Taxonomic and nomenclatural reassessment of the Iberian Peninsula's nomina obscura, Scolopendraviridipes Dufour, 1820 and S.chlorotes L. Koch in Rosenhauer, 1856 (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha, Scolopendridae)

The taxonomic identities of the two largely neglected Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758 species from continental Spain, S.viridipes Dufour, 1820 and S.chlorotes L. Koch in Rosenhauer, 1856, are examined in this paper. After efforts in locating both species' type series in eight European institutions, the specimens are considered to be lost. Consequently, the identifications of both taxa were approximated by collating their descriptions with the morphology of all other sympatric Scolopendromorpha. Then, compatible topotypes for both species were collected, and among these a neotype for each taxon were selected and compared with the type series of their respective closest relatives. Finally, both S.viridipes and S.chlorotes are proposed to be conspecific with S.oraniensis Lucas, 1846. Therefore, the name S.viridipes is here established as (senior) syn. nov. and nomen oblitum of S.oraniensis, S.oraniensis is declared as nomen protectum, and S.chlorotes (junior) syn. nov. is reallocated to S.oraniensis. Moreover, the specimens making up the type series of S.oraniensis are also indicated and redescribed, the genitalia are illustrated for the first time, and its specific epithet is briefly reviewed, remaining unaltered in respect of its original spelling.

Selection Across the Three-Dimensional Structure of Venom Proteins from North American Scolopendromorph Centipedes

Gene duplication followed by nucleotide differentiation is one of the simplest mechanisms to develop new functions for genes. However, the evolutionary processes underlying the divergence of multigene families remain controversial. We used multigene families found within the diversity of toxic proteins in centipede venom to test two hypotheses related to venom evolution: the two-speed mode of venom evolution and the rapid accumulation of variation in exposed residues (RAVER) model. The two-speed mode of venom evolution proposes that different types of selection impact ancient and younger venomous lineages with negative selection being the predominant form in ancient lineages and positive selection being the dominant form in younger lineages. The RAVER hypothesis proposes that, instead of different types of selection acting on different ages of venomous lineages, the different types of selection will selectively contribute to amino acid variation based on whether the residue is exposed to the solvent where it can potentially interact directly with toxin targets. This hypothesis parallels the longstanding understanding of protein evolution that suggests that residues found within the structural or active regions of the protein will be under negative or purifying selection, and residues that do not form part of these areas will be more prone to positive selection. To test these two hypotheses, we compared the venom of 26 centipedes from the order Scolopendromorpha from six currently recognized species from across North America using both transcriptomics and proteomics. We first estimated their phylogenetic relationships and uncovered paraphyly among the genus Scolopendra and evidence for cryptic diversity among currently recognized species. Using our phylogeny, we then characterized the diverse venom components from across the identified clades using a combination of transcriptomics and proteomics. We conducted selection-based analyses in the context of predicted three-dimensional properties of the venom proteins and found support for both hypotheses. Consistent with the two-speed hypothesis, we found a prevalence of negative selection across all proteins. Consistent with the RAVER hypothesis, we found evidence of positive selection on solvent-exposed residues, with structural and less-exposed residues showing stronger signal for negative selection. Through the use of phylogenetics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and selection-based analyses, we were able to describe the evolution of venom from an ancient venomous lineage and support principles of protein evolution that directly relate to multigene family evolution.

Variation of the Tegmen and Cercus in Sinopodisma rostellocerca (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Melanoplinae) with Proposal of a New Synonym

Intraspecific variation is ubiquitous from individual traits to population level and plays an important role in a variety of fields. However, it is often ignored by systematists and comparative evolutionary biologists. In view of the limited knowledge of intraspecific variation, morphology-based identification has hindered the recognition of species borders and led to a great number of problems in the field of taxonomy and systematics. In this study, the intraspecific variation of the tegmen and cercus in Sinopodisma rostellocerca was examined, the variation patterns were summarized and the relationship between S. rostellocerca and S. hengshanica was discussed. The results showed that the intraspecific variation in the tegmen and male cercus was mainly manifested in the length and shape of the apical margin and dorso- and ventro-apical angles; this substantial variation occurred not only among intrapopulation individuals but also between the different sides of the same individuals, and all types of variation in S. hengshanica fell into the range of variation in S. rostellocerca, leading to the disappearance of the boundary between the two species. Therefore, S. hengshanica was herein considered as a new junior synonym of S. rostellocerca.

