Effects of DNA sequence and structure on binding of RecA to single-stranded DNA

Molecular DNA dendron vaccines

A foundational principle of rational vaccinology is that vaccine structure plays a critical role in determining therapeutic efficacy, but in order to establish fundamental, effective, and translatable vaccine design parameters, a highly modular and well-defined platform is required. Herein, we report a DNA dendron vaccine, a molecular nanostructure that consists of an adjuvant DNA strand that splits into multiple DNA branches with a varied number of conjugated peptide antigens that is capable of dendritic cell uptake, immune activation, and potent cancer killing. We leveraged the well-defined architecture and chemical modularity of the DNA dendron to study structure-function relationships that dictate molecular vaccine efficacy, particularly regarding the delivery of immune-activating DNA sequences and antigenic peptides on a single chemical construct. We investigated how adjuvant and antigen placement and number impact dendron cellular uptake and immune activation, in vitro. These parameters also played a significant role in raising a potent and specific immune response against target cancer cells. By gaining this structural understanding of molecular vaccines, DNA dendrons successfully treated a mouse cervical human papillomavirus TC-1 cancer model, in vivo, where the vaccine structure defined its efficacy; the top-performing design effectively reduced tumor burden (<150 mm³ through day 30) and maintained 100% survival through 44 d after tumor inoculation.

Conformational Dynamics of Poly(T) Single-Stranded DNA at the Single-Molecule Level

The conformational dynamics of single-stranded DNA (ss-DNA) are implicated in the mechanisms of several key biological processes such as DNA replication and damage repair and have been modeled with those of semiflexible or flexible polymer. The high flexibility and customizability of ss-DNA also make it an excellent polymeric material for materials engineering. Polythymidine (poly(T)) is an excellent model ss-DNA as a flexible polymer since it does not form any secondary structure. However, only limited experimental results have been reported of poly(T) conformational dynamics with a very short length that is not relevant to the aforementioned processes and applications. Here, we provide the first experimental results of the conformational dynamics of poly(T) with lengths in the range of 130-170 nucleotides at the single-molecule level. Our experiments are based on single-molecule FRET and a DNA hairpin structure of which the folding kinetics are governed by the conformational dynamics of poly(T). We found that the folding kinetics deviate far from those of a flexible polymer model with a harmonic bending potential. To this end, we derived a simple model for the kinetics of DNA hairpin folding from the self-avoiding-walk (SAW). Our model describes the conformational dynamics of poly(T) very well and enables estimation of the conformational dimensionality. The estimated dimensionalities suggest that ss-DNA is completely flexible at 100 mM or a higher NaCl concentration, but not at 50 mM. These results will help understand the conformational dynamics of ss-DNA implicated in several key biological processes and maximize the utility of ss-DNA for materials engineering. Also, our system and model provide an excellent platform to investigate the conformational dynamics of ss-DNA.

Controlling aggregation of cholesterol-modified DNA nanostructures

DNA nanotechnology allows for the design of programmable DNA-built nanodevices which controllably interact with biological membranes and even mimic the function of natural membrane proteins. Hydrophobic modifications, covalently linked to the DNA, are essential for targeted interfacing of DNA nanostructures with lipid membranes. However, these hydrophobic tags typically induce undesired aggregation eliminating structural control, the primary advantage of DNA nanotechnology. Here, we study the aggregation of cholesterol-modified DNA nanostructures using a combined approach of non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, dynamic light scattering, confocal microscopy and atomistic molecular dynamics simulations. We show that the aggregation of cholesterol-tagged ssDNA is sequence-dependent, while for assembled DNA constructs, the number and position of the cholesterol tags are the dominating factors. Molecular dynamics simulations of cholesterol-modified ssDNA reveal that the nucleotides wrap around the hydrophobic moiety, shielding it from the environment. Utilizing this behavior, we demonstrate experimentally that the aggregation of cholesterol-modified DNA nanostructures can be controlled by the length of ssDNA overhangs positioned adjacent to the cholesterol. Our easy-to-implement method for tuning cholesterol-mediated aggregation allows for increased control and a closer structure-function relationship of membrane-interfacing DNA constructs - a fundamental prerequisite for employing DNA nanodevices in research and biomedicine.

Characterization of the interactions of chemically-modified therapeutic nucleic acids with plasma proteins using a fluorescence polarization assay

Interactions of chemically modified nucleic acid therapeutics with plasma proteins play an important role in facilitating distribution from the injection site to peripheral tissues by reducing renal clearance. Despite the importance of these interactions, analytical methods that can characterize binding constants with individual plasma proteins in a reliable and high throughput manner are not easily available. We developed a fluorescence polarization (FP) based assay and measured binding constants for the 25 most abundant human plasma proteins with phosphorothioate (PS) modified antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs). We evaluated the influence of sequence, sugar modifications, and PS content on ASO interactions with several abundant human plasma proteins and determined the effect of salt and pH on these interactions. PS ASOs were found to associate predominantly with albumin and histidine-rich glycoprotein (HRG) in mouse and human plasma by size-exclusion chromatography. In contrast, PS ASOs associate predominantly with HRG in monkey plasma because of higher concentrations of this protein in monkeys. Finally, plasma proteins capable of binding PS ASOs in human plasma were confirmed by employing affinity chromatography and proteomics. Our results indicate distinct differences in contributions from the PS backbone, nucleobase composition and oligonucleotide flexibility to protein binding.

Topology- and linking number-controlled synthesis of a closed 3 link chain of single-stranded DNA

In spite of remarkable progress in synthetic methodology, a closed three-link chain (one of the simplest but the most important topological isomers of [3]catenane) has never been prepared. Here we synthesized this isomer in high yield from three oligonucleotides which are designed to optimize various chemical and steric factors in their mutual hybridization.

