1
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Ilieș RF, Aioanei CS, Cătană A, Halmagyi SR, Lukacs I, Tokes RE, Rotar IC, Pop IV. Involvement of COL5A2 and TGF-β1 in pathological scarring. Exp Ther Med 2021; 22:1067. [PMID: 34447460 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.10501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Dysregulation in the cutaneous wound-healing process is a consequence of alterations in the efficiency and activity of the various components involved in the healing process. This dysregulation may result in various clinical appearances of a lesion, such as skin ulcers, keloids, hypertrophic and atrophic scars. The collagen type V alpha 2 (COL5A2) gene provides a template for a component of type V collagen, found primarily within the skin basement membrane. Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β is involved in inflammation, angiogenesis, proliferation of fibroblasts, collagen synthesis and extracellular matrix remodeling. Hypertrophic scar fibroblasts possess a disrupted expression pattern of the TGF-β signaling compared to normal healing, while an increased TGF-β signaling reduces the epidermal proliferation rate, triggering atrophic scarring. In the present study, 71 female patients who had undergone planned Caesarean section, without postoperative complications, were examined. These patients were clinically and molecularly evaluated after developing scars in order to determine the role of TGF-β1 (rs201700967 and rs200230083) and COL5A2 (rs369072636) in pathological scarring. Clinical scar evaluation was carried out using SCAR and POSAS scales and genotyping was performed by RT-PCR. No statistical differences were found between the subgroups regarding the genotype and the pathological scarring, since all the patients included were wild-type allele carriers. Further investigations and a more representative study group may highlight the involvement of COL5A2 and TGF-β1 single nucleotide variants in pathological scarring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana Flavia Ilieș
- Department of Medical Genetics, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Casian Simon Aioanei
- Department of Medical Genetics, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Andreea Cătană
- Department of Medical Genetics, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.,Department of Oncogenetics, 'Ion Chiricuță' Oncological Institute, 400015 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Salomea-Ruth Halmagyi
- Department of Medical Genetics, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Istvan Lukacs
- First Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Reka-Eniko Tokes
- First Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Ioana Cristina Rotar
- First Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.,First Clinic of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Emergency County Hospital, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Ioan Victor Pop
- Department of Medical Genetics, 'Iuliu Hațieganu' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 400349 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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2
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Rozés-Salvador V, Wilson C, Olmos C, Gonzalez-Billault C, Conde C. Fine-Tuning the TGFβ Signaling Pathway by SARA During Neuronal Development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:550267. [PMID: 33015054 PMCID: PMC7494740 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.550267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural development is a complex process that involves critical events, including cytoskeleton dynamics and selective trafficking of proteins to defined cellular destinations. In this regard, Smad Anchor for Receptor Activation (SARA) is an early endosome resident protein, where perform trafficking- associated functions. In addition, SARA is also involved in cell signaling, including the TGFβ-dependent pathway. Accordingly, SARA, and TGFβ signaling are required for proper axonal specification and migration of cortical neurons, unveiling a critical role for neuronal development. However, the cooperative action between the TGFβ pathway and SARA to this process has remained understudied. In this work, we show novel evidence suggesting a cross-talk between SARA and TGFβ pathway needed for proper polarization, axonal specification, growth and cortical migration of central neurons both in vitro and in vivo. Using microscopy tools and cultured hippocampal neurons, we show a local interaction between SARA and TβRI (TGFβ I receptor) at endosomes. In addition, SARA loss of function, induced by the expression of the dominant-negative SARA-F728A, over-activates the TGFβ pathway, most likely by preserving phosphorylated TβRI. Consequently, SARA-mediated activation of TGFβ pathway impacts on neuronal development, promoting axonal growth and cortical migration of neurons during brain development. Moreover, our data suggests that SARA basally prevents the activation of TβRI through the recruitment of the inhibitory complex PP1c/GADD34 in polarizing neurons. Together, these results propose that SARA is a negative regulator of the TGFβ pathway, being critical for a proper orchestration for neuronal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Rozés-Salvador
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra INIMEC-CONICET-UNC, Córdoba, Argentina.,Instituto de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Nacional de Villa María (UNVM), Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Carlos Wilson
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra INIMEC-CONICET-UNC, Córdoba, Argentina.,Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Biomédicas de Córdoba (IUCBC), Córdoba, Argentina
| | - Cristina Olmos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Christian Gonzalez-Billault
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences and Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Geroscience Center for Brain Health and Metabolism, Santiago, Chile.,The Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA, United States
| | - Cecilia Conde
- Instituto de Investigación Médica Mercedes y Martín Ferreyra INIMEC-CONICET-UNC, Córdoba, Argentina
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3
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ROY PRITIKUMAR, ROY AMITKUMAR, KHAILOV EVGENIIN, AL BASIR FAHAD, GRIGORIEVA ELLINAV. A MODEL OF THE OPTIMAL IMMUNOTHERAPY OF PSORIASIS BY INTRODUCING IL-10 AND IL-22 INHIBITORS. J BIOL SYST 2020; 28:609-639. [DOI: 10.1142/s0218339020500084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023]
Abstract
Psoriasis is a chronic skin disease in which the process of hyper-proliferation (excessive division) of skin cells starts. Externally, psoriasis appears as red papules, on the surface of which there are scales of white–gray color. There is substantial evidence that T-helper cells take vital accountability for creating the hyper-proliferation of keratinocytes (skin cells), which causes itching of skin patches. In this paper, we propose a mathematical model describing the concentrations of T-helper and keratinocyte cell populations to predict cellular behaviors for psoriasis regulation under normal or anomalous immune circumstances. Local and global asymptotic stabilities of the model equilibria are investigated. Additionally, by introducing two scalar bounded controls into the model, the effect of combined immunotherapy using IL-10 and IL-22 inhibitors is analyzed. The optimal control problem of minimizing the cost of immune therapy and simultaneous optimizing the effect of this therapy on T-helper cells and keratinocytes proliferation is formulated and solved by applying the Pontryagin maximum principle. Within the restrictions of the proposed model, the obtained analytical and numerical outcomes suggest that the optimal strategy of injecting IL-10 and IL-22 inhibitors can be effective for psoriasis treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- PRITI KUMAR ROY
- Centre for Mathematical Biology and Ecology, Department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - AMIT KUMAR ROY
- Centre for Mathematical Biology and Ecology, Department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - EVGENII N. KHAILOV
- Faculty of Computational Mathematics and Cybernetics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119992, Russia
| | - FAHAD AL BASIR
- Department of Mathematics, Asansol Girls College, Asansol-4, West Bengal 713304, India
| | - ELLINA V. GRIGORIEVA
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Sciences, Texas Woman’s University, Denton, TX 76204, USA
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4
