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Wang Z, Zhang L, Li B, Song J, Yu M, Zhang J, Chen C, Zhan J, Zhang H. Kindlin-2 in myoepithelium controls luminal progenitor commitment to alveoli in mouse mammary gland. Cell Death Dis 2023; 14:675. [PMID: 37833248 PMCID: PMC10576046 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-023-06184-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Myoepithelium plays an important role in mammary gland development, but less is known about the molecular mechanism underlying how myoepithelium controls acinus differentiation during gestation. Herein, we found that loss of Kindlin-2 in myoepithelial cells impaired mammary morphogenesis, alveologenesis, and lactation. Using five genetically modified mouse lines combined with single-cell RNA sequencing, we found a Kindlin-2-Stat3-Dll1 signaling cascade in myoepithelial cells that inactivates Notch signaling in luminal cells and consequently drives luminal progenitor commitment to alveolar cells identity. Single-cell profiling revealed that Kindlin-2 loss significantly reduces the proportion of matured alveolar cells. Mechanistically, Kindlin-2 depletion in myoepithelial cells promotes Stat3 activation and upregulates Dll1, which activates the Notch pathway in luminal cells and inhibits luminal progenitor differentiation and maturation during gestation. Inhibition of Notch1 with tangeretin allowed luminal progenitors to regain commitment ability in the pregnant mice with Kindlin-2 depletion in myoepithelium. Taken together, we demonstrated that Kindlin-2 is essential to myoepithelium-controlled luminal progenitors to alveoli transition during gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenbin Wang
- Program for Cancer and Cell Biology, Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Peking University International Cancer Institute; MOE Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research and State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, 100191, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Program for Cancer and Cell Biology, Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Peking University International Cancer Institute; MOE Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research and State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, 100191, Beijing, China
| | - Bing Li
- Program for Cancer and Cell Biology, Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Peking University International Cancer Institute; MOE Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research and State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, 100191, Beijing, China
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Hebei University of Chinese Medicine, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, 050200, China
| | - Jiagui Song
- Program for Cancer and Cell Biology, Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Peking University International Cancer Institute; MOE Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research and State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, 100191, Beijing, China
| | - Miao Yu
- Program for Cancer and Cell Biology, Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Peking University International Cancer Institute; MOE Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research and State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, 100191, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Program for Cancer and Cell Biology, Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Peking University International Cancer Institute; MOE Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research and State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, 100191, Beijing, China
| | - Ceshi Chen
- Academy of Biomedical Engineering, Kunming Medical University, Kunming, 650500, China.
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Yunnan Province, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, 650223, China.
| | - Jun Zhan
- Program for Cancer and Cell Biology, Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Peking University International Cancer Institute; MOE Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research and State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, 100191, Beijing, China.
| | - Hongquan Zhang
- Program for Cancer and Cell Biology, Department of Human Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Peking University International Cancer Institute; MOE Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research and State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, 100191, Beijing, China.