RecA filament maintains structural integrity using ATP-driven internal dynamics

At the core of homologous DNA repair, RecA catalyzes the strand exchange reaction. This process is initiated by a RecA loading protein, which nucleates clusters of RecA proteins on single-stranded DNA. Each cluster grows to cover the single-stranded DNA but may leave 1- to 2-nucleotide (nt) gaps between the clusters due to three different structural phases of the nucleoprotein filaments. It remains to be revealed how RecA proteins eliminate the gaps to make a seamless kilobase-long filament. We develop a single-molecule fluorescence assay to observe the novel internal dynamics of the RecA filament. We directly observe the structural phases of individual RecA filaments and find that RecA proteins move their positions along the substrate DNA to change the phase of the filament. This reorganization process, which is a prerequisite step for interjoining of two adjacent clusters, requires adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis and is tightly regulated by the recombination hotspot, Chi. Furthermore, RecA proteins recognize and self-align to a 3-nt-period sequence pattern of TGG. This sequence-dependent phase bias may help the RecA filament to maintain structural integrity within the kilobase-long filament for accurate homology search and strand exchange reaction.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hrq1 helicase activity is affected by the sequence but not the length of single-stranded DNA

Mutations in the human RecQ4 DNA helicase are associated with three different diseases characterized by genomic instability. To gain insight into how RecQ4 dysfunction leads to these pathologies, several groups have used the Saccharomyces cerevisiae RecQ4 homolog Hrq1 as an experimental model. Hrq1 displays many of the same functions as RecQ4 in vivo and in vitro. However, there is some disagreement in the literature about the effects of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) length on Hrq1 helicase activity and the ability of Hrq1 to anneal complementary ssDNA oligonucleotides into duplex DNA. Here, we present a side-by-side comparison of Hrq1 and RecQ4 helicase activity, demonstrating that in both cases, long random-sequence 3' ssDNA tails inhibit DNA unwinding in vitro in a length-dependent manner. This appears to be due to the formation of secondary structures in the random-sequence ssDNA because Hrq1 preferentially unwound poly(dT)-tailed forks independent of ssDNA length. Further, RecQ4 is capable of ssDNA strand annealing and annealing-dependent strand exchange, but Hrq1 lacks these activities. These results establish the importance of DNA sequence in Hrq1 helicase activity, and the absence of Hrq1 strand annealing activity explains the previously identified discrepancies between S. cerevisiae Hrq1 and human RecQ4.

Efficient Synthesis of Topologically Linked Three-Ring DNA Catenanes

Topologically controlled DNA catenanes are promising elements for the construction of molecular machines but present a significant effort in DNA nanotechnology. We report an efficient approach for preparing linear three-ring catenanes (L3C) composed of single-stranded DNA. The linking number was strictly controlled by using short complementary regions (6 nt) between each two DNA rings. High efficiency of forming three-ring catenanes (yield as high as 63 %) was obtained by using an 80 nt oligonucleotide as the scaffold to draw close the three pre-rings for hybridization between short complementary DNA. After assembly, three pre-rings were closed by DNA ligation using three 12 nt oligonucleotides as splints to form interlocked three-ring catenanes. L3C nanostructures were imaged in air by AFM: the catenane exhibited a smooth circular shape and was arranged in a line with well-defined structure, as expected.

Effect of LexA on Chromosomal Integration of CTXϕ in Vibrio cholerae

The genesis of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae involves acquisition of CTXϕ, a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) filamentous phage that encodes cholera toxin (CT). The phage exploits host-encoded tyrosine recombinases (XerC and XerD) for chromosomal integration and lysogenic conversion. The replicative genome of CTXϕ produces ssDNA by rolling-circle replication, which may be used either for virion production or for integration into host chromosome. Fine-tuning of different ssDNA binding protein (Ssb) levels in the host cell is crucial for cellular functioning and important for CTXϕ integration. In this study, we mutated the master regulator gene of SOS induction, lexA, of V. cholerae because of its known role in controlling levels of Ssb proteins in other bacteria. CTXϕ integration decreased in cells with a ΔlexA mutation and increased in cells with an SOS-noninducing mutation, lexA (Ind(-)). We also observed that overexpression of host-encoded Ssb (VC0397) decreased integration of CTXϕ. We propose that LexA helps CTXϕ integration, possibly by fine-tuning levels of host- and phage-encoded Ssbs.

IMPORTANCE

Cholera toxin is the principal virulence factor responsible for the acute diarrheal disease cholera. CT is encoded in the genome of a lysogenic filamentous phage, CTXϕ. Vibrio cholerae has a bipartite genome and harbors single or multiple copies of CTXϕ prophage in one or both chromosomes. Two host-encoded tyrosine recombinases (XerC and XerD) recognize the folded ssDNA genome of CTXϕ and catalyze its integration at the dimer resolution site of either one or both chromosomes. Fine-tuning of ssDNA binding proteins in host cells is crucial for CTXϕ integration. We engineered the V. cholerae genome and created several reporter strains carrying ΔlexA or lexA (Ind(-)) alleles. Using the reporter strains, the importance of LexA control of Ssb expression in the integration efficiency of CTXϕ was demonstrated.