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Dodagatta-Marri E, Meyer DS, Reeves MQ, Paniagua R, To MD, Binnewies M, Broz ML, Mori H, Wu D, Adoumie M, Del Rosario R, Li O, Buchmann T, Liang B, Malato J, Arce Vargus F, Sheppard D, Hann BC, Mirza A, Quezada SA, Rosenblum MD, Krummel MF, Balmain A, Akhurst RJ. α-PD-1 therapy elevates Treg/Th balance and increases tumor cell pSmad3 that are both targeted by α-TGFβ antibody to promote durable rejection and immunity in squamous cell carcinomas. J Immunother Cancer 2019. [PMID: 30832732 DOI: 10.1186/s40425-018-0493-9.pmid:30832732;pmcid:pmc6399967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Checkpoint blockade immunotherapy has improved metastatic cancer patient survival, but response rates remain low. There is an unmet need to identify mechanisms and tools to circumvent resistance. In human patients, responses to checkpoint blockade therapy correlate with tumor mutation load, and intrinsic resistance associates with pre-treatment signatures of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), immunosuppression, macrophage chemotaxis and TGFβ signaling. METHODS To facilitate studies on mechanisms of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) evasion of checkpoint blockade immunotherapy, we sought to develop a novel panel of murine syngeneic SCC lines reflecting the heterogeneity of human cancer and its responses to immunotherapy. We characterized six Kras-driven cutaneous SCC lines with a range of mutation loads. Following implantation into syngeneic FVB mice, we examined multiple tumor responses to α-PD-1, α-TGFβ or combinatorial therapy, including tumor growth rate and regression, tumor immune cell composition, acquired tumor immunity, and the role of cytotoxic T cells and Tregs in immunotherapy responses. RESULTS We show that α-PD-1 therapy is ineffective in establishing complete regression (CR) of tumors in all six SCC lines, but causes partial tumor growth inhibition of two lines with the highest mutations loads, CCK168 and CCK169. α-TGFβ monotherapy results in 20% CR and 10% CR of established CCK168 and CCK169 tumors respectively, together with acquisition of long-term anti-tumor immunity. α-PD-1 synergizes with α-TGFβ, increasing CR rates to 60% (CCK168) and 20% (CCK169). α-PD-1 therapy enhances CD4 + Treg/CD4 + Th ratios and increases tumor cell pSmad3 expression in CCK168 SCCs, whereas α-TGFβ antibody administration attenuates these effects. We show that α-TGFβ acts in part through suppressing immunosuppressive Tregs induced by α-PD-1, that limit the anti-tumor activity of α-PD-1 monotherapy. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo, α-TGFβ acts directly on the tumor cell to attenuate EMT, to activate a program of gene expression that stimulates immuno-surveillance, including up regulation of genes encoding the tumor cell antigen presentation machinery. CONCLUSIONS We show that α-PD-1 not only initiates a tumor rejection program, but can induce a competing TGFβ-driven immuno-suppressive program. We identify new opportunities for α-PD-1/α-TGFβ combinatorial treatment of SCCs especially those with a high mutation load, high CD4+ T cell content and pSmad3 signaling. Our data form the basis for clinical trial of α-TGFβ/α-PD-1 combination therapy (NCT02947165).
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MESH Headings
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/pharmacology
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/therapeutic use
- Biomarkers
- CD4 Lymphocyte Count
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/drug therapy
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/etiology
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Drug Synergism
- Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition
- Humans
- Immunohistochemistry
- Lymphocyte Count
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/immunology
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/metabolism
- Programmed Cell Death 1 Receptor/antagonists & inhibitors
- Programmed Cell Death 1 Receptor/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Smad3 Protein/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/antagonists & inhibitors
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dodagatta-Marri
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - D S Meyer
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - M Q Reeves
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - R Paniagua
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Dermatology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - M D To
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - M Binnewies
- Department of Pathology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - M L Broz
- Department of Pathology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - H Mori
- Center for Comparative Medicine UC Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - D Wu
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - M Adoumie
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - R Del Rosario
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - O Li
- Department of Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - T Buchmann
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - B Liang
- Xoma Corporation, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - J Malato
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - F Arce Vargus
- Cancer Immunology Unit, Immune Regulation and Tumour Immunotherapy Lab, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - B C Hann
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - A Mirza
- Department of Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - S A Quezada
- Cancer Immunology Unit, Immune Regulation and Tumour Immunotherapy Lab, University College London, London, UK
| | - M D Rosenblum
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Dermatology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - M F Krummel
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pathology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- UCSF Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - A Balmain
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
- UCSF Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - R J Akhurst
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- UCSF Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Department of Anatomy, UCSF, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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5
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Dodagatta-Marri E, Meyer DS, Reeves MQ, Paniagua R, To MD, Binnewies M, Broz ML, Mori H, Wu D, Adoumie M, Del Rosario R, Li O, Buchmann T, Liang B, Malato J, Arce Vargus F, Sheppard D, Hann BC, Mirza A, Quezada SA, Rosenblum MD, Krummel MF, Balmain A, Akhurst RJ. α-PD-1 therapy elevates Treg/Th balance and increases tumor cell pSmad3 that are both targeted by α-TGFβ antibody to promote durable rejection and immunity in squamous cell carcinomas. J Immunother Cancer 2019; 7:62. [PMID: 30832732 PMCID: PMC6399967 DOI: 10.1186/s40425-018-0493-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Checkpoint blockade immunotherapy has improved metastatic cancer patient survival, but response rates remain low. There is an unmet need to identify mechanisms and tools to circumvent resistance. In human patients, responses to checkpoint blockade therapy correlate with tumor mutation load, and intrinsic resistance associates with pre-treatment signatures of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT), immunosuppression, macrophage chemotaxis and TGFβ signaling. METHODS To facilitate studies on mechanisms of squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) evasion of checkpoint blockade immunotherapy, we sought to develop a novel panel of murine syngeneic SCC lines reflecting the heterogeneity of human cancer and its responses to immunotherapy. We characterized six Kras-driven cutaneous SCC lines with a range of mutation loads. Following implantation into syngeneic FVB mice, we examined multiple tumor responses to α-PD-1, α-TGFβ or combinatorial therapy, including tumor growth rate and regression, tumor immune cell composition, acquired tumor immunity, and the role of cytotoxic T cells and Tregs in immunotherapy responses. RESULTS We show that α-PD-1 therapy is ineffective in establishing complete regression (CR) of tumors in all six SCC lines, but causes partial tumor growth inhibition of two lines with the highest mutations loads, CCK168 and CCK169. α-TGFβ monotherapy results in 20% CR and 10% CR of established CCK168 and CCK169 tumors respectively, together with acquisition of long-term anti-tumor immunity. α-PD-1 synergizes with α-TGFβ, increasing CR rates to 60% (CCK168) and 20% (CCK169). α-PD-1 therapy enhances CD4 + Treg/CD4 + Th ratios and increases tumor cell pSmad3 expression in CCK168 SCCs, whereas α-TGFβ antibody administration attenuates these effects. We show that α-TGFβ acts in part through suppressing immunosuppressive Tregs induced by α-PD-1, that limit the anti-tumor activity of α-PD-1 monotherapy. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo, α-TGFβ acts directly on the tumor cell to attenuate EMT, to activate a program of gene expression that stimulates immuno-surveillance, including up regulation of genes encoding the tumor cell antigen presentation machinery. CONCLUSIONS We show that α-PD-1 not only initiates a tumor rejection program, but can induce a competing TGFβ-driven immuno-suppressive program. We identify new opportunities for α-PD-1/α-TGFβ combinatorial treatment of SCCs especially those with a high mutation load, high CD4+ T cell content and pSmad3 signaling. Our data form the basis for clinical trial of α-TGFβ/α-PD-1 combination therapy (NCT02947165).
