Reconstitution of bacterial outer membrane TonB-dependent transporters in planar lipid bilayer membranes

Natural sideromycins and siderophore-conjugated natural products as inspiration for novel antimicrobial agents

The widespread emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Gram-negative pathogens has posed a major challenge to clinical anti-infective therapy, and new effective treatments are urgently needed. A promising "Trojan horse" strategy involves conjugating antibiotics to siderophore molecules; the resulting siderophore-antibiotic conjugates (SACs) deliver antibiotics directly into cells by hijacking the sophisticated iron transport systems of Gram-negative bacteria, bypassing the outer membrane permeability barrier to enhance uptake and antibacterial efficacy. The clinical release of the first siderophore-antibiotic conjugate, cefiderocol, has aroused tremendous interest in the field among researchers and pharmaceutical companies. To date, most of the reported SACs have focused on the conjugation of siderophores to traditional antibacterial drugs. However, these antibacterial agents designed on the basis of the traditional antibiotic skeleton theoretically bear the risk of cross-resistance caused by shared molecular scaffolds. In this case, exploring novel natural product antibacterial conjugate scaffolds to circumvent the risk of early cross-resistance represents a presumably more sustainable approach for the development of SACs. In this review, we systematically summarize the research progress on siderophore-natural product conjugates as novel antimicrobial agents reported since 2010. Additionally, we propose challenges to be overcome and prospects for future development in this field.

Gating of β-Barrel Protein Pores, Porins, and Channels: An Old Problem with New Facets

β barrels are ubiquitous proteins in the outer membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and Gram-negative bacteria. These transmembrane proteins (TMPs) execute a wide variety of tasks. For example, they can serve as transporters, receptors, membrane-bound enzymes, as well as adhesion, structural, and signaling elements. In addition, multimeric β barrels are common structural scaffolds among many pore-forming toxins. Significant progress has been made in understanding the functional, structural, biochemical, and biophysical features of these robust and versatile proteins. One frequently encountered fundamental trait of all β barrels is their voltage-dependent gating. This process consists of reversible or permanent conformational transitions between a large-conductance, highly permeable open state and a low-conductance, solute-restrictive closed state. Several intrinsic molecular mechanisms and environmental factors modulate this universal property of β barrels. This review article outlines the typical signatures of voltage-dependent gating. Moreover, we discuss recent developments leading to a better qualitative understanding of the closure dynamics of these TMPs.

Siderophore conjugates to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global threat to society due to the increasing emergence of multi-drug resistant bacteria that are not susceptible to our last line of defence antibiotics. Exacerbating this issue is a severe gap in antibiotic development, with no new clinically relevant classes of antibiotics developed in the last two decades. The combination of the rapidly increasing emergence of resistance and scarcity of new antibiotics in the clinical pipeline means there is an urgent need for new efficacious treatment strategies. One promising solution, known as the 'Trojan horse' approach, hijacks the iron transport system of bacteria to deliver antibiotics directly into cells - effectively tricking bacteria into killing themselves. This transport system uses natively produced siderophores, which are small molecules with a high affinity for iron. By linking antibiotics to siderophores, to make siderophore antibiotic conjugates, the activity of existing antibiotics can potentially be reinvigorated. The success of this strategy was recently exemplified with the clinical release of cefiderocol, a cephalosporin-siderophore conjugate with potent antibacterial activity against carbapenem-resistant and multi-drug resistant Gram-negative bacilli. This review discusses the recent advancements in siderophore antibiotic conjugates and the challenges associated with the design of these compounds that need to be overcome to deliver more efficacious therapeutics. Potential strategies have also been suggested for new generations of siderophore-antibiotics with enhanced activity.