Enhanced DNA binding affinity of RecA protein from Deinococcus radiodurans

Deinococcus radiodurans (Dr) has a significantly more robust DNA repair response than Escherichia coli (Ec), which helps it survive extremely high doses of ionizing radiation and prolonged periods of desiccation. DrRecA protein plays an essential part in this DNA repair capability. In this study we directly compare the binding of DrRecA and EcRecA to the same set of short, defined single (ss) and double stranded (ds) DNA oligomers. In the absence of cofactors (ATPγS or ADP), DrRecA binds to dsDNA oligomers more than 20 fold tighter than EcRecA, and binds ssDNA up to 9 fold tighter. Binding to dsDNA oligomers in the absence of cofactor presumably predominantly monitors DNA end binding, and thus suggests a significantly higher affinity of DrRecA for ds breaks. Upon addition of ATPγS, this species-specific affinity difference is nearly abolished, as ATPγS significantly decreases the affinity of DrRecA for DNA. Other findings include that: (1) both proteins exhibit a dependence of binding affinity on the length of the ssDNA oligomer, but not the dsDNA oligomer; (2) the salt dependence of binding is modest for both species of RecA, and (3) in the absence of DNA, DrRecA produces significantly shorter and/or fewer free-filaments in solution than does EcRecA. The results suggest intrinsic biothermodynamic properties of DrRecA contribute directly to the more robust DNA repair capabilities of D. radiodurans.

Molecular mechanism of sequence-dependent stability of RecA filament

RecA is a DNA-dependent ATPase and mediates homologous recombination by first forming a filament on a single-stranded (ss) DNA. RecA binds preferentially to TGG repeat sequence, which resembles the recombination hot spot Chi (5′-GCTGGTGG-3′) and is the most frequent pattern (GTG) of the codon usage in Escherichia coli. Because of the highly dynamic nature of RecA filament formation, which consists of filament nucleation, growth and shrinkage, we need experimental approaches that can resolve each of these processes separately to gain detailed insights into the molecular mechanism of sequence preference. By using a single-molecule fluorescence assay, we examined the effect of sequence on individual stages of nucleation, monomer binding and dissociation. We found that RecA does not recognize the Chi sequence as a nucleation site. In contrast, we observed that it is the reduced monomer dissociation that mainly determines the high filament stability on TGG repeats. This sequence dependence of monomer dissociation is well-correlated with that of ATP hydrolysis, suggesting that DNA sequence dictates filament stability through modulation of ATP hydrolysis.

Coordinated Binding of Single-Stranded and Double-Stranded DNA by UvsX Recombinase

Homologous recombination is important for the error-free repair of DNA double-strand breaks and for replication fork restart. Recombinases of the RecA/Rad51 family perform the central catalytic role in this process. UvsX recombinase is the RecA/Rad51 ortholog of bacteriophage T4. UvsX and other recombinases form presynaptic filaments on ssDNA that are activated to search for homology in dsDNA and to perform DNA strand exchange. To effectively initiate recombination, UvsX must find and bind to ssDNA within an excess of dsDNA. Here we examine the binding of UvsX to ssDNA and dsDNA in the presence and absence of nucleotide cofactor, ATP. We also examine how the binding of one DNA substrate is affected by simultaneous binding of the other to determine how UvsX might selectively assemble on ssDNA. We show that the two DNA binding sites of UvsX are regulated by the nucleotide cofactor ATP and are coordinated with each other such that in the presence of ssDNA, dsDNA binding is significantly reduced and correlated with its homology to the ssDNA bound to the enzyme. UvsX has high affinity for dsDNA in the absence of ssDNA, which may allow for sequestration of the enzyme in an inactive form prior to ssDNA generation.

Interaction of G-quadruplex with RecA protein studied in bulk phase and at the single-molecule level

As in the human genome there are numerous repeat DNA sequences to adopt into non-B DNA structures such as hairpin, triplex, Z-DNA, G-quadruplex, and so on, an understanding of the interaction between DNA repair proteins and a non-B DNA forming sequence is very important. In this regard, the interaction between RecA protein and human telomeric 5'-TAGGG-(TTAGGG)3-TT-3' sequence and the G-quadruplex formed from this sequence has been investigated in bulk phase and at the single-molecule level. The RecA@ssDNA filament, which is formed by the interaction between RecA protein and a G-rich sequence, was dissociated by the addition of K(+) ions, and the dissociated G-rich sequence was quickly folded to a G-quadruplex structure, indicating that the G-quadruplex structure is more favorable than the RecA@ssDNA filament in the presence of K(+) ions. In addition, we demonstrate that the conformation of the G-quadruplex, which is heterogeneous in the absence of RecA, converged to the specific G-quadruplex with one double-chain-reversal loop upon association of RecA protein.

Nanoscale programmable sequence-specific patterning of DNA scaffolds using RecA protein

Molecular self-assembly inherent to many biological molecules, in conjunction with suitable molecular scaffolds to facilitate programmable positioning of nanoscale objects, offers a promising approach for the integration of functional nanoscale complexes into macroscopic host devices. Here, we report the use of the protein RecA as a means of highly efficient programmable patterning of double-stranded (ds)DNA molecules with molecular-scale precision at specific locations along the DNA strand. RecA proteins form nucleoprotein filaments with single-stranded (ss)DNA molecules, which are chosen to be of sequence homologous to the desired binding region on the dsDNA scaffold. We show that the patterning yield can be in excess of 85% and we demonstrate that concurrent patterning of multiple locations on the same dsDNA scaffold can be achieved with separation between the assembled nucleoprotein filaments of less than 4 nm. This is an important prerequisite for this programmable and flexible DNA scaffold patterning technique to be employed in molecular- and nanoscale assembly applications.

Effects of pressure and temperature on the binding of RecA protein to single-stranded DNA

The binding and polymerization of RecA protein to DNA is required for recombination, which is an essential function of life. We study the pressure and temperature dependence of RecA binding to single-stranded DNA in the presence of adenosine 5'-[γ-thio]triphosphate (ATP[γ-S]), in a temperature regulated high pressure cell using fluorescence anisotropy. Measurements were possible at temperatures between 5-60 °C and pressures up to 300 MPa. Experiments were performed on Escherichia coli RecA and RecA from a thermophilic bacteria, Thermus thermophilus. For E. coli RecA at a given temperature, binding is a monotonically decreasing and reversible function of pressure. At atmospheric pressure, E. coli RecA binding decreases monotonically up to 42 °C, where a sharp transition to the unbound state indicates irreversible heat inactivation. T. thermophilus showed no such transition within the temperature range of our apparatus. Furthermore, we find that binding occurs for a wider range of pressure and temperature for T. thermophilus compared to E. coli RecA, suggesting a correlation between thermophilicity and barophilicity. We use a two-state model of RecA binding/unbinding to extract the associated thermodynamic parameters. For E. coli, we find that the binding/unbinding phase boundary is hyperbolic. Our results of the binding of RecA from E. coli and T. thermophilus show adaptation to pressure and temperature at the single protein level.