A new species of Otostigmus (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha, Scolopendridae) from China, with remarks on the phylogenetic relationships of Otostigmuspolitus Karsch, 1881

Through a combination of morphological and DNA data, a new scolopendrid centipede from southern and southwestern China was revealed: O.tricarinatussp. nov. The species belong to the politus group but has three sharp tergal keels. Validation of phylogenetic status was performed through molecular analysis of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), 16S rRNA, and 28S rRNA sequences from 16 Otostigmus species. Otostigmustricarinatussp. nov. was found to be two populations and varied in the number of spines on the ultimate prefemur, the sutures on a sternite, and a pore-free median longitudinal strip in the pore field. The Yunnan-Guizhou plateau population of O.tricarinatussp. nov. was sister to the clade O.polituspolitus + O.politusyunnanensis + Guangxi population of O.tricarinatussp. nov. with strong support from both BI (bayesian inference) and ML (maximum likelihood) analyses (PP = 1, BS = 97%).

The Complete Mitogenomes of Three Grasshopper Species with Special Notes on the Phylogenetic Positions of Some Related Genera

Clarifying phylogenetic position and reconstructing robust phylogeny of groups using various evidences are an eternal theme for taxonomy and systematics. In this study, the complete mitogenomes of Longzhouacris mirabilis, Ranacris albicornis, and Conophyma zhaosuensis were sequenced using next-generation sequencing (NGS), and the characteristics of the mitogenomes are presented briefly. The mitogenomes of the three species are all circular molecules with total lengths of 16,164 bp, 15,720 bp, and 16,190 bp, respectively. The gene structures and orders, as well as the characteristics of the mitogenomes, are similar to those of other published mitogenomes in Caelifera. The phylogeny of the main subfamilies of Acrididae with prosternal process was reconstructed using a selected dataset of mitogenome sequences under maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) frameworks. The results showed that the genus Emeiacris consistently fell into the subfamily Melanoplinae rather than Oxyinae, and the genus Choroedocus had the closest relationship with Shirackiacris of the subfamily Eyprepocnemidinae in both phylogenetic trees deduced from mitogenome protein coding genes (PCGs). This finding is entirely consistent with the morphological characters, which indicate that Emeiacris belongs to Melanoplinae and Choroedocus belongs to Eyprepocnemidinae. In addition, the genera Conophymacris and Xiangelilacris, as well as Ranacris and Menglacris, are two pairs of the closest relatives, but their phylogenetic positions need further study to clarify.

Re-evaluating and dating myriapod diversification with phylotranscriptomics under a regime of dense taxon sampling

Recent transcriptomic studies of myriapod phylogeny have been based on relatively small datasets with <40 myriapod terminals and variably supported or contradicted the traditional morphological groupings of Progoneata and Dignatha. Here we amassed a large dataset of 104 myriapod terminals, including multiple species for each of the four myriapod classes. Across the tree, most nodes are stable and well supported. Most analyses across a range of gene occupancy levels provide moderate to strong support for a deep split of Myriapoda into Symphyla + Pauropoda (=Edafopoda) and an uncontradicted grouping of Chilopoda + Diplopoda (=Pectinopoda nov.), as in other recent transcriptome-based analyses; no analysis recovers Progoneata or Dignatha as clades. As in all recent multi-locus and phylogenomic studies, chilopod interrelationships resolve with Craterostigmus excluded from Amalpighiata rather than uniting with other centipedes with maternal brood care in Phylactometria. Diplopod ordinal interrelationships are largely congruent with morphology-based classifications. Chilognathan clades that are not invariably advocated by morphologists include Glomerida + Glomeridesmida, such that the volvation-related characters of pill millipedes may be convergent, and Stemmiulida + Polydesmida more closely allied to Juliformia than to Callipodida + Chordeumatida. The latter relationship implies homoplasy in spinnerets and contradicts Nematophora. A time-tree with nodes calibrated by 25 myriapod and six outgroup fossil terminals recovers Cambrian-Ordovician divergences for the deepest splits in Myriapoda, Edafopoda and Pectinopoda, predating the terrestrial fossil record of myriapods as in other published chronograms, whereas age estimates within Chilopoda and Diplopoda overlap with or do not appreciably predate the calibration fossils. The grouping of Chilopoda and Diplopoda is recovered in all our analyses and is formalized as Pectinopoda nov., named for the shared presence of mandibular comb lamellae. New taxonomic proposals for Chilopoda based on uncontradicted clades are Tykhepoda nov. for the three blind families of Scolopendromorpha that share a "sieve-type" gizzard, and Taktikospina nov. for Scolopendromorpha to the exclusion of Mimopidae.