A modular spring-loaded actuator for mechanical activation of membrane proteins

How cells respond to mechanical forces by converting them into biological signals underlie crucial cellular processes. Our understanding of mechanotransduction has been hindered by technical barriers, including limitations in our ability to effectively apply low range piconewton forces to specific mechanoreceptors on cell membranes without laborious and repetitive trials. To overcome these challenges we introduce the Nano-winch, a robust, easily assembled, programmable DNA origami-based molecular actuator. The Nano-winch is designed to manipulate multiple mechanoreceptors in parallel by exerting fine-tuned, low- piconewton forces in autonomous and remotely activated modes via adjustable single- and double-stranded DNA linkages, respectively. Nano-winches in autonomous mode can land and operate on the cell surface. Targeting the device to integrin stimulated detectable downstream phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase, an indication that Nano-winches can be applied to study cellular mechanical processes. Remote activation mode allowed finer extension control and greater force exertion. We united remotely activated Nano-winches with single-channel bilayer experiments to directly observe the opening of a channel by mechanical force in the force responsive gated channel protein, BtuB. This customizable origami provides an instrument-free approach that can be applied to control and explore a diversity of mechanotransduction circuits on living cells.

Studies on mechanotransduction are limited by our ability to apply low range forces to specific mechanoreceptors on cell membranes. Here the authors report the Nano-winch, a programmable DNA origami-based molecular actuator, to manipulate multiple mechanoreceptors in parallel by exerting piconewton forces.

Determining the Orientation of Porins in Planar Lipid Bilayers

Single-channel planar lipid bilayer (PLB) recording of bacterial porins has revealed molecular details of transport across the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, including antibiotic permeation and protein translocation. To explore directional transport processes across cellular membranes, the orientation of porins or other pore-forming proteins must be established in a lipid bilayer prior to experimentation. Here, we describe a direct method for determining the orientation of porins in a PLB-with a focus on E. coli OmpF-by using targeted covalent modification of cysteine mutants. Each of the two possible orientations can be correlated with the porin conductance asymmetry, such that thereafter an I-V curve taken at the start of an experiment will suffice to establish orientation.

Ton motor complexes

The Ton complex is a molecular motor that uses the proton gradient at the inner membrane of Gram-negative bacteria to apply forces on outer membrane proteins, allowing active transport of nutrients into the periplasmic space. For decades, contradictory data has been reported on the structure and stoichiometry of the Ton complex. However, recent reports strongly support a subunit stoichiometry of 5:2 for the ExbB-ExbD subcomplex. In this review, we summarize the recent discoveries of the structures and proposed mechanisms of the Ton system, as well as similar protein motor complexes in Gram-negative bacteria.

Structure and Stoichiometry of the Ton Molecular Motor

The Ton complex is a molecular motor that uses the proton gradient at the inner membrane of Gram-negative bacteria to generate force and movement, which are transmitted to transporters at the outer membrane, allowing the entry of nutrients into the periplasmic space. Despite decades of investigation and the recent flurry of structures being reported by X-ray crystallography and cryoEM, the mode of action of the Ton molecular motor has remained elusive, and the precise stoichiometry of its subunits is still a matter of debate. This review summarizes the latest findings on the Ton system by presenting the recently reported structures and related reports on the stoichiometry of the fully assembled complex.

Aberrantly Large Single-Channel Conductance of Polyhistidine Arm-Containing Protein Nanopores

There have been only a few studies reporting on the impact of polyhistidine affinity tags on the structure, function, and dynamics of proteins. Because of the relatively short size of the tags, they are often thought to have little or no effect on the conformation or activity of a protein. Here, using membrane protein design and single-molecule electrophysiology, we determined that the presence of a hexahistidine arm at the N-terminus of a truncated FhuA-based protein nanopore, leaving the C-terminus untagged, produces an unusual increase in the unitary conductance to ∼8 nS in 1 M KCl. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest single-channel conductance ever recorded with a monomeric β-barrel outer membrane protein. The hexahistidine arm was captured by an anti-polyhistidine tag monoclonal antibody added to the side of the channel-forming protein addition, but not to the opposite side, documenting that this truncated FhuA-based protein nanopore inserts into a planar lipid bilayer with a preferred orientation. This finding is in agreement with the protein insertion in vivo, in which the large loops face the extracellular side of the membrane. The aberrantly large single-channel conductance, likely induced by a greater cross-sectional area of the pore lumen, along with the vectorial insertion into a lipid membrane, will have profound implications for further developments of engineered protein nanopores.