Direct observation of multiple pathways of single-stranded DNA stretching

We observed multiple pathways of stretching single-stranded polydeoxynucleotides, poly(dA). Poly(dA) has been shown to undergo unique transitions under mechanical force, and such transitions were attributed to the stacking characteristics of poly(dA). Using single-molecule manipulation studies, we found that poly(dA) has two stretching pathways at high forces. The previously observed pathway has a free energy that is less than what is expected of single-stranded DNA with a random sequence, indicating the existence of a novel conformation of poly(dA) at large extensions. We also observed stepwise transitions between the two pathways by pulling the molecule with constant force, and found that the transitions are cooperative. These results suggest that the unique mechanical property of poly(dA) may play an important role in biological processes such as gene expression.

Binding selectivity of RecA to a single stranded DNA, a computational approach

Homologous recombination (HR) is the major DNA double strand break repair pathway which maintains the genomic integrity. It is fundamental for the survivability and functionality of all organisms. One of the initial steps in HR is the formation of the nucleoprotein filament composed by a single stranded DNA chain surrounded by the recombinases protein. The filament orchestrates the search for an undamaged homologue, as a template for the repair process. Our theoretical study was aimed at elucidating the selectivity of the interaction between a monomer of the recombinases enzyme in the Escherichia coli, EcRecA, the bacterial homologue of human Rad51, with a series of oligonucleotides of nine bases length. The complex, equilibrated for 20 ns with Langevian dynamics, was inserted in a periodic box with a 8 Å buffer of water molecules explicitly described by the TIP3P model. The absolute binding free energies are calculated in an implicit solvent using the Poisson-Boltzmann (PB) and the generalized Born (GB) solvent accessible surface area, using the MM-PB(GB)SA model. The solute entropic contribution is also calculated by normal mode analysis. The results underline how a significant contribution of the binding free energy is due to the interaction with the Arg196, a critical amino acid for the activity of the enzyme. The study revealed how the binding affinity of EcRecA is significantly higher toward dT₉ rather than dA₉, as expected from the experimental results.

Visualizing protein-DNA interactions at the single-molecule level

Recent advancements in single-molecule methods have allowed researchers to directly observe proteins acting on their DNA targets in real-time. Single-molecule imaging of protein-DNA interactions permits detection of the dynamic behavior of individual complexes that otherwise would be obscured in ensemble experiments. The kinetics of these processes can be monitored directly, permitting identification of unique subpopulations or novel reaction intermediates. Innovative techniques have been developed to isolate and manipulate individual DNA or protein molecules, and to visualize their interactions. The actions of proteins that have been visualized include: duplex DNA unwinding, DNA degradation, DNA packaging, translocation on DNA, sliding, superhelical twisting, and DNA bending, extension, and condensation. These single-molecule studies have provided new insights into nearly all aspects of DNA metabolism. Here we focus primarily on recent advances in fluorescence imaging and mechanical detection of individual protein-DNA complexes, with emphasis on selected proteins involved in DNA recombination: DNA helicases, DNA translocases, and DNA strand exchange proteins.

Cancer-associated mutations in BRC domains of BRCA2 affect homologous recombination induced by Rad51

The tumor suppressor BRCA2 protein plays a major role in the regulation of Rad51-catalyzed homologous recombination. BRCA2 interacts with monomeric Rad51 primarily via conserved BRC domains and coordinates the formation of Rad51 filaments at double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) breaks. A number of cancer-associated mutations in BRC4 and BRC2 domains have been reported. To elucidate their effects on homologous recombination, we studied Rad51 filament formation on single-stranded DNA and dsDNA substrates and Rad51-catalyzed strand exchange, in the presence of wild-type and mutated peptides of either BRC4 or BRC2. While the wild-type BRC2 and BRC4 peptides inhibited filament formation and, thus, strand exchange, the mutated forms decreased significantly these inhibitory effects. These results are consistent with a three-dimensional model for the interface between individual BRC repeats and Rad51. We suggest that mutations at sites crucial for the association between Rad51 and BRC domains impair the ability of BRCA2 to recruit Rad51 to dsDNA breaks, hampering recombinational repair.

Probing the structure of RecA-DNA filaments. Advantages of a fluorescent guanine analog

The RecA protein of Escherichia coli plays a crucial roles in DNA recombination and repair, as well as various aspects of bacterial pathogenicity. The formation of a RecA-ATP-ssDNA complex initiates all RecA activities and yet a complete structural and mechanistic description of this filament has remained elusive. An analysis of RecA-DNA interactions was performed using fluorescently labeled oligonucleotides. A direct comparison was made between fluorescein and several fluorescent nucleosides. The fluorescent guanine analog 6-methylisoxanthopterin (6MI) demonstrated significant advantages over the other fluorophores and represents an important new tool for characterizing RecA-DNA interactions.