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MESH Headings
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/pharmacology
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/therapeutic use
- Biomarkers
- CD4 Lymphocyte Count
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/drug therapy
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/etiology
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/metabolism
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Drug Synergism
- Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition
- Humans
- Immunohistochemistry
- Lymphocyte Count
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/immunology
- Lymphocytes, Tumor-Infiltrating/metabolism
- Programmed Cell Death 1 Receptor/antagonists & inhibitors
- Programmed Cell Death 1 Receptor/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Smad3 Protein/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Helper-Inducer/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Regulatory/metabolism
- Transforming Growth Factor beta/antagonists & inhibitors
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Dodagatta-Marri
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - D. S. Meyer
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - M. Q. Reeves
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - R. Paniagua
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
- Department of Dermatology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - M. D. To
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - M. Binnewies
- Department of Pathology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - M. L. Broz
- Department of Pathology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - H. Mori
- Center for Comparative Medicine UC Davis, Davis, CA USA
| | - D. Wu
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - M. Adoumie
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - R. Del Rosario
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - O. Li
- Department of Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - T. Buchmann
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - B. Liang
- Xoma Corporation, Berkeley, CA USA
| | - J. Malato
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - F. Arce Vargus
- Cancer Immunology Unit, Immune Regulation and Tumour Immunotherapy Lab, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - B. C. Hann
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - A. Mirza
- Department of Medicine, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - S. A. Quezada
- Cancer Immunology Unit, Immune Regulation and Tumour Immunotherapy Lab, University College London, London, UK
| | - M. D. Rosenblum
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
- Department of Dermatology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - M. F. Krummel
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
- Department of Pathology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
- UCSF Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - A. Balmain
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
- UCSF Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
| | - R. J. Akhurst
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
- UCSF Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA USA
- Department of Anatomy, UCSF, San Francisco, CA USA
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6
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Fujiwara K, Inagaki Y, Soma M, Ozaki T, Nagase H. Mapping of new skin tumor susceptibility loci by a phenotype-driven congenic approach. Oncol Lett 2018; 16:6670-6676. [PMID: 30405807 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.9495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
As cancer susceptibility varies among mouse strains, mouse models are powerful tools for the identification of genes responsible for cancer development. Several cancer susceptibility loci have been mapped by genetic analysis using cancer-resistant and cancer-susceptible mouse strains. However, only a few corresponding genes for these loci have been identified, because most of the cancer susceptibility loci are low-penetrance alleles. We reported previously that wild-derived PWK mice showed no tumor development on treatment with the two-stage skin carcinogenesis protocol [induced by 7.12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA)/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)], and that this phenotype is dominant-resistant when crossed with the highly susceptible strain FVB. From the analysis of the F1 backcross generation between PWK and FVB, we have mapped the new significant locus Skts-fp1 on chromosome 4. In the present study, congenic strains were generated with the PWK resistance allele in the FVB background using a phenotype-driven approach, and sought to narrow down the candidate loci and find the responsible gene(s). One of the resistant mice in the N6 generation carried the remaining PWK allele on chromosomes 4, 7 and 11, and an association study using the progeny of this mouse suggested that the locus on chromosome 11 may affect the cancer susceptibility locus on chromosome 7. On the other hand, no skin tumor susceptibility locus was mapped on chromosome 11 as examined in N2 progeny. These findings suggest that there is at least one tumor-resistance gene on chromosome 7, the function of which could be regulated by gene(s) located on chromosome 11.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoko Fujiwara
- Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo 173-0032, Japan
| | - Yoshinori Inagaki
- Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo 173-0032, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Soma
- Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, Nihon University School of Medicine, Tokyo 173-0032, Japan.,Department of Internal Medicine, Sasaki Foundation Kyoundo Hospital, Tokyo 101-0062, Japan
| | - Toshinori Ozaki
- Laboratory of DNA Damage Signaling, Chiba Cancer Center Research Institute, Chiba 260-8717, Japan
| | - Hiroki Nagase
- Laboratory of Cancer Genetics, Chiba Cancer Center Research Institute, Chiba 260-8717, Japan
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7
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El-Hadidi HH, Hassan AS, El-Hanafy G, Amr KS, Abdelmesih SF, Abdelhamid MF. Transforming growth factor-β1 gene polymorphism in psoriasis vulgaris. Clin Cosmet Investig Dermatol 2018; 11:415-419. [PMID: 30174452 PMCID: PMC6110268 DOI: 10.2147/ccid.s171403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Background Increased transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) in the epidermis and serum has been found in psoriatic patients. The mechanism for this increase remains unclear. Objective To study the TGF-β1 gene polymorphism at codon 10 and its relation to psoriasis susceptibility in a sample of Egyptian patients. Materials and methods This cross-sectional study involved 70 patients with psoriasis vulgaris and 100 age- and sex- comparable healthy volunteers as a control group. Genomic DNA was prepared from peripheral blood lymphocytes from all subjects using QIAamp DNA mini kit (QIAGEN Inc., Germany). The TGF-β1 polymorphism was genotyped by PCR-based restricted fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis. Amplification of codon 10, located in exon 1 of TGFβ1 gene was done through PCR reaction using gene-specific primers. Results Statistically significant difference was found between psoriasis patient and controls as regards TGF-β1 (T869C) polymorphism (P=0.045). The presence of TT genotype was associated with a 3-fold risk of psoriasis compared to CC genotype (P=0.016, OR: 3.13 95% CI: 1.24–7.88). T allele was significantly more frequent in psoriasis patients (P=0.017). TGF-β1 gene mutation was significantly higher among psoriasis patients with positive family history (P=0.007). Conclusion TGF-β1 gene polymorphism at codon 10 (T869C) is significantly associated with susceptibility to psoriasis in Egyptian patients. This polymorphism is more common in patients with a positive family history of psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba H El-Hadidi
- Department of Dermatology, Kasr Al-Ainy University Hospitals, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Akmal S Hassan
- Department of Dermatology, Kasr Al-Ainy University Hospitals, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Ghada El-Hanafy
- Department of Dermatology, Kasr Al-Ainy University Hospitals, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Khalda S Amr
- Department of Molecular Genetics, National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt
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8
