Chromosomal directionality of DNA mismatch repair in Escherichia coli

Strand discrimination in DNA mismatch repair

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) corrects non-Watson-Crick basepairs generated by replication errors, recombination intermediates, and some forms of chemical damage to DNA. In MutS and MutL homolog-dependent MMR, damaged bases do not identify the error-containing daughter strand that must be excised and resynthesized. In organisms like Escherichia coli that use methyl-directed MMR, transient undermethylation identifies the daughter strand. For other organisms, growing in vitro and in vivo evidence suggest that strand discrimination is mediated by DNA replication-associated daughter strand nicks that direct asymmetric loading of the replicative clamp (the β-clamp in bacteria and the proliferating cell nuclear antigen, PCNA, in eukaryotes). Structural modeling suggests that replicative clamps mediate strand specificity either through the ability of MutL homologs to recognize the fixed orientation of the daughter strand relative to one face of the replicative clamps or through parental strand-specific diffusion of replicative clamps on DNA, which places the daughter strand in the MutL homolog endonuclease active site. Finally, identification of bacteria that appear to lack strand discrimination mediated by a replicative clamp and a pre-existing nick suggest that other strand discrimination mechanisms exist or that these organisms perform MMR by generating a double-stranded DNA break intermediate, which may be analogous to NucS-mediated MMR.

Mismatch Repair: From Preserving Genome Stability to Enabling Mutation Studies in Real-Time Single Cells

Mismatch Repair (MMR) is an important and conserved keeper of the maintenance of genetic information. Miroslav Radman's contributions to the field of MMR are multiple and tremendous. One of the most notable was to provide, along with Bob Wagner and Matthew Meselson, the first direct evidence for the existence of the methyl-directed MMR. The purpose of this review is to outline several aspects and biological implications of MMR that his work has helped unveil, including the role of MMR during replication and recombination editing, and the current understanding of its mechanism. The review also summarizes recent discoveries related to the visualization of MMR components and discusses how it has helped shape our understanding of the coupling of mismatch recognition to replication. Finally, the author explains how visualization of MMR components has paved the way to the study of spontaneous mutations in living cells in real time.

A Comprehensive View of Translesion Synthesis in Escherichia coli

The lesion bypass pathway, translesion synthesis (TLS), exists in essentially all organisms and is considered a pathway for postreplicative gap repair and, at the same time, for lesion tolerance. As with the saying "a trip is not over until you get back home," studying TLS only at the site of the lesion is not enough to understand the whole process of TLS. Recently, a genetic study uncovered that polymerase V (Pol V), a poorly expressed Escherichia coli TLS polymerase, is not only involved in the TLS step per se but also participates in the gap-filling reaction over several hundred nucleotides. The same study revealed that in contrast, Pol IV, another highly expressed TLS polymerase, essentially stays away from the gap-filling reaction. These observations imply fundamentally different ways these polymerases are recruited to DNA in cells. While access of Pol IV appears to be governed by mass action, efficient recruitment of Pol V involves a chaperone-like action of the RecA filament. We present a model of Pol V activation: the 3' tip of the RecA filament initially stabilizes Pol V to allow stable complex formation with a sliding β-clamp, followed by the capture of the terminal RecA monomer by Pol V, thus forming a functional Pol V complex. This activation process likely determines higher accessibility of Pol V than of Pol IV to normal DNA. Finally, we discuss the biological significance of TLS polymerases during gap-filling reactions: error-prone gap-filling synthesis may contribute as a driving force for genetic diversity, adaptive mutation, and evolution.

Mutational diversity in mutY deficient Helicobacter pylori and its effect on adaptation to the gastric environment

Helicobacter pylori, a pathogenic bacterium that colonizes in the human stomach, harbors DNA repair genes to counter the gastric environment during chronic infection. In addition, H. pylori adapts to the host environment by undergoing antigenic phase variation caused by genomic mutations. The emergence of mutations in nucleotide sequences is one of the major factors underlying drug resistance and genetic diversity in bacteria. However, it is not clear how DNA repair genes contribute to driving the genetic change of H. pylori during chronic infection. To elucidate the physiological roles of DNA repair genes, we generated DNA repair-deficient strains of H. pylori (ΔuvrA, ΔuvrB, ΔruvA, Δnth, ΔmutY, ΔmutS, and Δung). We performed susceptibility testing to rifampicin in vitro and found that ΔmutY exhibited the highest mutation frequency among the mutants. The number of bacteria colonizing the stomach was significantly lower with ΔmutY strain compared with wild-type strains in a Mongolian gerbil model of H. pylori infection. Furthermore, we performed a genomic sequence analysis of the strains isolated from the Mongolian gerbil stomachs eight weeks after infection. We found that the isolated ΔmutY strains exhibited a high frequency of spontaneous G:C to T:A mutations. However, the frequency of phase variations in the ΔmutY strain was almost similar to the wild-type strain. These results suggest that MutY may play a role in modes of gastric environmental adaptation distinct from phase variation.

