Soy, omega-6, n = 40) or 2) linseed (Lin, omega-3, n = 40) or 3) palm oil as a source of SFA (PO, n = 40) from calving until first heat after 40 d postpartum (dpp), and then half of the cows in each treatment group were switched to receive either Lin or SFA (PO) from first heat after d 40 to 120 dpp. Blood was collected from a subsample of cows. Blood was collected at 14 d intervals for 12 wk, starting on the day of calving. Results showed milk yield and DMI were not affected. Milk compositions were similar (P > 0.08) among diets, except concentration and yield of milk fat percentage, which was less in cows fed Lin (P < 0.05). Uterine involution in cows fed Soy occurred earlier (P < 0.05). Diets affected day to first estrus and day to first insemination in cows (P < 0.05). There were no differences among treatments for percent heat detection, percent pregnancy per first insemination, and percent conception per AI at estrus. Also, there is a trend of pregnancy by 120 d, which is 66.7% for the Lin group vs. 50.91% for the PO group (P < 0.08). Of the 4 pregnancy losses, 2 occurred in PO-PO group and 2 occurred in Soy-PO group, and none occurred in the other 4 treatments. In conclusion, our study showed feeding omega-6 fatty acids during 40 dpp could be a good treatment for early postpartum periods, and a shift to omega-3 fatty acids until 40 d after AI can be considered as a strategy for improving fertility in lactating dairy cows.

[Relationship between residual milk and clinical mastitis in dairy cattle]

Mastitis in cattle is an infection of the mammary gland caused by infection, toxins and/or trauma. Currently, it is assumed that there is a correlation between higher amounts of residual milk and the incidence of clinical mastitis. The amount of residual milk can be examined using different methods. Higher amounts of residual milk may result from an insufficient teat condition and individual detachment settings of milking units. To date, scientific literature has already discussed the relationship between high amounts of residual milk, undermilking and the occurrence of clinical mastitis. The present paper reviews the current status of knowledge regarding residual milk and risk of mastitis.

Microscopy imaging and quantitative phase contrast mapping in turbid microfluidic channels by digital holography

We show that sharp imaging and quantitative phase-contrast microcopy is possible in microfluidics in flowing turbid media by digital holography. In fact, in flowing liquids with suspended colloidal particles, clear vision is hindered and cannot be recovered by any other microscopic imaging technique. On the contrary, using digital holography, clear imaging is possible thanks to the Doppler frequency shift experienced by the photons scattered by the flowing colloidal particles, which do not contribute to the interference process, i.e. the recorded hologram. The method is illustrated and imaging results are demonstrated for pure phase objects, i.e. biological cells in microfluidic channels.

Sources of hepatic glycogen synthesis following a milk-containing breakfast meal in healthy subjects

During feeding, dietary galactose is a potential source of hepatic glycogen synthesis; but its contribution has not been measured to date. In the presence of deuterated water ((2)H(2)O), uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucose derived from galactose is not enriched, whereas the remainder derived from glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is enriched in position 2 to the same level as body water, assuming complete G6P-fructose-6-phosphate (F6P) exchange. Hence, the difference between UDP-glucose position 2 and body water enrichments reflects the contribution of galactose to glycogen synthesis relative to all other sources. In study 1, G6P-F6P exchange in 6 healthy subjects was quantified by supplementing a milk-containing breakfast meal with 10 g of [U-(2)H(7)]glucose and quantifying the depletion of position 2 enrichment in urinary menthol glucuronide. In study 2, another 6 subjects ingested (2)H(2)O and acetaminophen followed by an identical breakfast meal with 10 g of [1-(13)C]glucose to resolve direct/indirect pathways and galactose contributions to glycogen synthesis. Metabolite enrichments were determined by (2)H and (13)C nuclear magnetic resonance. In study 1, G6P-F6P exchange approached completion; therefore, the difference between position 2 and body water enrichments in study 2 (0.20% ± 0.03% vs 0.27% ± 0.03%, P < .005) was attributed to galactose glycogenesis. Dietary galactose contributed 19% ± 3% to glycogen synthesis. Of the remainder, 58% ± 5% was derived from the direct pathway and 22% ± 4% via the indirect pathway. The contribution of galactose to hepatic glycogen synthesis was resolved from that of direct and indirect pathways using a combination of (2)H(2)O and [1-(13)C]glucose tracers.