A new class of hybrid secretion system is employed in Pseudomonas amyloid biogenesis

Gram-negative bacteria possess specialised biogenesis machineries that facilitate the export of amyloid subunits for construction of a biofilm matrix. The secretion of bacterial functional amyloid requires a bespoke outer-membrane protein channel through which unfolded amyloid substrates are translocated. Here, we combine X-ray crystallography, native mass spectrometry, single-channel electrical recording, molecular simulations and circular dichroism measurements to provide high-resolution structural insight into the functional amyloid transporter from Pseudomonas, FapF. FapF forms a trimer of gated β-barrel channels in which opening is regulated by a helical plug connected to an extended coil-coiled platform spanning the bacterial periplasm. Although FapF represents a unique type of secretion system, it shares mechanistic features with a diverse range of peptide translocation systems. Our findings highlight alternative strategies for handling and export of amyloid protein sequences.Gram-negative bacteria assemble biofilms from amyloid fibres, which translocate across the outer membrane as unfolded amyloid precursors through a secretion system. Here, the authors characterise the structural details of the amyloid transporter FapF in Pseudomonas.

Interrogating Detergent Desolvation of Nanopore-Forming Proteins by Fluorescence Polarization Spectroscopy

Understanding how membrane proteins interact with detergents is of fundamental and practical significance in structural and chemical biology as well as in nanobiotechnology. Current methods for inspecting protein-detergent complex (PDC) interfaces require high concentrations of protein and are of low throughput. Here, we describe a scalable, spectroscopic approach that uses nanomolar protein concentrations in native solutions. This approach, which is based on steady-state fluorescence polarization (FP) spectroscopy, kinetically resolves the dissociation of detergents from membrane proteins and protein unfolding. For satisfactorily solubilizing detergents, at concentrations much greater than the critical micelle concentration (CMC), the fluorescence anisotropy was independent of detergent concentration. In contrast, at detergent concentrations comparable with or below the CMC, the anisotropy readout underwent a time-dependent decrease, showing a specific and sensitive protein unfolding signature. Functionally reconstituted membrane proteins into a bilayer membrane confirmed predictions made by these FP-based determinations with respect to varying refolding conditions. From a practical point of view, this 96-well analytical approach will facilitate a massively parallel assessment of the PDC interfacial interactions under a fairly broad range of micellar and environmental conditions. We expect that these studies will potentially accelerate research in membrane proteins pertaining to their extraction, solubilization, stabilization, and crystallization, as well as reconstitution into bilayer membranes.

Going Outside the TonB Box: Identification of Novel FepA-TonB Interactions In Vivo

In Gram-negative bacteria, the cytoplasmic membrane protein TonB transmits energy derived from proton motive force to energize transport of important nutrients through TonB-dependent transporters in the outer membrane. Each transporter consists of a beta barrel domain and a lumen-occluding cork domain containing an essential sequence called the TonB box. To date, the only identified site of transporter-TonB interaction is between the TonB box and residues ∼158 to 162 of TonB. While the mechanism of ligand transport is a mystery, a current model based on site-directed spin labeling and molecular dynamics simulations is that, following ligand binding, the otherwise-sequestered TonB box extends into the periplasm for recognition by TonB, which mediates transport by pulling or twisting the cork. In this study, we tested that hypothesis with the outer membrane transporter FepA using in vivo photo-cross-linking to explore interactions of its TonB box and determine whether additional FepA-TonB interaction sites exist. We found numerous specific sites of FepA interaction with TonB on the periplasmic face of the FepA cork in addition to the TonB box. Two residues, T32 and A33, might constitute a ligand-sensitive conformational switch. The facts that some interactions were enhanced in the absence of ligand and that other interactions did not require the TonB box argued against the current model and suggested that the transport process is more complex than originally conceived, with subtleties that might provide a mechanism for discrimination among ligand-loaded transporters. These results constitute the first study on the dynamics of TonB-gated transporter interaction with TonB in vivoIMPORTANCE The TonB system of Gram-negative bacteria has a noncanonical active transport mechanism involving signal transduction and proteins integral to both membranes. To achieve transport, the cytoplasmic membrane protein TonB physically contacts outer membrane transporters such as FepA. Only one contact between TonB and outer membrane transporters has been identified to date: the TonB box at the transporter amino terminus. The TonB box has low information content, raising the question of how TonB can discriminate among multiple different TonB-dependent transporters present in the bacterium if it is the only means of contact. Here we identified several additional sites through which FepA contacts TonB in vivo, including two neighboring residues that may explain how FepA signals to TonB that ligand has bound.