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Ford MJ, Harwalkar K, Kazemdarvish H, Yamanaka N, Yamanaka Y. CD133/Prom1 marks proximal mouse oviduct epithelial progenitors and adult epithelial cells with a low generative capacity. Biol Open 2023; 12:bio059963. [PMID: 37605939 PMCID: PMC10508696 DOI: 10.1242/bio.059963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The epithelium lining the oviduct or fallopian tube consists of multiciliated and secretory cells, which support fertilization and preimplantation development, however, its homeostasis remains poorly understood. CD133/Prom1 expression has been used as a marker to identify adult stem cell populations in various organs and often associated with cancer cells that have stem-like properties. Using an antibody targeted to CD133 and a Cre recombinase-based lineage tracing strategy, we found that CD133/Prom1 expression is not associated with a stem/progenitor population in the oviduct but marked predominantly multiciliated cells with a low generative capacity. Additionally, we have shown that CD133 is disparately localised along the oviduct during neonatal development, and that Prom1 expressing secretory cells in the ampulla rapidly transitioned to multiciliated cells and progressively migrated to the ridge of epithelial folds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Ford
- Goodman Cancer Institute, Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal QC H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Keerthana Harwalkar
- Goodman Cancer Institute, Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal QC H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Hengameh Kazemdarvish
- Goodman Cancer Institute, Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal QC H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Nobuko Yamanaka
- Goodman Cancer Institute, Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal QC H3A 1A3, Canada
| | - Yojiro Yamanaka
- Goodman Cancer Institute, Department of Human Genetics, McGill University, Montreal QC H3A 1A3, Canada
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Acar N, Soylu H, Avci S, Ustunel I. Expressions of Notch signalling pathway members during early pregnancy in mice. J Mol Histol 2023; 54:297-312. [PMID: 37344690 DOI: 10.1007/s10735-023-10132-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Although pregnancy is initiated and maintained through highly complex mechanisms, it is essential to understand the events that occur before and during early pregnancy to understand a healthy implantation process. The Notch signal, thought to be involved in this process, is frequently the subject of research with its different aspects. To better understand the role of Notch signaling in the peri-implantation period of the mouse uterus, we investigated the state of expression and localization of Notch 3, Notch 4, Rbp-J, Hes1, Hes7, Hey2, HeyL, and Fbw7 in the uterus and implantation sites in early pregnancy. Balb/C mice were divided into groups D1, D4, D5, D6, and D8. For D5 and D6 groups, implantation sites were identified by intravenous injection of Chicago blue. IHC, WB, and QRT-PCR methods were used. Notch 3 was very strong positive on the 4th day of pregnancy. Notch 4 was highly expressed on days 4, 5, 6, and 8 of pregnancy when P4 levels were high. Hes 1 level was at the lowest on the 4th day of pregnancy. Hes 7 protein expression gradually increased from D1 to D8 in the uteri and implantation sites. Hey 2 expression was at the highest level on the 1st and 4th days. Hey L expression was on the apical of the glands. Fbxw7 that expression was high on the 1st and 4th days of pregnancy. Notch signaling may play an essential role in regulating endometrial receptivity. In addition, our Hes7 results are new to the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuray Acar
- School of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey.
| | - Hakan Soylu
- School of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Duzce University, Duzce, Turkey
| | - Sema Avci
- School of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Alanya Alaaddin Keykubat University, Antalya, Turkey
| | - Ismail Ustunel
- School of Medicine, Department of Histology and Embryology, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
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Moldovan GE, Miele L, Fazleabas AT. Notch signaling in reproduction. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2021; 32:1044-1057. [PMID: 34479767 PMCID: PMC8585702 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2021.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The Notch signaling pathway is conserved among mammalian species and controls proliferation, differentiation, and cell death in many organs throughout the body including the reproductive tract. Notch signaling plays critical roles in the development and function of both the male and female reproductive systems. Specifically, within the female reproductive tract, Notch signaling is hormone regulated and mediates key reproductive events important for ovarian and uterine function. In this review, we highlight the tissues that express Notch receptors, ligands, and downstream effectors and distinguish how these molecules regulate reproductive function in male and female mice, non-human primates, and humans. Finally, we describe some of the aberrations in Notch signaling in female reproductive pathologies and identify opportunities for future investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genna E Moldovan
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Lucio Miele
- Department of Genetics, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center and Stanley S. Scott Cancer Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
| | - Asgerally T Fazleabas
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, Michigan State University, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA.