Calorimetric analysis of binding of two consecutive DNA strands to RecA protein illuminates mechanism for recognition of homology

RecA protein recognises two complementary DNA strands for homologous recombination. To gain insight into the molecular mechanism, the thermodynamic parameters of the DNA binding have been characterised by isothermal calorimetry. Specifically, conformational changes of protein and DNA were searched for by measuring variations in enthalpy change (DeltaH) with temperature (heat capacity change, DeltaC(p)). In the presence of the ATP analogue ATPgammaS, the DeltaH for the binding of the first DNA strand depends upon temperature (large DeltaC(p)) and the type of buffer, in a way that is consistent with the organisation of disordered parts and the protonation of RecA upon complex formation. In contrast, the binding of the second DNA strand occurs without any pronounced DeltaC(p), indicating the absence of further reorganisation of the RecA-DNA filament. In agreement with these findings, a significant change in the CD spectrum of RecA was observed only upon the binding of the first DNA strand. In the absence of nucleotide cofactor, the DeltaH of DNA binding is almost independent of temperature, indicating a requirement for ATP in the reorganisation of RecA. When the second DNA strand is complementary to the first, the DeltaH is larger than that for non-complementary DNA strand, but less than the DeltaH of the annealing of the complementary DNA without RecA. This small DeltaH could reflect a weak binding that may facilitate the dissociation of only partly complementary DNA and thus speed the search for complementary DNA. The DeltaH of binding DNA sequences displaying strong base-base stacking is small for both the first and second binding DNA strand, suggesting that the second is also stretched upon interaction with RecA. These results support the proposal that the RecA protein restructures DNA, preparing it for the recognition of a complementary second DNA strand, and that the recognition is due mainly to direct base-base contacts between DNA strands.

Probing single-stranded DNA and its biomolecular interactions through direct catalytic activation of factor XII, a protease of the blood coagulation cascade

Triggered self-activation of factor XII, a blood coagulation protease, was utilized for the amplified visual detection of ss-DNA targets in a non-sequence specific way. Factor XII holds potential as a low-affinity and therefore non-interfering probe for DNA secondary structure and for the screening of protein binding to ss-DNA. The observation that ss-DNA also accelerates coagulation of human blood plasma is relevant to the emerging field of aptamer therapeutics.

Probing the DNA sequence specificity of Escherichia coli RECA protein

Escherichia coli RecA protein catalyzes the central DNA strand-exchange step of homologous recombination, which is essential for the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks. In this reaction, RecA first polymerizes on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) to form a right-handed helical filament with one monomer per 3 nt of ssDNA. RecA generally binds to any sequence of ssDNA but has a preference for GT-rich sequences, as found in the recombination hot spot Chi (5′-GCTGGTGG-3′). When this sequence is located within an oligonucleotide, binding of RecA is phased relative to it, with a periodicity of three nucleotides. This implies that there are three separate nucleotide-binding sites within a RecA monomer that may exhibit preferences for the four different nucleotides. Here we have used a RecA coprotease assay to further probe the ssDNA sequence specificity of E.coli RecA protein. The extent of self-cleavage of a λ repressor fragment in the presence of RecA, ADP-AlF₄ and 64 different trinucleotide-repeating 15mer oligonucleotides was determined. The coprotease activity of RecA is strongly dependent on the ssDNA sequence, with TGG-repeating sequences giving by far the highest coprotease activity, and GC and AT-rich sequences the lowest. For selected trinucleotide-repeating sequences, the DNA-dependent ATPase and DNA-binding activities of RecA were also determined. The DNA-binding and coprotease activities of RecA have the same sequence dependence, which is essentially opposite to that of the ATPase activity of RecA. The implications with regard to the biological mechanism of RecA are discussed.

Monitoring single-stranded DNA secondary structure formation by determining the topological state of DNA catenanes

Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) has essential biological functions during DNA replication, recombination, repair, and transcription. The structure of ssDNA must be better understood to elucidate its functions. However, the available data are too limited to give a clear picture of ssDNA due to the extremely capricious structural features of ssDNA. In this study, by forming DNA catenanes and determining their topology (the linking number, Lk) through the electrophoretic analysis, we demonstrate that the studies of catenanes formed from two ssDNA molecules can yield valuable new information about the ssDNA secondary structure. We construct catenanes out of two short (60/70 nt) ssDNA molecules by enzymatic cyclization of linear oligodeoxynucleotides. The secondary structure formed between the two DNA circles determines the topology (the Lk value) of the constructed DNA catenane. Thus, formation of the secondary structure is experimentally monitored by observing the changes of linking number with sequences and conditions. We found that the secondary structure of ssDNA is much easier to form than expected: the two strands in an internal loop in the folded ssDNA structure prefer to braid around each other rather than stay separately forming a loop, and a duplex containing only mismatched basepairs can form under physiological conditions.

Hourglass model for a protein-based circadian oscillator

Many organisms possess internal biochemical clocks, known as circadian oscillators, which allow them to regulate their biological activity with a 24-hour period. It was recently discovered that the circadian oscillator of photosynthetic cyanobacteria is able to function in a test tube with only three proteins, KaiA, KaiB, and KaiC, and ATP. Biochemical events are intrinsically stochastic, and this tends to desynchronize oscillating protein populations. We propose that stability of the Kai-protein oscillator relies on active synchronization by (i) monomer exchange between KaiC hexamers during the day, and (ii) formation of clusters of KaiC hexamers at night. Our results highlight the importance of collective assembly or disassembly of proteins in biochemical networks, and may help guide design of novel protein-based oscillators.

Real-time assays with molecular beacons and other fluorescent nucleic acid hybridization probes

BACKGROUND

A number of formats for nucleic acid hybridization have been developed to identify DNA and RNA sequences that are involved in cellular processes and that aid in the diagnosis of genetic and infectious diseases.

METHODS

The introduction of hybridization probes with interactive fluorophore pairs has enabled the development of homogeneous hybridization assays for the direct identification of nucleic acids. A change in the fluorescence of these probes indicates the presence of a target nucleic acid, and there is no need to separate unbound probes from hybridized probes.