Taxonomic Accounts and Phylogenetic Positions of the Far East Asian Centipedes Scolopocryptops elegans and S. curtus (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha)

The epigean centipede genus Scolopocryptops Newport, 1844 consists of two monophyletic lineages, the "Asian/North American" and "Neotropical/Afrotropical" groups. Most of the "Asian/North American" species bear the complete sulcus/sulci along the lateral margin of the cephalic plate and sternites lacking sulci, whereas Japanese Scolopocryptops elegans (Takakuwa, 1937) bears short lateral sulci on the cephalic plate and Taiwanese Scolopocryptops curtus (Takakuwa, 1939) lacks the cephalic marginal sulci, and both species bear a longitudinal sternal sulcus. The taxonomic accounts of S. elegans and S. curtus were revisited in this study based on newly collected specimens. We found that these two species share a characteristic of the second maxilla, that they lack the transparent margin on the dorsal brush, which distinguishes them from other "Asian/North American" species. Scolopocryptops elegans and S. curtus can be distinguished from each other by the characters of their antennal articles, cephalic plate, forcipular coxosternite, tergite 23, and coxopleuron. Phylogenetic analyses using nuclear 28S ribosomal RNA and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences confirmed that S. elegans and S. curtus are closely related and form a single clade sister to a clade comprising all the other "Asian/North American" Scolopocryptops species.

Five million years in the darkness: A new troglomorphic species of Cryptops Leach, 1814 (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha) from Movile Cave, Romania

A new species of Cryptops Leach, 1814, C. speleorex sp. nov., is described from Movile Cave, Dobrogea, Romania. The cave is remarkable for its unique ecosystem entirely dependent on methane- and sulfur-oxidising bacteria. Until now, the cave was thought to be inhabited by the epigean species C. anomalans, which is widespread in Europe. Despite its resemblance to C. anomalans, the new species is well-defined morphologically and molecularly based on two mitochondrial (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I COI and 16S rDNA) and one nuclear (28S rDNA) markers. Cryptops speleorex sp. nov. shows a number of troglomorphic traits such as a generally large body and elongated appendages and spiracles, higher number of coxal pores and saw teeth on the tibia of the ultimate leg. With this record, the number of endemic species known from the Movile Cave reaches 35, which ranks it as one of the most species-rich caves in the world.

Rediscovery and phylogenetic relationships of the scolopendromorph centipede Mimops orientalis Kraepelin, 1903 (Chilopoda): a monotypic species of Mimopidae endemic to China, for more than one century

Mimops orientalis Kraepelin, 1903 is a monotypic species of Mimopidae endemic to China. The species is known only from a single specimen, the holotype. Little is known about its biology, habitat associations, or phylogenetic relationships. It was rediscovered on Qinling Mountain in Shaanxi and Henan provinces, China, 117 years after its last record. Detailed descriptions and colour photographs of living specimens are provided along with its ecology, updated conservation notes, and data on sexual dimorphism. A genetic analysis (COI, 16S rRNA, and 28S rRNA) was conducted to assess the phylogenetic relationships among Mimopidae, Cryptopidae, Scolopendridae, Scolopocryptopidae, and Plutoniumidae. The results support classifying Mimopidae as a valid family.

The out-of-India hypothesis: evidence from an ancient centipede genus, Rhysida (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) from the Oriental Region, and systematics of Indian species

The Oriental Region has been a focus of biogeographical research for more than two centuries. We examined systematics and biogeography of the centipede genus Rhysida in this region. A robust species hypothesis for the Indian subcontinental and Southeast Asian Rhysida clade uses molecular, morphological and distribution data. Twelve species are recognized in two monophyletic species complexes, eight belonging to the Rhysida immarginata and four to the Rhysida longipes species complex. They include Rhysida aspinosa, Rhysida crassispina, R. immarginata, R. longipes and seven new species, five of which are formally named in this paper: Rhysida ikhalama, Rhysida konda, Rhysida lewisi, Rhysida pazhuthara and Rhysida sada The nine Rhysida species are documented taxonomically and their morphological variation is reviewed. An integrative systematic approach reveals that diversity of Rhysida in the Indian subcontinent has been underestimated. Both species complexes started to diversify in the Early to Late Cretaceous in the Indian subcontinent. The out-of-India hypothesis is supported in both clades, because Southeast Asian species are nested in Indian subcontinental clades. Historical biogeographical analyses suggest two independent post-collision dispersal events, one in the immarginata clade and another where R. longipes expanded its range into Southeast Asia.