Orientation of the OmpF Porin in Planar Lipid Bilayers

The outer-membrane protein OmpF is an abundant trimeric general diffusion porin that plays a central role in the transport of antibiotics and colicins across the outer membrane of E. coli. Individual OmpF trimers in planar lipid bilayers (PLBs) show one of two current-voltage asymmetries, thus implying that insertion occurs with either the periplasmic or the extracellular end first. A method for establishing the orientation of OmpF in PLB was developed, based on targeted covalent modification with membrane-impermeant reagents of peripheral cysteine residues introduced near the periplasmic or the extracellular entrance. By correlating the results of the modification experiments with measurements of current asymmetry or the sidedness of binding of the antibiotic enrofloxacin, OmpF orientation could be quickly determined in subsequent experiments under a variety of conditions. Our work will allow the precise interpretation of past and future studies of antibiotic permeation and protein translocation through OmpF and related porins.

A comparison of high- and low-virulence Flavobacterium columnare strains reveals differences in iron acquisition components and responses to iron restriction

Flavobacterium columnare, the causative agent of columnaris disease causes substantial mortality worldwide in numerous freshwater finfish species. Due to its global significance, an improved understanding of the factors that contribute to virulence is urgently needed. In a laboratory challenge, we found that significantly greater mortality was observed in channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus (Rafinesque) challenged with isolate LSU-066-04 (LSU) as compared to fish challenged with isolate LV-359-01 (LV). Strikingly, mortality was 100% in LSU-challenged fish, with all fish dying within the first 24 h after challenge, while mortality in the LV-challenged group was significantly lower with 26.7% of fish dying on days 1-4 post-challenge. There were no differences in initial bacterial adhesion between the isolates at 1-2 h post-challenge; however, by 4 h LSU-challenged fish had a greater bacterial load on the gill. Next, to better understand this variation in virulence, we examined transcriptional and functional attributes related to iron acquisition. The isolates were differentially sensitive to iron restriction both in vitro and in vivo and the basal expression of TonB family member genes and a ferroxidase gene differed significantly. Our findings provide new insight into iron uptake and pathogen virulence, and offer promising new targets for columnaris prevention and treatment.

Global redesign of a native β-barrel scaffold

One persistent challenge in membrane protein design is accomplishing extensive modifications of proteins without impairing their functionality. A truncation derivative of the ferric hydroxamate uptake component A (FhuA), which featured the deletion of the 160-residue cork domain and five large extracellular loops, produced the conversion of a non-conductive, monomeric, 22-stranded β-barrel protein into a large-conductance protein pore. Here, we show that this redesigned β-barrel protein tolerates an extensive alteration in the internal surface charge, encompassing 25 negative charge neutralizations. By using single-molecule electrophysiology, we noted that a commonality of various truncation FhuA protein pores was the occurrence of 33% blockades of the unitary current at very high transmembrane potentials. We determined that these current transitions were stimulated by their interaction with an external cationic polypeptide, which occurred in a fashion dependent on the surface charge of the pore interior as well as the polypeptide characteristics. This study shows promise for extensive engineering of a large monomeric β-barrel protein pore in molecular biomedical diagnosis, therapeutics, and biosensor technology.