CONCLUSIONS

The advantages of homogeneous hybridization assays are their speed and simplicity. In addition, homogeneous assays can be combined with nucleic acid amplification, enabling the detection of rare target nucleic acids. These assays can be followed in real time, providing quantitative determination of target nucleic acids over a broad range of concentrations.

Entropy and GC Content in the beta-esterase gene cluster of the Drosophila melanogaster subgroup

We perform spectral entropy and GC content analyses in the beta-esterase gene cluster, including the Est-6 gene and the psiEst-6 putative pseudogene, in seven species of the Drosophila melanogaster species subgroup. psiEst-6 combines features of functional and nonfunctional genes. The spectral entropies show distinctly lower structural ordering for psiEst-6 than for Est-6 in all species studied. Our observations agree with previous results for D. melanogaster and provide additional support to our hypothesis that after the duplication event Est-6 retained the esterase-coding function and its role during copulation, while psiEst-6 lost that function but now operates in conjunction with Est-6 as an intergene. Entropy accumulation is not a completely random process for either gene. Structural entropy is nucleotide dependent. The relative normalized deviations for structural entropy are higher for G than for C nucleotides. The entropy values are similar for Est-6 and psiEst-6 in the case of A and T but are lower for Est-6 in the case of G and C. The GC content in synonymous positions is uniformly higher in Est-6 than in psiEst-6, which agrees with the reduced GC content generally observed in pseudogenes and nonfunctional sequences. The observed differences in entropy and GC content reflect an evolutionary shift associated with the process of pseudogenization and subsequent functional divergence of psiEst-6 and Est-6 after the duplication event.

DNA bending by M.EcoKI methyltransferase is coupled to nucleotide flipping

The maintenance methyltransferase M.EcoKI recognizes the bipartite DNA sequence 5′-AACNNNNNNGTGC-3′, where N is any nucleotide. M.EcoKI preferentially methylates a sequence already containing a methylated adenine at or complementary to the underlined bases in the sequence. We find that the introduction of a single-stranded gap in the middle of the non-specific spacer, of up to 4 nt in length, does not reduce the binding affinity of M.EcoKI despite the removal of non-sequence-specific contacts between the protein and the DNA phosphate backbone. Surprisingly, binding affinity is enhanced in a manner predicted by simple polymer models of DNA flexibility. However, the activity of the enzyme declines to zero once the single-stranded region reaches 4 nt in length. This indicates that the recognition of methylation of the DNA is communicated between the two methylation targets not only through the protein structure but also through the DNA structure. Furthermore, methylation recognition requires base flipping in which the bases targeted for methylation are swung out of the DNA helix into the enzyme. By using 2-aminopurine fluorescence as the base flipping probe we find that, although flipping occurs for the intact duplex, no flipping is observed upon introduction of a gap. Our data and polymer model indicate that M.EcoKI bends the non-specific spacer and that the energy stored in a double-stranded bend is utilized to force or flip out the bases. This energy is not stored in gapped duplexes. In this way, M.EcoKI can determine the methylation status of two adenine bases separated by a considerable distance in double-stranded DNA and select the required enzymatic response.

Sequence-specific modification of mouse genomic DNA mediated by gene targeting techniques

The major impact of the human genome sequence is the understanding of disease etiology with deduced therapy. The completion of this project has shifted the interest from the sequencing and identification of genes to the exploration of gene function, signalling the beginning of the post-genomic era. Contrasting with the spectacular progress in the identification of many morbid genes, today therapeutic progress is still lagging behind. The goal of all gene therapy protocols is to repair the precise genetic defect without additional modification of the genome. The main strategy has traditionally been focused on the introduction of an expression system designed to express a specific protein, defective in the transfected cell. But the numerous deficiencies associated with gene augmentation have resulted in the development of alternative approaches to treat inherited and acquired genetic disorders. Among these one is represented by gene repair based on homologous recombination (HR). Simply stated, the process involves targeting the mutation in situ for gene correction and for restoration of a normal gene function. Homologous recombination is an efficient means for genomic manipulation of prokaryotes, yeast and some lower eukaryotes. By contrast, in higher eukaryotes it is less efficient than in the prokaryotic system, with non-homologous recombination being 10-50 fold higher. However, recent advances in gene targeting and novel strategies have led to the suggestion that gene correction based on HR might be used as clinical therapy for genetic disease. This site-specific gene repair approach could represent an alternative gene therapy strategy in respect to those involving the use of retroviral or lentiviral vectors to introduce therapeutic genes and linked regulatory sequences into random sites within the target cell genome. In fact, gene therapy approaches involving addition of a gene by viral or nonviral vectors often give a short duration of gene expression and are difficult to target to specific populations of cells. The purpose of this paper is to review oligonucleotide-based gene targeting technologies and their applications on modifying the mouse genome.

Twisting and untwisting a single DNA molecule covered by RecA protein

We study dsDNA-RecA interactions by exerting forces in the pN range on single DNA molecules while the interstrand topological state is controlled owing to a magnetic tweezers setup. We show that unwinding a duplex DNA molecule induces RecA polymerization even at moderate force. Once initial polymerization has nucleated, the extent of RecA coverage still depends on the degree of supercoiling: exerting a positive or negative torsional constraint on the fiber forces partial depolymerization, with a strikingly greater stability when ATPgammaS is used as a cofactor instead of ATP. This nucleofilament's sensitivity to topology might be a way for the bacterial cell to limit consumption of precious RecA monomers when DNA damage is addressed through homologous recombination repair.