Parallel Evolution of Complex Centipede Venoms Revealed by Comparative Proteotranscriptomic Analyses

Centipedes are among the most ancient groups of venomous predatory arthropods. Extant species belong to five orders, but our understanding of the composition and evolution of centipede venoms is based almost exclusively on one order, Scolopendromorpha. To gain a broader and less biased understanding we performed a comparative proteotranscriptomic analysis of centipede venoms from all five orders, including the first venom profiles for the orders Lithobiomorpha, Craterostigmomorpha, and Geophilomorpha. Our results reveal an astonishing structural diversity of venom components, with 93 phylogenetically distinct protein and peptide families. Proteomically-annotated gene trees of these putative toxin families show that centipede venom composition is highly dynamic across macroevolutionary timescales, with numerous gene duplications as well as functional recruitments and losses of toxin gene families. Strikingly, not a single family is found in the venoms of representatives of all five orders, with 67 families being unique for single orders. Ancestral state reconstructions reveal that centipede venom originated as a simple cocktail comprising just four toxin families, with very little compositional evolution happening during the approximately 50 My before the living orders had diverged. Venom complexity then increased in parallel within the orders, with scolopendromorphs evolving particularly complex venoms. Our results show that even venoms composed of toxins evolving under the strong constraint of negative selection can have striking evolutionary plasticity on the compositional level. We show that the functional recruitments and losses of toxin families that shape centipede venom arsenals are not concentrated early in their evolutionary history, but happen frequently throughout.

Solovyeva E. On the taxonomic position of the enigmatic genus Tonkinodentus Schileyko, 1992 (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha): the first molecular data

The taxonomic position of the monotypic Vietnamese genus Tonkinodentus Schileyko, 1992 (for T.lestes Schileyko, 1992) has been considered in the light of the first obtained molecular data. Both molecular (28S rRNA) and morphological data support the position of this extraordinary eye-less genus within the family Scolopendridae Leach, 1814, a sighted clade, and thus suggests the polyphyly of blind scolopendromorphs. The species diagnosis has been amended and color images of T.lestes provided for the first time.

Evolutionary biogeography of the centipede genus Ethmostigmus from Peninsular India: testing an ancient vicariance hypothesis for Old World tropical diversity

BACKGROUND

Understanding the relative influence of vicariance and dispersal in shaping Old World tropical biodiversity remains a challenge. We aimed to infer the roles of these alternative biogeographic processes using a species time-tree for the centipede genus Ethmostigmus from the Old World tropics. Additionally, we explored fine-scale biogeographic patterns for an endemic radiation of Ethmostigmus from the peninsular Indian Plate (PIP), an area with complex geological and climatic history.

RESULTS

Divergence time estimates suggest that Ethmostigmus began diversifying in the Late Cretaceous, 99 (± 25) million years ago (Ma), its early biogeographic history shaped by vicariance. Members of Ethmostigmus in PIP form a monophyletic group that underwent endemic radiation in the Late Cretaceous, 72 (± 25) Ma. In contrast, a new species of Ethmostigmus from north-east India formed a clade with African/Australian species. Fine-scale biogeographic analyses in PIP predict that Indian Ethmostigmus had an ancestor in southern-central parts of the Western Ghats. This was followed by four independent dispersal events from the southern-central Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats, and between different parts of the Western Ghats in the Cenozoic.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results are consistent with Gondwanan break-up driving the early evolutionary history of the genus Ethmostigmus. Multiple dispersal events coinciding with geo-climatic events throughout the Cenozoic shaped diversification in PIP. Ethmostigmus species in PIP are restricted to wet forests and have retained that niche throughout their diversification.