Mastitis and its impact on structure and function in the ruminant mammary gland

It is a given in biology that structure and function go hand-in-hand. At the level of the mammary alveoli, copious milk production depends on the proliferation of mammary epithelial cells and the biochemical and structural differentiation of these cells after parturition. For example, data from quantitative structural studies demonstrate that differences in milk production between beef and dairy cows correspond with a relative failure of alveolar cell differentiation in cattle not specifically selected for milk yield. It is likely, but not proven, that production differences within or between dairy breeds are also determined by differences in the capacity of alveolar cells to differentiate or to maintain an adequate state of differentiation. These observations strongly support the belief that insults from mastitis that lead to losses in mammary function are directly related to disruption of alveolar cell integrity, sloughing of cells, induced apoptosis, and increased appearance of poorly-differentiated cells. Ironically, reduced milk production in cases of subclinical mastitis, is also associated with increases in milk somatic cell count. Thus the elevated neutrophil migration evoked to fight inflammation can inadvertently rendered alveolar epithelial cells non-secretory. A challenge to future researchers will be to devise mastitis treatments and therapies that prevent and/or repair damage to alveolar structure and maximize subsequent secretory cell differentiation.

Ambient temperature shapes reproductive output during pregnancy and lactation in the common vole (Microtus arvalis): a test of the heat dissipation limit theory

The heat dissipation limit theory suggests that heat generated during metabolism limits energy intake and, thus, reproductive output. Experiments in laboratory strains of mice and rats, and also domestic livestock generally support this theory. Selection for many generations in the laboratory and in livestock has increased litter size or productivity in these animals. To test the wider validity of the heat dissipation limit theory, we studied common voles (Microtus arvalis), which have small litter sizes by comparison with mice and rats, and regular addition of wild-caught individuals of this species to our laboratory colony ensures a natural genetic background. A crossover design of ambient temperatures (21 and 30°C) during pregnancy and lactation was used. High ambient temperature during lactation decreased milk production, slowing pup growth. The effect on pup growth was amplified when ambient temperature was also high during pregnancy. Shaving fur off dams at 30°C resulted in faster growth of pups; however, no significant increase in food intake and or milk production was detected. With increasing litter size (natural and enlarged), asymptotic food intake during lactation levelled off in the largest litters at both 21 and 30°C. Interestingly, the effects of lactation temperature on pup growth where also observed at smaller litter sizes. This suggests that vole dams trade-off costs associated with hyperthermia during lactation with the yield from investment in pup growth. Moreover, pup survival was higher at 30°C, despite lower growth, probably owing to thermoregulatory benefits. It remains to be seen how the balance is established between the negative effect of high ambient temperature on maternal milk production and pup growth (and/or future reproduction of the dam) and the positive effect of high temperatures on pup survival. This balance ultimately determines the effect of different ambient temperatures on reproductive success.

Estimates of milk constituents from lactating bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) mothers between two and seven months post-partum

BACKGROUND

The literature regarding milk composition in non-human primates collected across offspring development is limited. We assayed milk samples from bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) mothers as part of studies characterizing development of this species.

METHODS

Milk was obtained when possible longitudinally from seven lactating bonnet macaque mothers. Samples were frozen until analysis. Individual samples were analyzed to determine the concentrations of electrolytes including sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, and magnesium, as well as urea, protein, lipids, glucose, and lactose.

RESULTS

A trend for increased lipids as well as protein percentage was noted with increasing infant age. Chloride and calcium showed an increase with age, whereas other electrolytes remained relatively stable across development.

CONCLUSIONS

The composition of the milk of this particular macaque species was similar to other Old World primates as well as humans. These data add to the limited information available on milk constituents among mammals.