The euryarchaeota, nature's medium for engineering of single-stranded DNA-binding proteins

The architecture of single-stranded DNA-binding proteins, which play key roles in DNA metabolism, is based on different combinations of the oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide binding (OB) fold. Whereas the polypeptide serving this function in bacteria contains one OB fold, the eukaryotic functional homolog comprises a complex of three proteins, each harboring at least one OB fold. Here we show that unlike these groups of organisms, the Euryarchaeota has exploited the potential in the OB fold to re-invent single-stranded DNA-binding proteins many times. However, the most common form is a protein with two OB folds and one zinc finger domain. We created several deletion mutants of this protein based on its conserved motifs, and from these structures functional chimeras were synthesized, supporting the hypothesis that gene duplication and recombination could lead to novel functional forms of single-stranded DNA-binding proteins. Biophysical studies showed that the orthologs of the two OB fold/one zinc finger replication protein A in Methanosarcina acetivorans and Methanopyrus kandleri exhibit two binding modes, wrapping and stretching of DNA. However, the ortholog in Ferroplasma acidarmanus possessed only the stretching mode. Most interestingly, a second single-stranded DNA-binding protein, FacRPA2, in this archaeon exhibited the wrapping mode. Domain analysis of this protein, which contains a single OB fold, showed that its architecture is similar to the functional homologs thought to be unique to the Crenarchaeotes. Most unexpectedly, genes coding for similar proteins were found in the genomes of eukaryotes, including humans. Although the diversity shown by archaeal single-stranded DNA-binding proteins is unparalleled, the presence of their simplest form in many organisms across all domains of life is of greater evolutionary consequence.

High-fidelity DNA sensing by protein binding fluctuations

One of the major functions of RecA protein in the cell is to bind single-stranded DNA exposed upon damage, thereby triggering the SOS repair response. We present fluorescence anisotropy measurements at the binding onset, showing enhanced DNA length discrimination induced by adenosine triphosphate consumption. Our model explains the observed DNA length sensing as an outcome of out-of-equilibrium binding fluctuations, reminiscent of microtubule dynamic instability. The cascade architecture of the binding fluctuations is a generalization of the kinetic proofreading mechanism. Enhancement of precision by an irreversible multistage pathway is a possible design principle in the noisy biological environment.

Adeno-associated virus Rep78/Rep68 promotes localized melting of the rep binding element in the absence of adenosine triphosphate

We have applied fluorescence anisotropy and molecular beacon fluorescence methods to study the interactions between the Adeno-associated virus Rep78/Rep68 protein and the 23-bp Rep binding element (RBE). Rep78/Rep68 stably interacted with both the single- and double-stranded conformations of the RBE, but the interaction mechanisms of single- and double-stranded DNA appeared to be fundamentally different. The stoichiometry of Rep78 association with both the separate top and bottom strands of the RBE was 1:1, and the relative dissociation constant (K(D)) values of these associations were calculated to be 2.3x10(-8) and 3.2x10(-8) M, respectively. In contrast, the stoichiometry of Rep78 association with the double-stranded RBE was 2:1, and the dissociation constant was determined to be 4.2x10(-15) M(2). Moreover, Rep78/Rep68 interaction with the 23-bp duplex RBE appeared to cause localized melting of the double-stranded DNA substrate in the absence of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This melting activity showed slower kinetics than binding and may contribute to the initiation of ATP-dependent Rep78 helicase activity.

Significant pKa perturbation of nucleobases is an intrinsic property of the sequence context in DNA and RNA

The pH titration and NMR studies (pH 6.6-12.5) in the heptameric isosequential ssDNA and ssRNA molecules, [d/r(5'-CAQ1GQ2AC-3', with variable Q1/Q2)], show that the pKa of the central G residue within the heptameric ssDNAs (DeltapKa = 0.67 +/- 0.03) and ssRNAs (DeltapKa = 0.49 +/- 0.02) is sequence-dependent. This variable pKa of the G clearly shows that its pseudoaromatic character, hence, its chemical reactivity, is strongly modulated and tuned by its sequence context. In contradistinction to the ssDNAs, the electrostatic transmission of the pKa of the G moiety to the neighboring A or C residues in the heptameric ssRNAs (as observed by the response of the aromatic marker protons of As or Cs) is found to be uniquely dependent upon the sequence composition. This demonstrates that the neighboring As or Cs in ssRNAs have variable electrostatic efficiency to interact with the central G/G-, which is owing to the variable pseudoaromatic characters (giving variable chemical reactivities) of the flanking As or Cs compared to those of the isosequential ssDNAs. The sequence-dependent variation of pKa of the central G and the modulation of its pKa transmission through the nearest-neighbors by variable electrostatic interaction is owing to the electronically coupled nature of the constituent nucleobases across the single strand, which demonstrates the unique chemical basis of the sequence context specificity of DNA or RNA in dictating the biological interaction, recognition, and function with any specific ligand.

Direct evaluation of a mechanism for activation of the RecA nucleoprotein filament

The RecA protein of Escherichia coli controls the SOS response for DNA damage tolerance and plays a crucial role in recombinational DNA repair. The formation of a RecA.ATP.ssDNA complex initiates all RecA activities, and yet this process is not understood at the molecular level. An analysis of RecA.DNA interactions was performed using both a mutant RecA protein containing a tryptophan (Trp) reporter and oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) containing a fluorescent guanine analogue, 6-methylisoxanthopterin (6MI). Experiments using fluorescent ODNs allowed structurally distinct nucleoprotein filaments, formed in the absence and presence of ATPgammaS (a slowly hydrolyzed analogue of ATP), to be differentiated directly. Stopped-flow spectrofluorometry, combined with presteady-state kinetic analyses, revealed unexpected differences in the rates of RecA.ODN and RecA.ATPgammaS.ODN complex assembly. This is the first demonstration that such intrinsically fluorescent synthetic DNAs can be used to characterize definitively the real-time assembly and activation of RecA.ssDNA complexes. Surprisingly, the ssDNA binding event is almost 50-fold slower in the presence of the activating ATPgammaS cofactor. Furthermore, a combination of time-dependent emission changes from 6MI and Trp allowed the first direct chemical test of whether an inactive filament can isomerize to the active state. The results revealed that, unlike the hexameric motor proteins, the inactive RecA filament cannot directly convert to the active state upon ATPgammaS binding. These results have implications for understanding how a coincidence of functions--an ATP-communicated signal-like activity and an ATP-driven motorlike activity--are resolved within a single protein molecule.