Blind scolopendrid centipedes of the genus Cormocephalus from subterranean habitats in Western Australia (Myriapoda: Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae)

Only a single blind species is known in the centipede family Scolopendridae, representing the monotypic genus Tonkinodentus Schileyko, 1992, from Vietnam. All of more than 400 other species have four ocelli on each side of the cephalic plate. A complex of three new blind species of the genus Cormocephalus Newport, 1844, is described from the subterranean fauna of the central Pilbara region of Western Australia. Phylogenies based on sequence data for the barcode region of COI and a concatenated matrix that also includes 12S rRNA, 28S rRNA and ITS2 unite the blind Pilbara species as a monophyletic group, albeit with moderate bootstrap support, informally named the C. sagmus species group. Cormocephalus sagmus, C. pyropygus and C. delta spp. nov. supplement 17 epigean congeners previously described from Australia. The new species are all morphologically similar, but can be distinguished using the shape and spinulation of the ultimate leg prefemur. Two additional genetically distinct lineages were recovered that are not described, owing to the specimens being immature or lacking diagnostic morphological characters. The subterranean radiation in the Pilbara is more closely related to species from forests in the south-west of Western Australia than to congeners from the arid zone. http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:6F67FD31-A373-4DC5-A5FD-374D32DEE02C

The peristomatic structures as a source of systematic characters in the genus Lithobius Leach, 1814 (Myriapoda, Chilopoda)

Morphological characters have been widely used in centipede systematics. Here, we aim to obtain morphological information from the preoral chamber and peristomatic structures of lithobiomorph centipedes, with taxonomic sampling focused on the species-rich genus Lithobius Leach, 1814. Towards this goal, we (i) examined the epipharynx and hypopharynx of 32 species belonging to four subgenera of the genus Lithobius, viz. Lithobius Leach, 1814, Monotarsobius Verhoeff, 1905, Sigibius Chamberlin, 1913 and Ezembius Chamberlin, 1919 using light and scanning electron microscopy, (ii) searched for phylogenetically informative characters and (iii) described interspecific variation. Three species of the lithobiid genera Eupolybothrus Verhoeff, 1907, Disphaerobius Attems, 1926 and Neolithobius Stuxberg, 1875 were additionally examined and considered as likely outgroups. New characters and character states are proposed as additions to current phylogenetic datasets. Similarities in the peristomatic structures ally Disphaerobius with Lithobius (Ezembius), suggesting that the subfamily Pterygoterginae is nested within Lithobiinae and Lithobius.

True Lies: Using Proteomics to Assess the Accuracy of Transcriptome-Based Venomics in Centipedes Uncovers False Positives and Reveals Startling Intraspecific Variation in Scolopendra Subspinipes

Centipede venoms have emerged as a rich source of novel bioactive compounds. However, most centipede species are commonly considered too small for venom extraction and transcriptomics is likely to be an attractive way of probing the molecular diversity of these venoms. Examining the venom composition of Scolopendra subspinipes, we test the accuracy of this approach. We compared the proteomically determined venom profile with four common toxin transcriptomic toxin annotation approaches: BLAST search against toxins in UniProt, lineage-specific toxins, or species-specific toxins and comparative expression analyses of venom and non-venom producing tissues. This demonstrated that even toxin annotation based on lineage-specific homology searches is prone to substantial errors compared to a proteomic approach. However, combined comparative transcriptomics and phylogenetic analysis of putative toxin families substantially improves annotation accuracy. Furthermore, comparison of the venom composition of S. subspinipes with the closely related S. subspinipes mutilans revealed a surprising lack of overlap. This first insight into the intraspecific venom variability of centipedes contrasts the sequence conservation expected from previous findings that centipede toxins evolve under strong negative selection. Our results highlight the importance of proteomic data in studies of even comparably well-characterized venoms and warrants caution when sourcing venom from centipedes of unknown origin.

A synopsis of centipedes in Brazilian caves: hidden species diversity that needs conservation (Myriapoda, Chilopoda)

This study revises centipede fauna found in Brazilian caves, focusing on troglomorphic taxa and emphasizing conservation status. We present 563 centipede specimens from 274 caves across eleven Brazilian states. Of these, 22 records were derived from existing literature and 252 are newly collected. Specimens represent four orders, ten families, 18 genera, and 47 morphospecies. Together, the cave records represent 21 % of Brazil’s centipede fauna. Scolopendromorpha was the most representative order (41 %), followed by Geophilomorpha (26 %), Scutigeromorpha (23 %), and Lithobiomorpha (10 %). Six species were found only in caves, with four considered troglobitic. The distribution of Cryptopsiporangensis, the first Brazilian troglobitic centipede species to be discovered, was expanded to other three caves. Cryptopsspelaeoraptor and Cryptopsiporangensis are two troglobitic species considered Vulnerable and Endangered, respectively, according to the IUCN Red List. Main threats to Brazilian caves are mining, hydroelectric projects, water pollution, and unregulated tourism.