Functional morphology of unguiculiform papillae of the reticular groove in the ruminant stomach

The arrangement of the ruminant stomach in four gastric compartments with specialized mucosal papillae along the gastric groove (GG) has been previously described. However, a debate remains about functional implications of these morphological pecularities. This study was aimed to elucidate the relation between the papillar morphology and its putative functions. The GG was obtained from adult bovine stomachs (n=10) and subdivided into (1) proximal, (2) middle, (3) distal portion of the reticular groove (RG) and (4) the area of the reticulo-omasal sphincter (ROS). The specimens were processed for scanning electron microscopy and stereomicroscopy to analyze the density, shape and location of the papillae. Whereas the proximal portion of the RG was characterized by small (1.5mm), conically shaped, smooth papillae, the middle portion exhibited larger papillae (4mm) with sharp borders covered by keratin. Towards the ROS the papillae further increased in size (3-11mm) and showed compound or single processes resembling the shape of arrows, twisted hooks or thorns (unguiculliform papillae). At the ROS the unguiculliform papillae were distributed in clusters groups and along the border of the sphincter. Due to their peculiar morphological features it is suggested that unguiculliform papillae functions as a filter barrier preventing the passage of large-sized food particles into the omasum and avoiding subsequent obstruction of both the RG and the ROS. The data give further evidence that unguiculliform papillae are actively involved in the complex mechanisms of food processing taking place within the ruminant pluricavity stomach.

Correlates of language impairment in children with galactosaemia

PURPOSE

This study describes risk factors associated with language impairment in children with classic galactosaemia.

METHOD

Thirty-three 4-16-year-old participants with classic galactosaemia and a history of speech sound disorders completed a battery of cognitive and language measures and their parents completed a family history questionnaire.

RESULTS

Nine of the sixteen (56%) participants with typical cognitive development and 15 of the 17 (88%) with borderline-low cognitive development had language impairments. Participants with typical cognitive development more often had an expressive language disorder, whereas those with borderline-low cognitive development more often had a mixed receptive-expressive language disorder. Participants with Q188R/Q188R genotypes had increased risk for both cognitive and language impairments. The IQs of younger siblings who did not consume milk postnatally were 10-56 points higher than the IQs of their older siblings with galactosaemia who had consumed milk postnatally. However, 4 of 5 younger siblings who were lactose-restricted from birth had language impairments. Typically-reported risk factors for language disorder, including parental history of speech/learning problems and low parental education level, were not significantly associated with cognitive or language impairments in the present sample of children with galactosaemia.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with galactosaemia and speech disorders have a 4-6 times greater risk for language impairment than children with early speech disorders of unknown origin. Early dietary lactose may increase the risk for cognitive and language impairments; however, the lack of significant associations of language impairment with days of milk consumption, and other familial and educational risk factors, is consistent with prenatal causation.

Changes in the body and its organs during lactation: nutritional implications

Lactation makes considerably greater demands on the mother's body than pregnancy does in species where the young are helpless at birth and depend on mother's milk for a comparatively long time. These species include many rodents and carnivores and also man. The requirements for the production of milk are met partly from within, by the mobilization of the mother's body tissues, and partly from without, by an increased food intake. Both ways lead to alterations in the composition of the mother's body which may or may not be permanent. Fat laid down in the body during pregnancy is used and there may also be losses of calcium from the skeleton, especially if the calcium intake is low. Whether extra protein is deposited during human pregnancy and lost again during lactation still remains an open question. In rats, the answer depends partly on the intake of protein and energy. The increase in food intake during lactation in some species is so great that the gastrointestinal tract grows considerably to deal with it. In the rat, the small intestine more than doubles its weight. The intestinal wall dilates and the area of mucosa almost doubles. The liver also increases considerably in size owing to an increase in both number and size of cells. After lactation, the liver becomes smaller again, and so does the amount of protein in it, but there is no loss of cells, so that rats that have reared litters have more cellular livers than those that have not. There is no indication whether similar changes occur in women.