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Flanders KC, Yang YA, Herrmann M, Chen J, Mendoza N, Mirza AM, Wakefield LM. Quantitation of TGF-β proteins in mouse tissues shows reciprocal changes in TGF-β1 and TGF-β3 in normal vs neoplastic mammary epithelium. Oncotarget 2018; 7:38164-38179. [PMID: 27203217 PMCID: PMC5122380 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.9416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-βs (TGF-βs) regulate tissue homeostasis, and their expression is perturbed in many diseases. The three isoforms (TGF-β1, -β2, and -β3) have similar bioactivities in vitro but show distinct activities in vivo. Little quantitative information exists for expression of TGF-β isoform proteins in physiology or disease. We developed an optimized method to quantitate protein levels of the three isoforms, using a Luminex® xMAP®-based multianalyte assay following acid-ethanol extraction of tissues. Analysis of multiple tissues and plasma from four strains of adult mice showed that TGF-β1 is the predominant isoform with TGF-β2 being ~10-fold lower. There were no sex-specific differences in isoform expression, but some tissues showed inter-strain variation, particularly for TGF-β2. The only adult tissue expressing appreciable TGF-β3 was the mammary gland, where its levels were comparable to TGF-β1. In situ hybridization showed the luminal epithelium as the major source of all TGF-β isoforms in the normal mammary gland. TGF-β1 protein was 3-8-fold higher in three murine mammary tumor models than in normal mammary gland, while TGF-β3 protein was 2-3-fold lower in tumors than normal tissue, suggesting reciprocal regulation of these isoforms in mammary tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen C Flanders
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Yu-An Yang
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Michelle Herrmann
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - JinQiu Chen
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Nerissa Mendoza
- XOMA Corporation, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Amer M Mirza
- XOMA Corporation, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Lalage M Wakefield
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
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9
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Villalba M, Evans SR, Vidal-Vanaclocha F, Calvo A. Role of TGF-β in metastatic colon cancer: it is finally time for targeted therapy. Cell Tissue Res 2017; 370:29-39. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-017-2633-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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10
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Sun N, Taguchi A, Hanash S. Switching Roles of TGF-β in Cancer Development: Implications for Therapeutic Target and Biomarker Studies. J Clin Med 2016; 5:jcm5120109. [PMID: 27916872 PMCID: PMC5184782 DOI: 10.3390/jcm5120109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
TGF-β induces complicated and even opposite responses in numerous biological processes, e.g., tumor suppression in pre-malignant cells and metastasis promotion in cancer cells. However, the cellular contextual determinants of these different TGF-β roles remain elusive, and the driver genes triggering the determinants’ changes have not been identified. Recently, however, several findings have provided new insights on the contextual determinants of Smads in TGF-β’s biological processes. These novel switches and their effectors may serve as prognostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets of TGF-β-mediated cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Sun
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Ayumu Taguchi
- Department of Translational Molecular Pathology, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Samir Hanash
- Department of Clinical Cancer Prevention, the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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11
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Reilly KM. The Effects of Genetic Background of Mouse Models of Cancer: Friend or Foe? Cold Spring Harb Protoc 2016; 2016:pdb.top076273. [PMID: 26933251 DOI: 10.1101/pdb.top076273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Over the past century, mice have been selectively bred to give rise to the strains used in biomedical research today. Mouse models of cancer allow researchers to control variables of diet, environment, and genetic heterogeneity to better dissect the role of these factors in cancer in humans. Because of the important role of genetic background in cancer, the strain of the mouse can introduce confounding results in studies of mouse models if not properly controlled. Conversely, genetic variation between strains can also provide important new insights into cancer mechanisms. Here, the sources of genetic heterogeneity in mouse models are reviewed, with an explanation of how heterogeneity modifies cancer phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlyne M Reilly
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, Maryland 21702
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12
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Expression quantitative trait loci and receptor pharmacology implicate Arg1 and the GABA-A receptor as therapeutic targets in neuroblastoma. Cell Rep 2014; 9:1034-46. [PMID: 25437558 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2014.09.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of targeted therapeutics for neuroblastoma, the third most common tumor in children, has been limited by a poor understanding of growth signaling mechanisms unique to the peripheral nerve precursors from which tumors arise. In this study, we combined genetics with gene-expression analysis in the peripheral sympathetic nervous system to implicate arginase 1 and GABA signaling in tumor formation in vivo. In human neuroblastoma cells, either blockade of ARG1 or benzodiazepine-mediated activation of GABA-A receptors induced apoptosis and inhibited mitogenic signaling through AKT and MAPK. These results suggest that ARG1 and GABA influence both neural development and neuroblastoma and that benzodiazepines in clinical use may have potential applications for neuroblastoma therapy.
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13
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Mullane K, Winquist RJ, Williams M. Translational paradigms in pharmacology and drug discovery. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 87:189-210. [PMID: 24184503 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The translational sciences represent the core element in enabling and utilizing the output from the biomedical sciences and to improving drug discovery metrics by reducing the attrition rate as compounds move from preclinical research to clinical proof of concept. Key to understanding the basis of disease causality and to developing therapeutics is an ability to accurately diagnose the disease and to identify and develop safe and effective therapeutics for its treatment. The former requires validated biomarkers and the latter, qualified targets. Progress has been hampered by semantic issues, specifically those that define the end product, and by scientific issues that include data reliability, an overt reductionistic cultural focus and a lack of hierarchically integrated data gathering and systematic analysis. A necessary framework for these activities is represented by the discipline of pharmacology, efforts and training in which require recognition and revitalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Mullane
- Profectus Pharma Consulting Inc., San Jose, CA, United States.
| | - Raymond J Winquist
- Department of Pharmacology, Vertex Pharmaceuticals Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Michael Williams
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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14
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Abstract
The concept of the tumour microenvironment recognizes that the interplay between cancer cells and stromal cells is a crucial determinant of cancer growth. In this Perspectives article, we propose the novel concept that the tumour microenvironment is built through rate-limiting steps during multistage carcinogenesis. Construction of a 'precancer niche' is a necessary and early step that is required for initiated cells to survive and evolve; subsequent niche expansion and maturation accompany tumour promotion and progression, respectively. As such, cancer niches represent an emergent property of a tumour that could be a robust target for cancer prevention and therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Helen Barcellos-Hoff
- The Department of Radiation Oncology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA.