Ion conductance of the stem of the anthrax toxin channel during lethal factor translocation

The tripartite anthrax toxin consists of protective antigen, lethal factor (LF), and edema factor. PA63 (the 63-kDa, C-terminal part of protective antigen) forms heptameric channels in cell membranes that allow for the transport of LF and edema factor into the cytosol. These channels are mushroom shaped, with a ring of seven phenylalanine residues (known as the phenylalanine clamp) lining the junction between the cap and the stem. It is known that when LF is translocated through the channel, the phenylalanine clamp creates a seal that causes an essentially complete block of conduction. In order to examine ion conductance in the stem of the channel, we used Venus yellow fluorescent protein as a molecular stopper to trap LFN (the 30-kDa, 263-residue N-terminal segment of LF), as well as various truncated constructs of LFN, in mutant channels in which the phenylalanine clamp residues were mutated to alanines. Here we present evidence that ion movement occurs within the channel stem (but is stopped, of course, at the phenylalanine clamp) during protein translocation. Furthermore, we also propose that the lower region of the stem plays an important role in securing peptide chains during translocation.

Structure of the atypical bacteriocin pectocin M2 implies a novel mechanism of protein uptake

The colicin-like bacteriocins are potent protein antibiotics that have evolved to efficiently cross the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria by parasitizing nutrient uptake systems. We have structurally characterized the colicin M-like bacteriocin, pectocin M2, which is active against strains of Pectobacterium spp. This unusual bacteriocin lacks the intrinsically unstructured translocation domain that usually mediates translocation of these bacteriocins across the outer membrane, containing only a single globular ferredoxin domain connected to its cytotoxic domain by a flexible α-helix, which allows it to adopt two distinct conformations in solution. The ferredoxin domain of pectocin M2 is homologous to plant ferredoxins and allows pectocin M2 to parasitize a system utilized by Pectobacterium to obtain iron during infection of plants. Furthermore, we identify a novel ferredoxin-containing bacteriocin pectocin P, which possesses a cytotoxic domain homologous to lysozyme, illustrating that the ferredoxin domain acts as a generic delivery module for cytotoxic domains in Pectobacterium.

A novel method to couple electrophysiological measurements and fluorescence imaging of suspended lipid membranes: the example of T5 bacteriophage DNA ejection

We present an innovative method to couple electrophysiological measurements with fluorescence imaging of functionalized suspended bilayers. Our method combines several advantages: it is well suited to study transmembrane proteins that are difficult to incorporate in suspended bilayers, it allows single molecule resolution both in terms of electrophysiological measurements and fluorescence imaging, and it enables mechanical stimulations of the membrane. The approach comprises of two steps: first the reconstitution of membrane proteins in giant unilamellar vesicles; then the formation of a suspended bilayer spanning a 5 to 15 micron-wide aperture that can be visualized by high NA microscope objectives. We exemplified how the technique can be used to detect in real time the translocation of T5 DNA across the bilayer during its ejection from the bacteriophage capsid.

Impact of urea on detergent micelle properties

Co-solvents, such as urea, can entail drastic changes in the micellization behavior of detergents. We present a systematic quantification of the impact of urea on the critical micellar concentration, the micellization thermodynamics, and the micelle size in three homologous series of commonly used non-ionic alkyl detergents. To this end, we performed demicellization experiments by isothermal titration calorimetry and hydrodynamic size measurements by dynamic light scattering on alkyl maltopyranosides, cyclohexyl alkyl maltopyranosides, and alkyl glucopyranosides at urea concentrations of 0-8 M. For all detergents studied, we found that the critical micellar concentration increases exponentially because the absolute Gibbs free energy of micellization decreases linearly over the entire urea concentration range, as does the micelle size. In contrast, the enthalpic and entropic contributions to micellization reveal more complex, nonlinear dependences on urea concentration. Both free energy and size changes are more pronounced for long-chain detergents, which bury more apolar surface area upon micelle formation. The Gibbs free energy increments per methylene group within each detergent series depend on urea concentration in a linear fashion, although they result from the entropic term for alkyl maltosides but are of enthalpic origin for cyclohexyl alkyl maltosides. We compare our results to transfer free energies of amino acid side chains, relate them to protein-folding data, and discuss how urea-induced changes in detergent micelle properties affect in vitro investigations on membrane proteins.