Omitting the dry-off period negatively affects colostrum and milk yield in dairy goats

Seventeen pregnant multiparous Murciano-Granadina dairy goats, kept in a semi-intensive exploitation system with once daily milking throughout lactation and 1 kidding per year (milk yield, 577 L/300 d), were used to study the effects of dry-off period length on performance during the subsequent lactation. Goats were mated at wk 29 of lactation and were assigned to 2 experimental groups according to dry-off treatment: goats that were dried off 56 d before expected kidding (D56; n = 9) and goats without dry-off (D0; n = 8). After parturition, kids were removed from their mothers and weighed before suckling. Goats were hand milked to obtain colostrum and were machine milked thereafter. Colostrum was sampled for composition and IgG analysis. Milk yield was recorded weekly during the preceding and subsequent lactations. Udders were biopsied in a sample of goats at d -65 (late lactation), d -49 (during dry-off), and d 48 (early lactation) to kidding (d 0). Apoptotic and proliferating cells in mammary tissues were detected immunohistochemically. Five goats (63%) in the D0 group dried off spontaneously at 27 +/- 4 d before kidding and were considered separately (D27). The rest of the D0 goats yielded 0.86 L/d from d -56 to kidding. Goats kidded 2.25 kids/goat, but the D0 kids had smaller birth weights (1.7 kg) than the D27 (2.2 kg) and D56 (2.1 kg) kids. Colostrum of the D0 goats contained less IgG (5.6 mg/mL) than the D27 (32.9 mg/mL) and the D56 (42.4 mg/mL) goats. In the subsequent lactation (210 d), the D0 goats produced less milk (1.78 L/d) than the D27 (2.51 L/d) and D56 (2.24 L/d) goats, with no detectable difference between the D27 and D56 goats. Apoptosis and proliferation indices increased from 0.51 and 2.09%, at d -65, to 1.75 and 7.12% at d -49 (d 7 of dry-off) in D56 goats. Despite differences in daily milk yield during early lactation (d 48) between the D0, D27, and D56 treatments (1.73, 2.68, and 2.53 L/d, respectively), no differences in apoptosis or proliferation indices were detected (D0: 0.65 and 2.48%; D27: 0.68 and 1.37%; and D56: 0.71 and 2.95%), indicating that duration of the dry period did not affect mammary cell turnover during the subsequent lactation. Omitting the dry period between lactations reduced the quality of colostrum and had negative effects on milk yield in dairy goats. Goats dried off spontaneously for 27 d were as productive as goats dried off for 56 d, indicating that less than 2 mo of dry-off may be sufficient in practice.

Effects of dairy cow diet forage proportion on duodenal nutrient supply and urinary purine derivative excretion

Four mature Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were used in a 4 x 4 Latin square change-over design experiment made up of four 4-wk periods to investigate the relationship between microbial protein flow to the duodenum and excretion of purine derivatives (PD) in the urine. Four dietary treatments based on ad libitum access to ryegrass silage were offered, with a standard dairy concentrate included at different forage:concentrate (F:C) ratios, calculated on a dry matter basis: 80:20, 65:35, 50:50, and 35:65. Feed intakes increased as the proportion of concentrate in the diet increased, despite a concurrent decrease in silage intake. Increased feed intake led to increased nutrient flow to the duodenum. Milk yields increased as the diet F:C ratio decreased, with cows offered the 35:65 diet yielding nearly 8 kg/d more milk than cows offered the 80:20 diet; the concentrations of milk fat decreased and milk protein increased with a decreasing F:C ratio. Purine derivative excretion in the urine increased with an increasing proportion of concentrate in the diet, and there was a strong linear relationship between total PD excretion (allantoin and uric acid) and microbial N flow to the duodenum: microbial N (g/d) = 19.9 + 0.689 x total PD (mmol/d); R = 0.887. This strengthens the case for using PD excretion as a noninvasive marker of microbial protein flow from the rumen in dairy cows.

The CUPDAY Study: prebiotic-probiotic milk product in 1-3-year-old children attending childcare centres

AIM

The aim of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of a milk product containing probiotics and prebiotics (CUPDAY Milk) on the incidence of diarrhoea in children attending daycare centres.

METHODS

The study was undertaken in a randomized controlled trial with 496 children aged 1-3 years attending 29 childcare centres in Perth, Australia. The endpoint for the study was the number of days in which children were recorded as having four or more stools. The diarrhoeal rates were analyzed by Poisson regression using 'intention to treat' (all children) and 'reduced' (children enrolled for more than 10 days) data sets.