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Batista MR, Diniz P, Torres A, Murta D, Lopes-da-Costa L, Silva E. Notch signaling in mouse blastocyst development and hatching. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2020; 20:9. [PMID: 32482162 PMCID: PMC7265256 DOI: 10.1186/s12861-020-00216-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Background Mammalian early embryo development requires a well-orchestrated interplay of cell signaling pathways. Notch is a major regulatory pathway involved in cell-fate determination in embryonic and adult scenarios. However, the role of Notch in embryonic pre-implantation development is controversial. In particular, Notch role on blastocyst development and hatching remains elusive, and a complete picture of the transcription and expression patterns of Notch components during this time-period is not available. Results This study provided a comprehensive view on the dynamics of individual embryo gene transcription and protein expression patterns of Notch components (receptors Notch1–4; ligands Dll1 and Dll4, Jagged1–2; and effectors Hes1–2), and their relationship with transcription of gene markers of pluripotency and differentiation (Sox2, Oct4, Klf4, Cdx2) during mouse blastocyst development and hatching. Transcription of Notch1–2, Jagged1–2 and Hes1 was highly prevalent and dynamic along stages of development, whereas transcription of Notch3–4, Dll4 and Hes2 had a low prevalence among embryos. Transcription levels of Notch1, Notch2, Jagged2 and Hes1 correlated with each other and with those of pluripotency and differentiation genes. Gene transcription was associated to protein expression, except for Jagged2, where high transcription levels in all embryos were not translated into protein. Presence of Notch signaling activity was confirmed through nuclear NICD and Hes1 detection, and downregulation of Hes1 transcription following canonical signaling blockade with DAPT. In vitro embryo culture supplementation with Jagged1 had no effect on embryo developmental kinetics. In contrast, supplementation with Jagged2 abolished Jagged1 transcription, downregulated Cdx2 transcription and inhibited blastocyst hatching. Notch signaling blockade by DAPT downregulated transcription of Sox2, and retarded embryo hatching. Conclusion Transcription of Notch genes showed a dynamic pattern along blastocyst development and hatching. Data confirmed Notch signaling activity, and lead to the suggestion that Notch canonical signaling may be operating through Notch1, Notch3, Jagged1 and Hes1. Embryo culture supplementation with Jagged1 and Jagged2 unveiled a possible regulatory effect between Jagged1, Cdx2 and blastocyst hatching. Overall, results indicate that a deregulation in Notch signaling, either by its over or under-activation, affects blastocyst development and hatching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana R Batista
- Reproduction and Development Laboratory, CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Patrícia Diniz
- Reproduction and Development Laboratory, CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Torres
- Reproduction and Development Laboratory, CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Daniel Murta
- Reproduction and Development Laboratory, CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal.,CBIOS - Research Centre for Biosciences and Health Technologies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University of Humanities and Technologies, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Luís Lopes-da-Costa
- Reproduction and Development Laboratory, CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Elisabete Silva
- Reproduction and Development Laboratory, CIISA - Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477, Lisbon, Portugal
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Xie M, Lu X, Chen Q. Microarray expression profiling of long noncoding RNAs in the progesterone-treated lung cancer cells. J Gene Med 2020; 22:e3215. [PMID: 32391956 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.3215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The increasing incidence and unique biological features of lung cancer in women has prompted renewed interest in the role of sex hormones in this disease. We previously showed that progesterone (P4) inhibited lung cancer tumorigenesis and progression. Here, we investigated the effects of P4 on expression of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and target mRNAs in lung cancer cells. METHODS We performed high-throughput microarray and bioinformatics analysis to identify differentially expressed lncRNAs and mRNAs in the untreated and the P4-treated A549 human lung cancer cells. RESULTS In total, 692 lncRNAs and 268 mRNAs were significantly differentially expressed in the P4-treated A549 cells compared to the untreated A549 cells (> 2-fold change, p < 0.05). Of the lncRNAs, 82 and 610 were up-regulated and down-regulated, respectively. Gene ontology, pathway and network analyses showed that many of the mRNAs were involved in the regulation of classical pathways, including Notch signaling. Differential expression of a lncRNA signature composed of NONHSAT000264, FR075921, FR324124, linc-TRIM58, RP1-93H18.7, RP11-120 K9.2, RP11-134F2.2 and NONHSAG024980 was validated by quantitatuve reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis. CONCLUSIONS This is the first report of differentially expressed lncRNAs in the P4-treated lung cancer cells. The results suggest that lncRNAs could serve as potential therapeutic targets for P4-sensitive lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingxuan Xie
- Department of Geriatrics/Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Centre for Geriatric Disorders, Department of Geriatrics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Lu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Zhengzhou University First Affiliated Hospital, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Qiong Chen