The unstructured domain of colicin N kills Escherichia coli

Bacteria often produce toxins which kill competing bacteria. Colicins, produced by and toxic to Escherichia coli bacteria are three-domain proteins so efficient that one molecule can kill a cell. The C-terminal domain carries the lethal activity and the central domain is required for surface receptor binding. The N-terminal domain, required for translocation across the outer membrane, is always intrinsically unstructured. It has always been assumed therefore that the C-terminal cytotoxic domain is required for the bactericidal activity. Here we report the unexpected finding that in isolation, the 90-residue unstructured N-terminal domain of colicin N is cytotoxic. Furthermore it causes ion leakage from cells but, unlike known antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with this property, shows no membrane binding behaviour. Finally, its activity remains strictly dependent upon the same receptor proteins (OmpF and TolA) used by full-length colicin N. This mechanism of rapid membrane disruption, via receptor mediated binding of a soluble peptide, may reveal a new target for the development of highly specific antibacterials.

TonB-dependent transporter FhuA in planar lipid bilayers: partial exit of its plug from the barrel

TonB-dependent transporters (TBDTs), which transport iron-chelating siderophores and vitamin B(12) across the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, share a conserved architecture of a 22-stranded β-barrel with an amino-terminal plug domain occluding the barrel. We previously reported that we could induce TBDTs to reversibly open in planar lipid bilayers via the use of urea and that these channels were responsive to physiological concentrations of ligands. Here we report that in the presence of urea, trypsin can cleave the amino-terminal 67 residues of the plug of the TonB-dependent transporter FhuA, as assessed by gel shift and mass spectrometry assays. On the bilayer, trypsin treatment in the presence of urea resulted in the induced conductance no longer being reversed upon removal of urea, suggesting that urea opens intact FhuA channels by pulling the plug at least partly out of the barrel and that removal of the urea then allows reinsertion of the plug into the barrel. When expressed separately, the FhuA plug domain was found to be a mostly unfolded structure that was able to occlude isolated FhuA β-barrels inserted into the membrane. Thus, although folded in the barrel, the plug need not be folded upon exiting the barrel. The rate of insertion of the β-barrels into the membrane was tremendously increased in the presence of an osmotic gradient provided by either urea or glycerol. Negative staining electron microscopy showed that FhuA in a detergent solution formed vesicles, thus explaining why an osmotic gradient promoted the insertion of FhuA into membranes.

The N-terminal domain of a TonB-dependent transporter undergoes a reversible stepwise denaturation

Gram-negative bacteria contain a family of outer membrane transport proteins that function in the uptake of rare nutrients, such as iron and vitamin B(12). These proteins are termed TonB-dependent because transport requires an interaction with the inner-membrane protein TonB. Using a combination of site-directed spin labeling and chemical denaturation, we examined the site-specific unfolding of regions of the Escherichia coli vitamin B(12) transporter, BtuB. The data indicate that a portion of the N-terminal region of the protein, which occupies the lumen of the BtuB barrel, denatures prior to the unfolding of the barrel and that the free energy of folding for the N-terminus is smaller than that typically seen for globular proteins. Moreover, the data indicate that the N-terminal domain does not unfold in a single event but unfolds in a series of independent steps. The unfolding of the N-terminus is reversible, and removal of denaturant restores the native fold of the protein. These data are consistent with proposed transport mechanisms that involve a transient rearrangement or unfolding of the N-terminus of the protein, and they provide evidence of a specific protein conformation that might be an intermediate accessed during transport.