Molecular phylogeny and systematics of the centipede genus Ethmostigmus Pocock (Chilopoda : Scolopendromorpha) from peninsular India

Integrative taxonomy assesses the congruence between different lines of evidence for delimiting species, such as morphological, molecular or ecological data. Herein molecular phylogenetics is used to test monophyly and determine the phylogenetic position of the Old World tropical centipede genus Ethmostigmus Pocock, 1898, and to define species boundaries for Ethmostigmus in peninsular India. A phylogeny of the family Scolopendridae based on DNA sequence data for three markers from 427 specimens sampling in all major lineages (144 individuals generated in this study) recovers Ethmostigmus as a monophyletic group, but relationships among the genera in its subfamily Otostigminae are poorly supported. Two species delimitation methods for DNA sequence data and phylogeny are integrated with morphology and geographic data to propose a well-supported species hypothesis for Ethmostigmus on the peninsular Indian plate. Five species of Ethmostigmus are recognised in peninsular India, of which E. coonooranus Chamberlin, 1920 and three new species, namely, E. agasthyamalaiensis, sp. nov., E. sahyadrensis, sp. nov. and E. praveeni, sp. nov., occur in the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot. The lesser-known Eastern Ghats harbour one species, E. tristis (Meinert, 1886), which has been nearly unreported for 130 years. This study highlights the value of an integrative approach to systematics, especially in underexplored, high biodiversity regions and where morphological variation is limited among closely related species.

Systematic revision and phylogenetic reassessment of the centipede genera Rhysida Wood, 1862 and Alluropus Silvestri, 1912 (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha) in Southeast Asia, with further discussion of the subfamily Otostigminae

Phylogenetic relationships of two morphologically similar scolopendrid genera, Rhysida Wood, 1862, and Alluropus Silvestri, 1912, were investigated based on broad-scale taxonomic sampling from SE Asia, India and Australia. Morphological revision and molecular phylogenetics using three loci validate seven Rhysida species in SE Asia and Australia: R. lithobioides (Newport, 1845), R. longipes (Newport, 1845), R. immarginata (Porat, 1876), R. nuda (Newport, 1845), R. carinulata (Haase, 1887), R. singaporiensis Verhoeff, 1937 and R. polyacantha Koch, 1985. The nominal SE Asian species R. leviventer Attems, 1953 and R. marginata Attems, 1953 are placed in junior subjective synonymy with R. lithobioides and Alluropus calcaratus (Pocock, 1891), respectively. The monotypic genus Alluropus is redescribed, molecular phylogeny recovering it nesting together with Indo-Australian Rhysida. Taxonomic revision reassigned R. calcarata Pocock, 1891 to Alluropus based on its morphological and molecular similarity to the type, A. demangei Silvestri, 1912, the differences between putative species being sexual variation. Two morphologically distinct allopatric populations of A. calcaratus, comb. nov. (= A. demangei, syn. nov.) were found in the Indochina subregion. Phylogenetic relationships in Otostigminae remain unsettled because clades within several genera lack significant support, although Rhysida consistently falls into two clades that are not each other’s closest relative.

The ultimate legs of Chilopoda (Myriapoda): a review on their morphological disparity and functional variability

The arthropodium is the key innovation of arthropods. Its various modifications are the outcome of multiple evolutionary transformations, and the foundation of nearly endless functional possibilities. In contrast to hexapods, crustaceans, and even chelicerates, the spectrum of evolutionary transformations of myriapod arthropodia is insufficiently documented and rarely scrutinized. Among Myriapoda, Chilopoda (centipedes) are characterized by their venomous forcipules-evolutionarily transformed walking legs of the first trunk segment. In addition, the posterior end of the centipedes' body, in particular the ultimate legs, exhibits a remarkable morphological heterogeneity. Not participating in locomotion, they hold a vast functional diversity. In many centipede species, elongation and annulation in combination with an augmentation of sensory structures indicates a functional shift towards a sensory appendage. In other species, thickening, widening and reinforcement with a multitude of cuticular protuberances and glandular systems suggests a role in both attack and defense. Moreover, sexual dimorphic characteristics indicate that centipede ultimate legs play a pivotal role in intraspecific communication, mate finding and courtship behavior. We address ambiguous identifications and designations of podomeres in order to point out controversial aspects of homology and homonymy. We provide a broad summary of descriptions, illustrations, ideas and observations published in past 160 years, and propose that studying centipede ultimate legs is not only essential in itself for filling gaps of knowledge in descriptive morphology, but also provides an opportunity to explore diverse pathways of leg transformations within Myriapoda.