Pol V-Mediated Translesion Synthesis Elicits Localized Untargeted Mutagenesis during Post-replicative Gap Repair

In vivo, replication forks proceed beyond replication-blocking lesions by way of downstream repriming, generating daughter strand gaps that are subsequently processed by post-replicative repair pathways such as homologous recombination and translesion synthesis (TLS). The way these gaps are filled during TLS is presently unknown. The structure of gap repair synthesis was assessed by sequencing large collections of single DNA molecules that underwent specific TLS events in vivo. The higher error frequency of specialized relative to replicative polymerases allowed us to visualize gap-filling events at high resolution. Unexpectedly, the data reveal that a specialized polymerase, Pol V, synthesizes stretches of DNA both upstream and downstream of a site-specific DNA lesion. Pol V-mediated untargeted mutations are thus spread over several hundred nucleotides, strongly eliciting genetic instability on either side of a given lesion. Consequently, post-replicative gap repair may be a source of untargeted mutations critical for gene diversification in adaptation and evolution.

Mutation Landscape of Base Substitutions, Duplications, and Deletions in the Representative Current Cholera Pandemic Strain

Pandemic cholera is a major concern for public health because of its high mortality and morbidity. Mutation accumulation (MA) experiments were performed on a representative strain of the current cholera pandemic. Although the base-pair substitution mutation rates in Vibrio cholerae (1.24 × 10-10 per site per generation for wild-type lines and 3.29 × 10-8 for mismatch repair deficient lines) are lower than that previously reported in other bacteria using MA analysis, we discovered specific high rates (8.31 × 10-8 site/generation for wild-type lines and 1.82 × 10-6 for mismatch repair deficient lines) of base duplication or deletion driven by large-scale copy number variations (CNVs). These duplication-deletions are located in two pathogenic islands, IMEX and the large integron island. Each element of these islands has discrepant rate in rapid integration and excision, which provides clues to the pandemicity evolution of V. cholerae. These results also suggest that large-scale structural variants such as CNVs can accumulate rapidly during short-term evolution. Mismatch repair deficient lines exhibit a significantly increased mutation rate in the larger chromosome (Chr1) at specific regions, and this pattern is not observed in wild-type lines. We propose that the high frequency of GATC sites in Chr1 improves the efficiency of MMR, resulting in similar rates of mutation in the wild-type condition. In addition, different mutation rates and spectra were observed in the MA lines under distinct growth conditions, including minimal media, rich media and antibiotic treatments.

Endonuclease-independent DNA mismatch repair processes on the lagging strand

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) pathways coordinate the excision and re-synthesis of newly-replicated DNA if a mismatched base-pair has been identified by protein MutS or MutS homologues (MSHs) after replication. DNA excision during MMR is initiated at single-strand breaks (SSBs) in vitro, and several redundant processes have been observed in reconstituted systems which either require a pre-formed SSB in the DNA or require a mismatch-activated nicking endonuclease to introduce a SSB in order to initiate MMR. However, the conditions under which each of these processes may actually occur in living cells have remained obscured by the limitations of current MMR assays. Here we use a novel assay involving chemically-modified oligonucleotide probes to insert targeted DNA 'mismatches' directly into the genome of living bacteria to interrogate their replication-coupled repair processes quantitatively in a strand-, orientation-, and mismatched nucleotide-specific manner. This 'semi-protected oligonucleotide recombination' (SPORE) assay reveals direct evidence in Escherichia coli of an efficient endonuclease-independent MMR process on the lagging strand-a mechanism that has long-since been considered for lagging-strand repair but never directly shown until now. We find endonuclease-independent MMR is coordinated asymmetrically with respect to the replicating DNA-directed primarily from 3'- of the mismatch-and that repair coordinated from 3'- of the mismatch is in fact the primary mechanism of lagging-strand MMR. While further work is required to explore and identify the molecular requirements for this alternative endonuclease-independent MMR pathway, these findings made possible using the SPORE assay are the first direct report of this long-suspected mechanism in vivo.

A 'Semi-Protected Oligonucleotide Recombination' Assay for DNA Mismatch Repair in vivo Suggests Different Modes of Repair for Lagging Strand Mismatches

In Escherichia coli, a DNA mismatch repair (MMR) pathway corrects errors that occur during DNA replication by coordinating the excision and re-synthesis of a long tract of the newly-replicated DNA between an epigenetic signal (a hemi-methylated d(GATC) site or a single-stranded nick) and the replication error after the error is identified by protein MutS. Recent observations suggest that this 'long-patch repair' between these sites is coordinated in the same direction of replication by the replisome. Here, we have developed a new assay that uniquely allows us to introduce targeted 'mismatches' directly into the replication fork via oligonucleotide recombination, examine the directionality of MMR, and quantify the nucleotide-dependence, sequence context-dependence, and strand-dependence of their repair in vivo-something otherwise nearly impossible to achieve. We find that repair of genomic lagging strand mismatches occurs bi-directionally in E. coli and that, while all MutS-recognized mismatches had been thought to be repaired in a consistent manner, the directional bias of repair and the effects of mutations in MutS are dependent on the molecular species of the mismatch. Because oligonucleotide recombination is routinely performed in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, we expect this assay will be broadly applicable for investigating mechanisms of MMR in vivo.