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15
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Epistatic interactions between Tgfb1 and genetic loci, Tgfbm2 and Tgfbm3, determine susceptibility to an asthmatic stimulus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2012; 109:18042-7. [PMID: 23064636 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1205374109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
TGFβ activation and signaling have been extensively studied in experimental models of allergen-induced asthma as potential therapeutic targets during chronic or acute phases of the disease. Outcomes of experimental manipulation of TGFβ activity have been variable, in part due to use of different model systems. Using an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced mouse model of asthma, we here show that innate variation within TGFβ1 genetic modifier loci, Tgfbm2 and Tgfbm3, alters disease susceptibility. Specifically, Tgfbm2(129) and Tgfbm3(C57) synergize to reverse accentuated airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR) caused by low TGFβ1 levels in Tgfb1(+/-) mice of the NIH/OlaHsd strain. Moreover, epistatic interaction between Tgfbm2(129) and Tgfbm3(C57) uncouples the inflammatory response to ovalbumin from those of airway remodeling and airway hyperresponsiveness, illustrating independent genetic control of these responses. We conclude that differential inheritance of genetic variants of Tgfbm genes alters biological responses to reduced TGFβ1 signaling in an experimental asthma model. TGFβ antagonists for treatment of lung diseases might therefore give diverse outcomes, dependent on genetic variation.
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16
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Abstract
Many drugs that target transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) signalling have been developed, some of which have reached Phase III clinical trials for a number of disease applications. Preclinical and clinical studies indicate the utility of these agents in fibrosis and oncology, particularly in augmentation of existing cancer therapies, such as radiation and chemotherapy, as well as in tumour vaccines. There are also reports of specialized applications, such as the reduction of vascular symptoms of Marfan syndrome. Here, we consider why the TGFβ signalling pathway is a drug target, the potential clinical applications of TGFβ inhibition, the issues arising with anti-TGFβ therapy and how these might be tackled using personalized approaches to dosing, monitoring of biomarkers as well as brief and/or localized drug-dosing regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosemary J Akhurst
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, USA.
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17
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Connolly EC, Freimuth J, Akhurst RJ. Complexities of TGF-β targeted cancer therapy. Int J Biol Sci 2012; 8:964-78. [PMID: 22811618 PMCID: PMC3399319 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.4564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 06/23/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Many advanced tumors produce excessive amounts of Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) which, in normal epithelial cells, is a potent growth inhibitor. However, in oncogenically activated cells, the homeostatic action of TGF-β is often diverted along alternative pathways. Hence, TGF-β signaling elicits protective or tumor suppressive effects during the early growth-sensitive stages of tumorigenesis. However, later in tumor development when carcinoma cells become refractory to TGF-β-mediated growth inhibition, the tumor cell responds by stimulating pathways with tumor progressing effects. At late stages of malignancy, tumor progression is driven by TGF-β overload. The tumor microenvironment is a target of TGF-β action that stimulates tumor progression via pro-tumorigenic effects on vascular, immune, and fibroblastic cells. Bone is one of the richest sources of TGF-β in the body and a common site for dissemination of breast cancer metastases. Osteoclastic degradation of bone matrix, which accompanies establishment and growth of metastases, triggers further release of bone-derived TGF-β. This leads to a vicious positive feedback of tumor progression, driven by ever increasing levels of TGF-β released from both the tumor and bone matrix. It is for this reason, that pharmaceutical companies have developed therapeutic agents that block TGF-β signaling. Nonetheless, the choice of drug design and dosing strategy can affect the efficacy of TGF-β therapeutics. This review will describe pre-clinical and clinical data of four major classes of TGF-β inhibitor, namely i) ligand traps, ii) antisense oligonucleotides, iii) receptor kinase inhibitors and iv) peptide aptamers. Long term dosing strategies with TGF-β inhibitors may be ill-advised, since this class of drug has potentially highly pleiotropic activity, and development of drug resistance might potentiate tumor progression. Current paradigms for the use of TGF-β inhibitors in oncology have therefore moved towards the use of combinatorial therapies and short term dosing, with considerable promise for the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C. Connolly
- 1. UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at San Francisco, California 94143-0512, USA
| | - Julia Freimuth
- 1. UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at San Francisco, California 94143-0512, USA
| | - Rosemary J. Akhurst
- 1. UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at San Francisco, California 94143-0512, USA
- 2. Department of Anatomy, University of California at San Francisco, California 94143-0512, USA
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18
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Shen J, Abel EL, Riggs PK, Repass J, Hensley SC, Schroeder LJ, Temple A, Chau A, McClellan SA, Rho O, Kiguchi K, Ward MD, Semmes OJ, Person MD, Angel JM, Digiovanni J. Proteomic and pathway analyses reveal a network of inflammatory genes associated with differences in skin tumor promotion susceptibility in DBA/2 and C57BL/6 mice. Carcinogenesis 2012; 33:2208-19. [PMID: 22782996 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgs213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic susceptibility to two-stage skin carcinogenesis is known to vary significantly among different stocks and strains of mice. In an effort to identify specific protein changes or altered signaling pathways associated with skin tumor promotion susceptibility, a proteomic approach was used to examine and identify proteins that were differentially expressed in epidermis between promotion-sensitive DBA/2 and promotion-resistant C57BL/6 mice following treatment with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). We identified 19 differentially expressed proteins of which 5 were the calcium-binding proteins annexin A1, parvalbumin α, S100A8, S100A9, and S100A11. Further analyses revealed that S100A8 and S100A9 protein levels were also similarly differentially upregulated in epidermis of DBA/2 versus C57BL/6 mice following topical treatment with two other skin tumor promoters, okadaic acid and chrysarobin. Pathway analysis of all 19 identified proteins from the present study suggested that these proteins were components of several networks that included inflammation-associated proteins known to be involved in skin tumor promotion (e.g. TNF-α, NFκB). Follow-up studies revealed that Tnf, Nfkb1, Il22, Il1b, Cxcl1, Cxcl2 and Cxcl5 mRNAs were highly expressed in epidermis of DBA/2 compared with C57BL/6 mice at 24h following treatment with TPA. Furthermore, NFκB (p65) was also highly activated at the same time point (as measured by phosphorylation at ser276) in epidermis of DBA/2 mice compared with C57BL/6 mice. Taken together, the present data suggest that differential expression of genes involved in inflammatory pathways in epidermis may play a key role in genetic differences in susceptibility to skin tumor promotion in DBA/2 and C57BL/6 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjun Shen
- Department of Molecular Carcinogenesis, Science Park, The University of Texas, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center Smithville, TX 78957, USA.