A taxonomic review of the centipede genus Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758 (Scolopendromorpha, Scolopendridae) in mainland Southeast Asia, with description of a new species from Laos

The centipede genus Scolopendra in mainland Southeast Asia is reviewed taxonomically based on morphological characters, informed by a molecular phylogenetic analysis using sequences from three mitochondrial and nuclear genes (COI, 16S rRNA and 28S rRNA). Eight nominal species of Scolopendra, namely Scolopendra morsitans Linnaeus, 1758, Scolopendra subspinipes Leach, 1816, Scolopendra dehaani Brandt, 1840, Scolopendra multidens Newport, 1844, Scolopendra calcarata Porat, 1876, Scolopendra japonica Koch, 1878, Scolopendra pinguis Pocock, 1891, and Scolopendra dawydoffi Kronmüller, 2012, are redescribed together with some revision of type materials. Geographical variation in each species has been compiled with reference to samples that span their distribution ranges in Southeast Asia and some parts of neighbouring areas such as East Asia, the Indian Ocean, and Africa. Comparative study of traditional taxonomic characters from external morphology provides further information to distinguish some closely related species. Scolopendra cataracta Siriwut, Edgecombe & Panha, sp. n., is described from the southern part of Laos, with additional records in Thailand and Vietnam. The phylogenetic framework for Southeast Asian Scolopendra recognizes Scolopendra calcarata + Scolopendra pinguis, Scolopendra morsitans, and a Scolopendra subspinipes group that unites the other six species as the main clades. Within the Scolopendra subspinipes group, two monophyletic groups can be distinguished by having either slender or short, thick ultimate leg prefemora and different numbers of apical spines on the coxopleuron. Scolopendra arborea Lewis, 1982, is placed in subjective synonymy with Scolopendra dehaani. A survey of external morphology of the genital segments confirms its potential for improving species identification in Scolopendra. Some observations on biology and behaviour are recorded based on field surveys in this area.

Barcoding of Central European Cryptops centipedes reveals large interspecific distances with ghost lineages and new species records from Germany and Austria (Chilopoda, Scolopendromorpha)

In order to evaluate the diversity of Central European Myriapoda species in the course of the German Barcode of Life project, 61 cytochrome c oxidase I sequences of the genus Cryptops Leach, 1815, a centipede genus of the order Scolopendromorpha, were successfully sequenced and analyzed. One sequence of Scolopendra cingulata Latreille, 1829 and one of Theatops erythrocephalus Koch, 1847 were utilized as outgroups. Instead of the expected three species (Cryptops parisi Brolemann, 1920; Cryptops anomalans Newport, 1844; Cryptops hortensis (Donovan, 1810)), analyzed samples included eight to ten species. Of the eight clearly distinguishable morphospecies of Cryptops, five (Cryptops parisi; Cryptops croaticus Verhoeff, 1931; Cryptops anomalans; Cryptops umbricus Verhoeff, 1931; Cryptops hortensis) could be tentatively determined to species level, while a further three remain undetermined (one each from Germany, Austria and Croatia, and Slovenia). Cryptops croaticus is recorded for the first time from Austria. A single specimen (previously suspected as being Cryptops anomalans), was redetermined as Cryptops umbricus Verhoeff, 1931, a first record for Germany. All analyzed Cryptops species are monophyletic and show large genetic distances from one another (p-distances of 13.7-22.2%). Clear barcoding gaps are present in lineages represented by >10 specimens, highlighting the usefulness of the barcoding method for evaluating species diversity in centipedes. German specimens formally assigned to Cryptops parisi are divided into three clades differing by 8.4-11.3% from one another; their intra-lineage genetic distance is much lower at 0-1.1%. The three clades are geographically separate, indicating that they might represent distinct species. Aside from Cryptops parisi, intraspecific distances of Cryptops spp. in Central Europe are low (<3.3%).