RESULTS

There was no difference in demographic characteristics between the case and control groups. In the 'intention to treat' analysis, a total of 41 745 child-days were included in the study. The adjusted risk ratio for those consuming the 'Cupday' milk drink was 0.82 (95% CI 0.73-0.94) for the intention to treat sample (n = 496) and 0.80 (95% CI 0.70-0.91) for the reduced sample (n = 315). The children consuming the 'Cupday' drink had a 20% reduction in the number of days experiencing four or more stools per day.

CONCLUSION

A milk containing probiotics and prebiotics reduced the number of days children attending child care who had four or more stools by 20%.

Suitability of simplified methods for monthly and twice-monthly milk recording, and new prediction factors for the alternate a.m./p.m. method in dairy ewes under a low-input production system

Sicilo-Sarde dairy flock test-day data were analysed (1) to check predicting ability of ten milk recording procedures, based on information from a single monthly or bimonthly milking and (2) to look for the best pair of factors for predicting daily milk yield from either morning or afternoon milkings for the alternate testing method (AT). Prior to analyses, data were adjusted for variation factors with known significant effect. Number of test-day observations was 4755 from 458 lactations of 288 ewes. Losses of precision associated with simplified methods were evaluated by comparing estimated lactation yields with those observed both in a reference plan, where the two daily milkings were recorded at 2-weekly intervals and in the official A4 milk recording (monthly recording of the two daily milkings). Ranking of simplified plans based on their accuracy was still the same under either monthly or twice-monthly frequency. Estimates of lactation yields showed more lack of precision when the usual monthly designs were compared with twice-monthly sampling of both a.m. and p.m. milkings. Losses of precision ranged from 5.1%, for the A4 plan, to 14.6%. Thus, milk production should be estimated from both mikings when their measurement is economically feasible. When only one milking is weighed, designs based on-or beginning with-the a.m. milking were more accurate. There was no evidence of improvement in sampling accuracy by adjustment for milking interval or production level. For practical and economic reasons, the design alternating a.m. and p.m. milkings, without adjustment, is suggested for ovine milk recording. In such a case, new factors for estimating daily production from the measured milking (1.7, 2.3) should be used rather than the factors currently in use (2, 2) because they improved the loss of precision by more than 13% in a monthly recording system.

Milk as an effective post-exercise rehydration drink

The effectiveness of low-fat milk, alone and with an additional 20 mmol/l NaCl, at restoring fluid balance after exercise-induced hypohydration was compared to a sports drink and water. After losing 1.8 (sd 0.1) % of their body mass during intermittent exercise in a warm environment, eleven subjects consumed a drink volume equivalent to 150 % of their sweat loss. Urine samples were collected before and for 5 h after exercise to assess fluid balance. Urine excretion over the recovery period did not change during the milk trials whereas there was a marked increase in output between 1 and 2 h after drinking water and the sports drink. Cumulative urine output was less after the milk drinks were consumed (611 (sd 207) and 550 (sd 141) ml for milk and milk with added sodium, respectively, compared to 1184 (sd 321) and 1205 (sd 142) ml for the water and sports drink; P < 0.001). Subjects remained in net positive fluid balance or euhydrated throughout the recovery period after drinking the milk drinks but returned to net negative fluid balance 1 h after drinking the other drinks. The results of the present study suggest that milk can be an effective post-exercise rehydration drink and can be considered for use after exercise by everyone except those individuals who have lactose intolerance.

Lactation induction as a predictor of post-parturition transgene expression in bovine milk