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19
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Connolly EC, Akhurst RJ. The complexities of TGF-β action during mammary and squamous cell carcinogenesis. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2011; 12:2138-49. [PMID: 21619543 PMCID: PMC3520605 DOI: 10.2174/138920111798808284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2010] [Revised: 01/28/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Many advanced tumors produce excess amounts of Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β), which is a potent growth inhibitor of normal epithelial cells. However, in tumors its homeostatic action on cells can be diverted along several alternative pathways. Thus, TGF-β signaling has been reported to elicit a preventative or tumor suppressive effect during the earlier stages of tumorigenesis, but later in tumor development, when carcinoma cells become refractory to TGF-β-mediated growth inhibition, response to TGF-β signaling elicits predominantly tumor progressing effects. This is not a simple switch from suppression to progression, but more like a rheostat, involving multiple complementary and antagonizing activities that slowly tip the balance from one to the other. This review will focus on the multiple activities of TGF-β in regulation of two epithelial tumor types, namely squamous cell carcinoma and breast cancer. Basic findings in current mouse models of cancer are presented, as well as a discussion of the complicating issue of outcome of altered TGFβ signaling depending on genetic variability between mouse strains. This review also discusses the role TGF-β within the tumor microenvironment particularly its ability to polarize the microenvironment towards a pro-tumorigenic milieu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C. Connolly
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
| | - Rosemary J. Akhurst
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
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20
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Connolly EC, Saunier EF, Quigley D, Luu MT, Sapio AD, Hann B, Yingling JM, Akhurst RJ. Outgrowth of drug-resistant carcinomas expressing markers of tumor aggression after long-term TβRI/II kinase inhibition with LY2109761. Cancer Res 2011; 71:2339-49. [PMID: 21282335 PMCID: PMC3059399 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-2941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
TGF-β is produced excessively by many solid tumors and can drive malignant progression through multiple effects on the tumor cell and microenvironment. TGF-β signaling pathway inhibitors have shown efficacy in preclinical models of metastatic cancer. Here, we investigated the effect of systemic LY2109761, a TGF-β type I/II receptor (TβRI/TβRII) kinase inhibitor, in both a tumor allograft model and the mouse skin model of de novo chemically induced carcinogenesis in vivo. Systemic LY2109761 administration disrupted tumor vascular architecture and reduced myofibroblast differentiation of E4 skin carcinoma cells in a tumor allograft. In the 7,12-dimethyl-benzanthracene plus phorbol myristate acetate-induced skin chemical carcinogenesis model, acute dosing of established naive primary carcinomas with LY2109761 (100 mg/kg) every 8 hours for 10 days (100 mg/kg) diminished phospho-Smad2 (P-Smad2) levels and marginally decreased the expression of inflammatory and invasive markers. Sustained exposure to LY2109761 (100 mg/kg/d) throughout the tumor outgrowth phase had no effect on carcinoma latency or incidence. However, molecular analysis of resultant carcinomas by microarray gene expression, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry suggests that long-term LY2109761 exposure leads to the outgrowth of carcinomas with elevated P-Smad2 levels that do not respond to drug. This is the first description of acquired resistance to a small-molecule inhibitor of the TβRI/TβRII kinase. Resultant carcinomas were more aggressive and inflammatory in nature, with delocalized E-cadherin and elevated expression of Il23a, laminin V, and matrix metalloproteinases. Therefore, TGF-β inhibitors might be clinically useful for applications requiring acute administration, but long-term patient exposure to such drugs should be undertaken with caution.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blotting, Western
- Cadherins/genetics
- Cadherins/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/genetics
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/metabolism
- Carcinoma, Squamous Cell/pathology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/genetics
- Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition/drug effects
- Female
- Gene Expression Profiling
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects
- Immunohistochemistry
- Male
- Mice
- Myofibroblasts/drug effects
- Myofibroblasts/metabolism
- Myofibroblasts/pathology
- Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis
- Papilloma/genetics
- Papilloma/metabolism
- Papilloma/pathology
- Phosphorylation
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism
- Pyrazoles/pharmacokinetics
- Pyrazoles/pharmacology
- Pyrroles/pharmacokinetics
- Pyrroles/pharmacology
- Receptor, Transforming Growth Factor-beta Type I
- Receptor, Transforming Growth Factor-beta Type II
- Receptors, Transforming Growth Factor beta/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Transforming Growth Factor beta/metabolism
- Smad2 Protein/genetics
- Smad2 Protein/metabolism
- Time Factors
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C. Connolly
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
| | - Elise F. Saunier
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
| | - David Quigley
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
| | - Minh Thu Luu
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
| | - Angela De Sapio
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
| | - Byron Hann
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
| | | | - Rosemary J. Akhurst
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
- Department of Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, California 94143-0512. USA
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21
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Quan L, Stassen APM, Ruivenkamp CAL, van Wezel T, Fijneman RJA, Hutson A, Kakarlapudi N, Hart AAM, Demant P. Most lung and colon cancer susceptibility genes are pair-wise linked in mice, humans and rats. PLoS One 2011; 6:e14727. [PMID: 21390212 PMCID: PMC3044722 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2010] [Accepted: 01/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic predisposition controlled by susceptibility quantitative trait loci (QTLs) contributes to a large proportion of common cancers. Studies of genetics of cancer susceptibility, however, did not address systematically the relationship between susceptibility to cancers in different organs. We present five sets of data on genetic architecture of colon and lung cancer susceptibility in mice, humans and rats. They collectively show that the majority of genes for colon and lung cancer susceptibility are linked pair-wise and are likely identical or related. Four CcS/Dem recombinant congenic strains, each differing from strain BALB/cHeA by a different small random subset of ±12.5% of genes received from strain STS/A, suggestively show either extreme susceptibility or extreme resistance for both colon and lung tumors, which is unlikely if the two tumors were controlled by independent susceptibility genes. Indeed, susceptibility to lung cancer (Sluc) loci underlying the extreme susceptibility or resistance of such CcS/Dem strains, mapped in 226 (CcS-10×CcS-19)F2 mice, co-localize with susceptibility to colon cancer (Scc) loci. Analysis of additional Sluc loci that were mapped in OcB/Dem strains and Scc loci in CcS/Dem strains, respectively, shows their widespread pair-wise co-localization (P = 0.0036). Finally, the majority of published human and rat colon cancer susceptibility genes map to chromosomal regions homologous to mouse Sluc loci. 12/12 mouse Scc loci, 9/11 human and 5/7 rat colon cancer susceptibility loci are close to a Sluc locus or its homologous site, forming 21 clusters of lung and colon cancer susceptibility genes from one, two or three species. Our data shows that cancer susceptibility QTLs can have much broader biological effects than presently appreciated. It also demonstrates the power of mouse genetics to predict human susceptibility genes. Comparison of molecular mechanisms of susceptibility genes that are organ-specific and those with trans-organ effects can provide a new dimension in understanding individual cancer susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Quan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
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22