The Centipede Genus Scolopendra in Mainland Southeast Asia: Molecular Phylogenetics, Geometric Morphometrics and External Morphology as Tools for Species Delimitation

Seven Scolopendra species from the Southeast Asian mainland delimited based on standard external morphological characters represent monophyletic groups in phylogenetic trees inferred from concatenated sequences of three gene fragments (cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1, 16S rRNA and 28S rRNA) using Maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. Geometric morphometric description of shape variation in the cephalic plate, forcipular coxosternite, and tergite of the ultimate leg-bearing segment provides additional criteria for distinguishing species. Colouration patterns in some Scolopendra species show a high degree of fit to phylogenetic trees at the population level. The most densely sampled species, Scolopendra dehaani Brandt, 1840, has three subclades with allopatric distributions in mainland SE Asia. The molecular phylogeny of S. pinguis Pocock, 1891, indicated ontogenetic colour variation among its populations. The taxonomic validation of S. dawydoffi Kronmüller, 2012, S. japonica Koch, 1878, and S. dehaani Brandt, 1840, each a former subspecies of S. subspinipes Leach, 1814 sensu Lewis, 2010, as full species was supported by molecular information and additional morphological data. Species delimitation in these taxonomically challenging animals is facilitated by an integrative approach that draws on both morphology and molecular phylogeny.

Species limits and phylogeography of Newportia (Scolopendromorpha) and implications for widespread morphospecies

The genus Newportia Gervais, 1847, includes some 60 nominal species distributed in the Caribbean islands and from Mexico to central South America. Modern keys to species and subspecies are available, greatly facilitating identification, but some species are based on few specimens and have incomplete documentation of taxonomically-informative characters. In order to explore genetic variability and evolutionary relationships within geographically-widespread morphospecies, specimens of Newportia (Newportia) stolli (Pocock, 1896) and Newportia (Newportia) divergens Chamberlin, 1922, two nominal species distinguished principally by differences in suture patterns on T1, were sequenced for mitochondrial 16S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) genes from populations in southern Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and Brazil. Newportia (Newportia) stolli is paraphyletic with respect to Newportia (Newportia) divergens within a clade from Guatemala, Honduras, and Chiapas (Mexico), most trees being consistent with a single loss of a connection between the anterior transverse suture on T1, whereas specimens of "Newportia (Newportia) stolli" from Brazil are not closely allied to those from the Mesomerican type area. The widespread morphospecies Newportia (Newportia) monticola Pocock, 1890, was sequenced for the same loci from populations in Costa Rica, Colombia and Brazil, finding that specimens from these areas do not unite as a monophyletic group. Samples of Newportia (Newportia) oreina Chamberlin, 1915, from different regions of Mexico form geographic clusters that resolve as each other's closest relatives. These results suggest that some widespread species of Newportia may be taxa of convenience more so than natural groupings. In several cases geographic proximity fits the phylogeny better than taxonomy, suggesting that non-monophyletic species do not result from use of inappropriate molecular markers. Molecular identification is possible for specimens missing taxonomically informative morphological characters, notably damaged specimens that lack the ultimate leg pair, a protocol that may also apply to other taxonomically difficult genera that are prone to damage (such as Cryptops).

First molecular data and the phylogenetic position of the millipede-like centipede Edentistoma octosulcatum Tömösváry, 1882 (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae)

Edentistoma octosulcatum Tömösváry, 1882, is a rare, superficially millipede-like centipede known only from Borneo and the Philippines. It is unique within the order Scolopendromorpha for its slow gait, robust tergites, and highly modified gizzard and mandible morphology. Not much is known about the biology of the species but it has been speculated to be arboreal with a possibly vegetarian diet. Until now its phylogenetic position within the subfamily Otostigminae has been based only on morphological characters, being variably ranked as a monotypic tribe (Arrhabdotini) or classified with the Southeast Asian genus Sterropristes Attems, 1934. The first molecular data for E. octosulcatum sourced from a newly collected specimen from Sarawak were analysed with and without morphology. Parsimony analysis of 122 morphological characters together with two nuclear and two mitochondrial loci resolves Edentistoma as sister group to three Indo-Australian species of Rhysida, this clade in turn grouping with Ethmostigmus, whereas maximum likelihood and parsimony analyses of the molecular data on their own ally Edentistoma with species of Otostigmus. A position of Edentistoma within Otostigmini (rather than being its sister group as predicted by the Arrhabdotini hypothesis) is consistently retrieved under different analytical conditions, but support values within the subfamily remain low for most nodes. The species exhibits strong pushing behaviour, suggestive of burrowing habits. Evidence against a suggested vegetarian diet is provided by observation of E. octosulcatum feeding on millipedes in the genus Trachelomegalus.