The bovine's long generation interval results in a delay of several years when evaluating mammary specific transgenes in genetically engineered animals. This experiment was conducted to evaluate the feasibility of reducing that waiting period. Lactation was induced in prepubertal bull and heifer calves as a means of predicting transgene behaviour during subsequent post-parturient lactations in the heifers themselves, and in daughters sired by the bulls. The animals carry a lactation-specific transgene encoding lysostaphin, an antimicrobial protein that kills Staphlococcus aureus, a mastitis-causing pathogen. Oestrogen, progesterone and dexamethasone were administered as previously described (Ball et al. 2000) to nine heifers (five transgenics) ranging in weight from 80 to 145 kg. Eight bull calves (seven transgenics) weighing 81-178 kg received additional oestrogen and progesterone injection prior to dexamethasone treatment. All nine heifers responded to the milk induction scheme yielding between 19 ml and 4.5 l over 5 d. Milk volume from the four responding males (30 microl to 2.5 ml) was significantly less than that harvested from females (P=0.025). Only bull calves >117 kg had a positive response. Lysostaphin was detected in all transgenic prepubertal heifers and in two transgenic prepubertal bull calves induced. A positive relationship was observed between lysostaphin's stapholytic activity in the two types of lactations (r2=0.907, P<0.001) thus providing a useful means of predicting subsequent lysostaphin production in post-partum milk.

Effects of dietary zinc supplement during lactation on longitudinal changes in plasma and milk zinc concentration

Effects of dietary zinc supplement during lactation on maternal zinc plasma and milk zinc concentration through 5 months of lactation were examined. One hundred and thirty eight healthy lactating mothers received a weekly 100 mg elemental zinc supplement (ZS, n = 67) or placebo (PG, n = 71) starting one week postpartum in a double blind, randomized design. Milk and plasma zinc concentrations were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. During the course of study, there was not a significantly difference between ZG and PG groups in dietary zinc and energy intake. The mean plasma zinc concentration at 1st week and 5th month were 134 +/- 49.1 and 115.6 +/- 23 microg dL(-1) (PV = 0.005) for PG group, respectively; that of the ZG group these figures were 124.9 +/- 52.8 and 121 +/- 27.1 microg dL(-1) (PV = 0.38), respectively. The mean serum alkaline phosphatase concentration at 1st week and 5th month were 94.8 +/- 37 and 92.6 +/- 29.9 iu L(-1) for PG group, respectively; that of the ZG group these fissures were 90.5 +/- 36 and 90 +/- 29 iu L(-1) (PV = 0.21), respectively. Milk zinc concentration declined significantly over the course of study for two groups, with the sharpest decline occurring during the first 2 months. The mean monthly zinc concentration of ZG group declined from 310 +/- 138 at 1st week to 118 +/- 64 microg dL(-1) at 5th month (declined by 52%). Corresponding means for PG group were 322 +/- 161 and 109 +/- 70 microg dL(-1) (declined by 60%), respectively. Milk zinc concentration significantly different between two groups at 3 and 4 months. A similar study, however, with different zinc dose and administration manner, in zinc marginal deficient lactating mothers is needed to assess the impact of zinc supplementation on milk zinc concentrations.

Humoral defence improvement and haematopoiesis stimulation in sows and offspring by oral supply of shark-liver oil to mothers during gestation and lactation

Shark-liver oil (SLO) contains two bioactive lipids: alkylglycerols andn-3 PUFA. Alkylglycerols have immunostimulating and haematopoietic properties, whilen-3 PUFA are essential for optimal neonatal development. We investigated the beneficial effects of dietary supplementation with 32g SLO/d to twelve pregnant and then lactating sows (from day 80 of pregnancy to weaning) on the growth and immune status of their offspring, compared with a control group. Sows were vaccinated against Aujeszky's disease 21d before term. Blood samples were collected from sows before treatment, on delivery and 14d later, and from five piglets per litter on days 2, 21 and 36 after birth; colostrum and milk samples were collected 12h, 14 and 28d postpartum. Compared with controls, supplemented sows had higher levels of both erythrocytes and Hb in their blood, and higher concentrations of IgG, alkylglycerols andn-3 PUFA in their mammary secretions. In piglets from supplemented sows, leucocytes and IgG were higher. Supplementation with SLO resulted in an increase in Aujeszky antibodies in both blood and colostrum of sows after vaccination, together with an increase in Aujeszky antibodies in piglet blood. Our findings demonstrate that improvement of both passive and active immune status in piglets is related to the consumption of alkylglycerols associated withn-3 PUFA in the sow diet. The overall improvement in offspring health status by SLO supplementation to the mother could be of interest for optimisation of the lipid diet during and after pregnancy.