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Fujiwara K, Wie B, Elliott R, Nagase H. New outbred colony derived from Mus musculus castaneus to identify skin tumor susceptibility loci. Mol Carcinog 2010; 49:653-61. [PMID: 20564342 DOI: 10.1002/mc.20635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Susceptibility to tumor development varies among mice strains. Using inbred NIH and wild-derived outbred Mus spretus backcrosses, skin cancer-susceptibility loci were mapped [Nagase et al. 1995. Nat Genet 10: 424-429; Nagase et al. 1999. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96: 15032-15037], and Skts13 was identified as the Aurka gene using a conventional linkage in conjunction with haplotype analysis [Ewart-Toland et al. 2003. Nat Genet 34: 403-412]. In the present study, we examined another wild-derived outbred Mus musculus castaneus in which 10.3% of the analyzed SNPs showed heterogeneity among the colony. All mice examined were completely resistant to the two-stage skin carcinogenesis protocol using 7.12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA)/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), and this resistant phenotype was dominant when we crossed them with the highly susceptible strain FVB. By scanning F1 backcross progeny between M. m. castaneus and FVB, we found a highly significant linkage for tumor multiplicity on Chromosome 4, which was overlapped with the Skts-fp1 locus, found in the previous study using FVB and PWK cross [Fujiwara et al. 2007. BMC Genet 8: 39]. The linkage was observed in all pedigrees from the five F1 founders, while the linkage for papilloma size on Chromosome 4 was mapped only in pedigrees from founders 1 and 2. By scanning the whole Chromosome 4 of the five F1 founders, founders 1- and 2-specific haplotype block was found between D4Mit293 (20.6 Mbp) and D4Mit171 (22.4 Mbp). In this study we exploited the outbred nature of M. m. castaneus stock to identify a haplotype contributing to papilloma size on mouse Chromosome 4. These data illustrate the strength of using outbred mice in identification of the genetic component of a mouse complex trait such as the skin cancer-susceptibility phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoko Fujiwara
- Department of Cancer Genetics, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York
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23
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Wharton K, Derynck R. TGFbeta family signaling: novel insights in development and disease. Development 2009; 136:3691-7. [PMID: 19855012 DOI: 10.1242/dev.040584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Advances in our understanding of the many levels of regulation of TGFbeta and BMP signaling were reported at the recent FASEB Summer Conference entitled ;The TGFbeta Superfamily: Development and Disease', which was held in Carefree, Arizona, USA, on the northern edge of the Sonoran Desert. This conference was the fifth meeting in a biannual FASEB conference series and, as with the previous meetings, brought together biochemists, geneticists, developmental and tissue biologists interested in the inter-workings of TGFbeta/BMP signaling pathways and in the consequences of these pathways going awry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristi Wharton
- Department of Molecular Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
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24
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Abstract
Deregulation of transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) signaling has been reported in human psoriasis. Our recent study using a keratin 5 promoter (K5.TGFbeta1(wt)) showed that transgenic mice expressing wild-type TGFbeta1 in the epidermis developed severe skin inflammation. Additional experimental data further support a direct role for TGFbeta1 overexpression in skin inflammation. First, we temporally induced TGFbeta1 expression in keratinocytes in our gene-switch TGFbeta1(wt) transgenic mice and found inflammation severity correlated with TGFbeta1(wt) transgene expression. Second, deletion of T cells in K5.TGFbeta1(wt) mice significantly delayed skin inflammation and associated epidermal hyperplasia/hyperkeratosis. Third, therapeutic approaches effective for human psoriasis, that is, Etanercept and Rosiglitazone, are effective in alleviating the symptoms observed in K5.TGFbeta1(wt) mice. Future studies will analyze specific mechanisms and identify key factors in TGFbeta1-induced skin inflammation. Our mouse models will provide a useful tool for understanding the molecular mechanisms of inflammatory skin disorders in which TGFbeta1 is overexpressed.
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Systems genetics analysis of cancer susceptibility: from mouse models to humans. Nat Rev Genet 2009; 10:651-7. [PMID: 19636343 DOI: 10.1038/nrg2617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Genetic studies of cancer susceptibility have shown that most heritable risk cannot be explained by the main effects of common alleles. This may be due to unknown gene-gene or gene-environment interactions and the complex roles of many genes at different stages of cancer. Studies using mouse models of cancer suggest that methods that integrate genetic analysis and genomic networks with knowledge of cancer biology can help to extend our understanding of heritable cancer susceptibility.
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Dejager L, Libert C, Montagutelli X. Thirty years of Mus spretus: a promising future. Trends Genet 2009; 25:234-41. [PMID: 19361882 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2009.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2008] [Revised: 03/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Extensive genetic polymorphisms in Mus spretus have ensured its widespread use in many areas of genetics. With the recent increase in the number of single nucleotide polymorphisms available for laboratory mouse strains, M. spretus is becoming less appealing, in particular for genetic mapping. Although M. spretus mice are aggressive and poor breeders, they have a bright future because they provide phenotypes unobserved in laboratory strains, and tools are available for modifying their genome and dissecting the genetic architecture of complex traits. Furthermore, they provide information on fundamental genetic questions, such as the details of evolution of genomes and speciation. Here, we examine the use of M. spretus from these perspectives. The impending completion of the M. spretus genome sequence will synergize these advantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lien Dejager
- Department for Molecular Biomedical Research, VIB, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, B-9052 Ghent, Belgium
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Barcellos-Hoff MH, Akhurst RJ. Transforming growth factor-beta in breast cancer: too much, too late. Breast Cancer Res 2009; 11:202. [PMID: 19291273 PMCID: PMC2687712 DOI: 10.1186/bcr2224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of transforming growth factor (TGF)β to breast cancer has been studied from a myriad perspectives since seminal studies more than two decades ago. Although the action of TGFβ as a canonical tumor suppressor in breast is without a doubt, there is compelling evidence that TGFβ is frequently subverted in a malignant plexus that drives breast cancer. New knowledge that TGFβ regulates the DNA damage response, which underlies cancer therapy, reveals another facet of TGFβ biology that impedes cancer control. Too much TGFβ, too late in cancer progression is the fundamental motivation for pharmaceutical inhibition.
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McGrath LJ, Ingman WV, Robker RL, Robertson SA. Exogenous transforming growth factor beta1 replacement and fertility in male Tgfb1 null mutant mice. Reprod Fertil Dev 2009; 21:561-70. [DOI: 10.1071/rd08294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2008] [Accepted: 02/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Analysis of Tgfb1 null mutant mice has demonstrated that the cytokine transforming growth factor β1 (TGFB1) has essential non-redundant roles in fertility. The present study attempted to alleviate the infertility phenotype of Tgfb1 null mutant male mice by administration of exogenous TGFB1, either orally by colostrum feeding or subcutaneously by delivery of recombinant human latent TGFB1 (rhLTGFB1) via osmotic mini-pumps. Bovine colostrum and fresh unpasteurised bovine milk were found to be rich sources of TGFB1 and TGFB2; however, feeding Tgfb1 null mutant mice colostrum for 2 days failed to raise serum levels of TGFB1. Administration of rhLTGFB1 (~150 μg in total) over 14 days to Tgfb1 null mutant mice resulted in detectable TGFB1 in serum; however, mean levels remained 10-fold less than in Tgfb1 heterozygous mice. After 7 days and 14 days of rhLTGFB1 administration, serum testosterone, spontaneous non-contact erections and mating behaviour were assessed. Despite the increased serum TGFB1, administration of rhLTGFB1 to Tgfb1 null mutant mice failed to improve these fertility parameters. It is concluded that sustained restoration of circulating latent TGFB1 to levels approaching the normal physiological range does not rescue the infertility phenotype caused by TGFB1 deficiency. Reproductive function in male Tgfb1 null mutant mice may not respond to systemic TGFB1 supplementation due to a requirement for local sources of TGFB1 at the site of action in the reproductive tract, or perturbed development during the neonatal period or puberty such that adult reproductive function is permanently impaired.