Examining a DNA Replication Requirement for Bacteriophage λ Red- and Rac Prophage RecET-Promoted Recombination in Escherichia coli

Recombineering, in vivo genetic engineering with bacteriophage homologous recombination systems, is a powerful technique for making genetic modifications in bacteria. Two systems widely used in Escherichia coli are the Red system from phage λ and RecET from the defective Rac prophage. We investigated the in vivo dependence of recombineering on DNA replication of the recombining substrate using plasmid targets. For λ Red recombination, when DNA replication of a circular target plasmid is prevented, recombination with single-stranded DNA oligonucleotides is greatly reduced compared to that under replicating conditions. For RecET recombination, when DNA replication of the targeted plasmid is prevented, the recombination frequency is also reduced, to a level identical to that seen for the Red system in the absence of replication. The very low level of oligonucleotide recombination observed in the absence of any phage recombination functions is the same in the presence or absence of DNA replication. In contrast, both the Red and RecET systems recombine a nonreplicating linear dimer plasmid with high efficiency to yield a circular monomer. Therefore, the DNA replication requirement is substrate dependent. Our data are consistent with recombination by both the Red and RecET systems occurring predominately by single-strand annealing rather than by strand invasion.

IMPORTANCE

Bacteriophage homologous recombination systems are widely used for in vivo genetic engineering in bacteria. Single- or double-stranded linear DNA substrates containing short flanking homologies to chromosome targets are used to generate precise and accurate genetic modifications when introduced into bacteria expressing phage recombinases. Understanding the molecular mechanism of these recombination systems will facilitate improvements in the technology. Here, two phage-specific systems are shown to require exposure of complementary single-strand homologous targets for efficient recombination; these single-strand regions may be created during DNA replication or by single-strand exonuclease digestion of linear duplex DNA. Previously, in vitro studies reported that these recombinases promote the single-strand annealing of two complementary DNAs and also strand invasion of a single DNA strand into duplex DNA to create a three-stranded region. Here, in vivo experiments show that recombinase-mediated annealing of complementary single-stranded DNA is the predominant recombination pathway in E. coli.

Dual daughter strand incision is processive and increases the efficiency of DNA mismatch repair

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) is an evolutionarily-conserved process responsible for the repair of replication errors. In Escherichia coli, MMR is initiated by MutS and MutL, which activate MutH to incise transiently-hemimethylated GATC sites. MMR efficiency depends on the distribution of these GATC sites. To understand which molecular events determine repair efficiency, we quantitatively studied the effect of strand incision on unwinding and excision activity. The distance between mismatch and GATC site did not influence the strand incision rate, and an increase in the number of sites enhanced incision only to a minor extent. Two GATC sites were incised by the same activated MMR complex in a processive manner, with MutS, the closed form of MutL and MutH displaying different roles. Unwinding and strand excision were more efficient on a substrate with two nicks flanking the mismatch, as compared to substrates containing a single nick or two nicks on the same side of the mismatch. Introduction of multiple nicks by the human MutLα endonuclease also contributed to increased repair efficiency. Our data support a general model of prokaryotic and eukaryotic MMR in which, despite mechanistic differences, mismatch-activated complexes facilitate efficient repair by creating multiple daughter strand nicks.

Evolution of the methyl directed mismatch repair system in Escherichia coli

DNA mismatch repair (MMR) repairs mispaired bases in DNA generated by replication errors. MutS or MutS homologs recognize mispairs and coordinate with MutL or MutL homologs to direct excision of the newly synthesized DNA strand. In most organisms, the signal that discriminates between the newly synthesized and template DNA strands has not been definitively identified. In contrast, Escherichia coli and some related gammaproteobacteria use a highly elaborated methyl-directed MMR system that recognizes Dam methyltransferase modification sites that are transiently unmethylated on the newly synthesized strand after DNA replication. Evolution of methyl-directed MMR is characterized by the acquisition of Dam and the MutH nuclease and by the loss of the MutL endonuclease activity. Methyl-directed MMR is present in a subset of Gammaproteobacteria belonging to the orders Enterobacteriales, Pasteurellales, Vibrionales, Aeromonadales, and a subset of the Alteromonadales (the EPVAA group) as well as in gammaproteobacteria that have obtained these genes by horizontal gene transfer, including the medically relevant bacteria Fluoribacter, Legionella, and Tatlockia and the marine bacteria Methylophaga and Nitrosococcus.