Computational studies of membrane proteins: models and predictions for biological understanding

We discuss recent progresses in computational studies of membrane proteins based on physical models with parameters derived from bioinformatics analysis. We describe computational identification of membrane proteins and prediction of their topology from sequence, discovery of sequence and spatial motifs, and implications of these discoveries. The detection of evolutionary signal for understanding the substitution pattern of residues in the TM segments and for sequence alignment is also discussed. We further discuss empirical potential functions for energetics of inserting residues in the TM domain, for interactions between TM helices or strands, and their applications in predicting lipid-facing surfaces of the TM domain. Recent progresses in structure predictions of membrane proteins are also reviewed, with further discussions on calculation of ensemble properties such as melting temperature based on simplified state space model. Additional topics include prediction of oligomerization state of membrane proteins, identification of the interfaces for protein-protein interactions, and design of membrane proteins. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Folding in Membranes.

Redesign of a plugged beta-barrel membrane protein

The redesign of biological nanopores is focused on bacterial outer membrane proteins and pore-forming toxins, because their robust β-barrel structure makes them the best choice for developing stochastic biosensing elements. Using membrane protein engineering and single-channel electrical recordings, we explored the ferric hydroxamate uptake component A (FhuA), a monomeric 22-stranded β-barrel protein from the outer membrane of Escherichia coli. FhuA has a luminal cross-section of 3.1 × 4.4 nm and is filled by a globular N-terminal cork domain. Various redesigned FhuA proteins were investigated, including single, double, and multiple deletions of the large extracellular loops and the cork domain. We identified four large extracellular loops that partially occlude the lumen when the cork domain is removed. The newly engineered protein, FhuAΔC/Δ4L, was the result of a removal of almost one-third of the total number of amino acids of the wild-type FhuA (WT-FhuA) protein. This extensive protein engineering encompassed the entire cork domain and four extracellular loops. Remarkably, FhuAΔC/Δ4L forms a functional open pore in planar lipid bilayers, with a measured unitary conductance of ∼4.8 nanosiemens, which is much greater than the values recorded previously with other engineered FhuA protein channels. There are numerous advantages and prospects of using such an engineered outer membrane protein not only in fundamental studies of membrane protein folding and design, and the mechanisms of ion conductance and gating, but also in more applicative areas of stochastic single-molecule sensing of proteins and nucleic acids.

Outer membrane translocons: structural insights into channel formation

Gram-negative bacteria need to maintain the integrity of their outer membrane while also regulating the secretion of toxins and other macromolecules. A variety of dedicated outer membrane proteins (OMPs) facilitate this process. Recent structural work has shown that some of these proteins adopt classical β-barrel transmembrane structures and rely on structural changes within the barrel lumen to allow passage of substrate proteins. Other secretion systems have OMP components which use transmembrane α-helices and appear to function in a different way. Here we review a selection of recent structural studies which have major ramifications for our understanding of the passage of macromolecules across the outer membrane.

Direct measurements of the outer membrane stage of ferric enterobactin transport: postuptake binding

When Gram-negative bacteria acquire iron, the metal crosses both the outer membrane (OM) and the inner membrane, but existing radioisotopic uptake assays only measure its passage through the latter bilayer, as the accumulation of the radionuclide in the cytoplasm. We devised a methodology that exclusively observes OM transport and used it to study the uptake of ferric enterobactin (FeEnt) by Escherichia coli FepA. This technique, called postuptake binding, revealed previously unknown aspects of TonB-dependent transport reactions. The experiments showed, for the first time, that despite the discrepancy in cell envelope concentrations of FepA and TonB ( approximately 35:1), all FepA proteins were active and equivalent in FeEnt uptake, with a maximum turnover number of approximately 5/min. FepA-mediated transport of FeEnt progressed through three distinct phases with successively decreasing rates, and from its temperature dependence, the activation energy of the OM stage was 33-35 kcal/mol. The accumulation of FeEnt in the periplasm required the binding protein and inner membrane permease components of its overall transport system; postuptake binding assays on strains devoid of FepB, FepD, or FepG did not show uptake of FeEnt through the OM. However, fluorescence labeling data implied that FepA was active in the DeltafepB strain, suggesting that FeEnt entered the periplasm but then leaked out. Further experiments confirmed this futile cycle; cells without FepB transported FeEnt across the OM, but it immediately escaped through TolC.