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Mahler KL, Fleming JL, Dworkin AM, Gladman N, Cho HY, Mao JH, Balmain A, Toland AE. Sequence divergence of Mus spretus and Mus musculus across a skin cancer susceptibility locus. BMC Genomics 2008; 9:626. [PMID: 19105829 PMCID: PMC2628916 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-9-626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2008] [Accepted: 12/23/2008] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mus spretus diverged from Mus musculus over one million years ago. These mice are genetically and phenotypically divergent. Despite the value of utilizing M. musculus and M. spretus for quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping, relatively little genomic information on M. spretus exists, and most of the available sequence and polymorphic data is for one strain of M. spretus, Spret/Ei. In previous work, we mapped fifteen loci for skin cancer susceptibility using four different M. spretus by M. musculus F1 backcrosses. One locus, skin tumor susceptibility 5 (Skts5) on chromosome 12, shows strong linkage in one cross. RESULTS To identify potential candidate genes for Skts5, we sequenced 65 named and unnamed genes and coding elements mapping to the peak linkage area in outbred spretus, Spret/EiJ, FVB/NJ, and NIH/Ola. We identified polymorphisms in 62 of 65 genes including 122 amino acid substitutions. To look for polymorphisms consistent with the linkage data, we sequenced exons with amino acid polymorphisms in two additional M. spretus strains and one additional M. musculus strain generating 40.1 kb of sequence data. Eight candidate variants were identified that fit with the linkage data. To determine the degree of variation across M. spretus, we conducted phylogenetic analyses. The relatedness of the M. spretus strains at this locus is consistent with the proximity of region of ascertainment of the ancestral mice. CONCLUSION Our analyses suggest that, if Skts5 on chromosome 12 is representative of other regions in the genome, then published genomic data for Spret/EiJ are likely to be of high utility for genomic studies in other M. spretus strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly L Mahler
- Division of Human Cancer Genetics, Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology and Medical Genetics, OSU Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Ohio State University, OH, USA.
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New chemically induced skin tumour susceptibility loci identified in a mouse backcross between FVB and dominant resistant PWK. BMC Genet 2007; 8:39. [PMID: 17598916 PMCID: PMC1948013 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2156-8-39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2007] [Accepted: 06/28/2007] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A variety of skin cancer susceptibility among mouse strains has allowed identification of genes responsible for skin cancer development. Fifteen Skts loci for skin tumour susceptibility have been mapped so far by using the two-stage skin carcinogenesis model [induced by 7.12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA)/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)]. A few responsible genes have been identified using wild-derived dominant resistant Mus spretus mice, and one has been confirmed as a low penetrance cancer susceptibility gene in a variety of human cancers. Results In the present study, we found that wild-derived PWK mice developed no tumour by treatment with the two-stage skin carcinogenesis protocol. This phenotype is dominant resistant when crossed with the highly susceptible strain FVB. By analyzing the F1 backcross generation between PWK and FVB, we found empirical evidence of significant linkage at the new loci Skts-fp1 on chromosome 4 and suggestive linkage on chromosomes 1, 3, 11, 12 and 14 for skin tumour susceptibility. Skts-fp1 includes the Skts7 interval, which was previously mapped by a Mus spretus and NIH backcross. We also observed suggestive linkage on chromosomes 1 and 2 in the female population only, while suggestive linkage on chromosomes 14 and 15 only was observed in the male population. A significant genetic interaction was seen between markers of D11Mit339 and D16Mit14. Conclusion Analysis of this new cross may facilitate the identification of genes responsible for mouse skin cancer susceptibility and may reveal their biological interactions.
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de Koning JP, Wakabayashi Y, Nagase H, Mao JH, Balmain A. Convergence of congenic mapping and allele-specific alterations in tumors for the resolution of the Skts1 skin tumor susceptibility locus. Oncogene 2007; 26:4171-8. [PMID: 17311004 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1210206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Although several familial cancer genes with high-penetrance mutations have been identified, the major genetic component of susceptibility to sporadic cancers is attributable to low-penetrance alleles. These 'weak' tumor susceptibility genes do not segregate as single Mendelian traits and are therefore difficult to find in studies of human populations. Previously, we have proposed that a combination of germline mapping and analysis of allele-specific imbalance in tumors may be used to refine the locations of susceptibility genes using mouse models of cancer. Here, we have used linkage analysis and congenic mouse strains to map the major skin tumor susceptibility locus Skts1 within a genetic interval of 0.9 cM on proximal chromosome 7. This interval lies in an apparent recombination cold spot, and corresponds to a physical distance of about 15 Mb. We therefore, used patterns of allele-specific imbalances in tumors from backcross and congenic mice to refine the location of Skts1. We demonstrate that this single tumor modifier locus has a dramatic effect on the allelic preference for imbalance on chromosome 7, with at least 90% of tumors from the congenics showing preferential gain of markers on the chromosome carrying the susceptibility variant. Importantly, these alterations enabled us to refine the location of Skts1 at higher resolution than that attained using the congenic mice. We conclude that low-penetrance susceptibility genes can have strong effects on patterns of allele-specific somatic genetic changes in tumors, and that analysis of the directionality of these somatic events provides an important and rapid route to identification of germline genetic variants that confer increased cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P de Koning
- UCSF Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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Abstract
The transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) signaling pathway regulates several biological processes including cellular proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, migration, and extracellular matrix deposition. Ligand and receptor family members signal through two main Smad signaling branches, TGFbeta/activin to Smad2/3 (Sma and MAD-related proteins) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) to Smad1/5. At the molecular level, TGFbeta acts by modifying cytoskeletal organization and ultimately regulating expression of specific target genes. Germline disruption of TGFbeta signaling leads to several types of hereditary congenital malformation or dysfunction of the skeletal, muscular and/or cardiovascular systems, and to cancer predisposition syndromes. In this review, the molecular etiology of TGFbeta-associated disorders is examined, together with a discussion of clinical overlap between syndromes and possible biological explanations underlying the variable penetrance and expressivity of clinical characteristics. Increasing our understanding of the molecular etiology underlying genotype-phenotype correlations will ultimately provide a molecular-based approach that should result in better prognostic tools, smart therapeutics and individualized disease management, not only for these rare syndromes, but for more generalized disorders of the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems and cancer. The clinical consequence of TGFbeta signaling mutations appears to depend on environmental factors and on the basal levels of ongoing signaling transduction networks specific to each individual. In this respect, genetic background might be a central factor in determining disease outcome and treatment strategy for TGFbeta-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly A Harradine
- Cancer Research Institute, Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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