- Department of Geriatrics/Department of Respiratory Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- National Clinical Research Centre for Geriatric Disorders, Department of Geriatrics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Badenes M, Trindade A, Pissarra H, Lopes-da-Costa L, Duarte A. Delta-like 4/Notch signaling promotes Apc Min/+ tumor initiation through angiogenic and non-angiogenic related mechanisms. BMC Cancer 2017; 17:50. [PMID: 28086833 PMCID: PMC5237288 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-016-3036-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Delta like 4 (Dll4)/Notch signaling is a key regulator of tumor angiogenesis. Additionally, the role of Dll4 has been studied on tumor stem cells. However, as these cells are implicated in tumor angiogenesis, it is conceivable that the effect of Dll4 on these cells may be a consequence of its angiogenic function. Our aim was to evaluate the expression and dissect the functions of Dll4 in the ApcMin/+ model of colorectal cancer. Methods We evaluated the protein expression pattern of Dll4 and other Notch members in the ApcMin/+ tumors relatively to the normal gut and compared endothelial-specific with ubiquitous Dll4 knockout mice on an ApcMin/+ background. Results All Notch pathway members were present in the normal small and large intestine and in the adenomas of the same regions. Dll4, all Notch receptors and Hes1 expression seemed upregulated in the tumors, with some regional differences. The same members and Hes5, instead of Hes1, presented ectopic expression in the tumor parenchyma. Dll4 expression was most pronounced in the tumor cells but it was also present in the tumor blood vessels and in other stromal cells. Ubiquitous and endothelial-specific Dll4 deletion led to an equivalent reduction of tumor growth because of a similarly marked tumoral angiogenic phenotype promoting non-productive vasculature and consequently hypoxia and apoptosis. The ubiquitous Dll4 inhibition led to a stronger decrease of tumor multiplicity than the endothelial-specific deletion by further reducing tumor proliferation and tumor stem cell density through upregulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors 1C and 1B and downregulation of Myc, Cyclin D1 and D2 independently of β-catenin activation. This phenotype was associated to the observed increased epithelial differentiation deviated towards the secretory lineages by Atoh1 and Klf4 upregulation only in the ubiquitous Dll4 mutants. Conclusions Dll4 seems to promote ApcMin/+ tumorigenesis through both angiogenic and non-angiogenic related mechanisms. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-016-3036-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Badenes
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação em Sanidade Animal (CIISA), University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Trindade
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação em Sanidade Animal (CIISA), University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Hugo Pissarra
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação em Sanidade Animal (CIISA), University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Luís Lopes-da-Costa
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação em Sanidade Animal (CIISA), University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - António Duarte
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação em Sanidade Animal (CIISA), University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.
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Schroeder DI, Schmidt RJ, Crary-Dooley FK, Walker CK, Ozonoff S, Tancredi DJ, Hertz-Picciotto I, LaSalle JM. Placental methylome analysis from a prospective autism study. Mol Autism 2016; 7:51. [PMID: 28018572 PMCID: PMC5159983 DOI: 10.1186/s13229-016-0114-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are increasingly prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders that are behaviorally diagnosed in early childhood. Most ASD cases likely arise from a complex mixture of genetic and environmental factors, an interface where the epigenetic marks of DNA methylation may be useful as risk biomarkers. The placenta is a potentially useful surrogate tissue characterized by a methylation pattern of partially methylated domains (PMDs) and highly methylated domains (HMDs) reflective of methylation patterns observed in the early embryo. Methods In this study, we investigated human term placentas from the MARBLES (Markers of Autism Risk in Babies: Learning Early Signs) prospective study by whole genome bisulfite sequencing. We also examined the utility of PMD/HMDs in detecting methylation differences consistent with ASD diagnosis at age three. Results We found that while human placental methylomes have highly reproducible PMD and HMD locations, there is a greater variation between individuals in methylation levels over PMDs than HMDs due to both sampling and individual variability. In a comparison of methylation differences in placental samples from 24 ASD and 23 typically developing (TD) children, a HMD containing a putative fetal brain enhancer near DLL1 was found to reach genome-wide significance and was validated for significantly higher methylation in ASD by pyrosequencing. Conclusions These results suggest that the placenta could be an informative surrogate tissue for predictive ASD biomarkers in high-risk families. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13229-016-0114-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane I Schroeder
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Genome Center, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Rebecca J Schmidt
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA ; MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | | | - Cheryl K Walker
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA ; MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Sally Ozonoff
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA ; MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Daniel J Tancredi
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Irva Hertz-Picciotto
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA ; MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
| | - Janine M LaSalle
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Genome Center, Davis, CA 95616 USA ; MIND Institute, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 USA
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