Functional analysis of multiple single-stranded DNA-binding proteins from Methanosarcina acetivorans and their effects on DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase BI

Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins and their functional homologs, replication protein A, are essential components of cellular DNA replication, repair and recombination. We describe here the isolation and characterization of multiple replication protein A homologs, RPA1, RPA2, and RPA3, from the archaeon Methanosarcina acetivorans. RPA1 comprises four single-stranded DNA-binding domains, while RPA2 and RPA3 are each composed of two such domains and a zinc finger domain. Gel filtration analysis suggested that RPA1 exists as homotetramers and homodimers in solution, while RPA2 and RPA3 form only homodimers. Unlike the multiple RPA proteins found in other Archaea and eukaryotes, each of the M. acetivorans RPAs can act as a distinct single-stranded DNA-binding protein. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer and fluorescence polarization anisotropy studies revealed that the M. acetivorans RPAs bind to as few as 10 single-stranded DNA bases. However, more stable binding is achieved with single-stranded DNA of 18-23 bases, and for such substrates the estimated Kd was 3.82 +/- 0.28 nM, 173.6 +/- 105.17 nM, and 5.92 +/- 0.23 nM, for RPA1, RPA2, and RPA3, respectively. The architectures of the M. acetivorans RPAs are different from those of hitherto reported homologs. Thus, these proteins may represent novel forms of replication protein A. Most importantly, our results show that the three RPAs and their combinations highly stimulate the primer extension capacity of M. acetivorans DNA polymerase BI. Although bacterial SSB and eukaryotic RPA have been shown to stimulate DNA synthesis by their cognate DNA polymerases, our findings provide the first in vitro biochemical evidence for the conservation of this property in an archaeon.

Phasing of RecA monomers on quasi-random DNA sequences

We show that some arbitrarily chosen DNA sequences have the ability to influence the positioning of RecA monomers in RecA-DNA complexes. The preferential phase of binding of RecA monomers is shown to depend on the DNA sequence and its nucleotide composition. A simple rearrangement of bases in a limited DNA stretch influences the phasing of RecA monomers. On the other hand, that some features of DNA sequences interfere with the phasing on specific DNA sites demonstrates the existence of mechanisms for both positive and negative regulation of phasing on natural DNAs. The possible role of phasing of RecA monomers on DNA is discussed.

Probing distance and electrical potential within a protein pore with tethered DNA

DNA molecules tethered inside a protein pore can be used as a tool to probe distance and electrical potential. The approach and its limitations were tested with alpha-hemolysin, a pore of known structure. A single oligonucleotide was attached to an engineered cysteine to allow the binding of complementary DNA strands inside the wide internal cavity of the extramembranous domain of the pore. The reversible binding of individual oligonucleotides produced transient current blockades in single channel current recordings. To probe the internal structure of the pore, oligonucleotides with 5' overhangs of deoxyadenosines and deoxythymidines up to nine bases in length were used. The characteristics of the blockades produced by the oligonucleotides indicated that single-stranded overhangs of increasing length first approach and then thread into the transmembrane beta-barrel. The distance from the point at which the DNA was attached and the internal entrance to the barrel is 43 A, consistent with the lengths of the DNA probes and the signals produced by them. In addition, the tethered DNAs were used to probe the electrical potential within the protein pore. Binding events of oligonucleotides with an overhang of five bases or more, which threaded into the beta-barrel, exhibited shorter residence times at higher applied potentials. This finding is consistent with the idea that the main potential drop is across the alpha-hemolysin transmembrane beta-barrel, rather than the entire length of the lumen of the pore. It therefore explains why the kinetics and thermodynamics of formation of short duplexes within the extramembranous cavity of the pore are similar to those measured in solution, and bolsters the idea that a "DNA nanopore" provides a useful means for examining duplex formation at the single molecule level.

The bacterial RecA protein and the recombinational DNA repair of stalled replication forks

The primary function of bacterial recombination systems is the nonmutagenic repair of stalled or collapsed replication forks. The RecA protein plays a central role in these repair pathways, and its biochemistry must be considered in this context. RecA protein promotes DNA strand exchange, a reaction that contributes to fork regression and DNA end invasion steps. RecA protein activities, especially formation and disassembly of its filaments, affect many additional steps. So far, Escherichia coli RecA appears to be unique among its nearly ubiquitous family of homologous proteins in that it possesses a motorlike activity that can couple the branch movement in DNA strand exchange to ATP hydrolysis. RecA is also a multifunctional protein, serving in different biochemical roles for recombinational processes, SOS induction, and mutagenic lesion bypass. New biochemical and structural information highlights both the similarities and distinctions between RecA and its homologs. Increasingly, those differences can be rationalized in terms of biological function.

Cleavable substrate containing molecular beacons for the quantification of DNA-photolyase activity

In order to gain deeper insight into the function and interplay of proteins in cells it is essential to develop methods that allow the profiling of protein function in real time, in solution, in cells, and in cell organelles. Here we report the development of a U-type oligonucleotide (molecular beacon) that contains a fluorophore and a quencher at the tips, and in addition a substrate analogue in the loop structure. This substrate analogue induces a hairpin cleavage in response to enzyme action, which is translated into a fluorescence signal. The molecular beacon developed here was used to characterize DNA-photolyase activity. These enzymes represent a challenge for analytical methods because of their low abundance in cells. The molecular beacon made it possible to measure the activity of purified class I and class II photolyases. Photolyase activity was even detectable in crude cell extracts.

Protein-DNA computation by stochastic assembly cascade

The assembly of RecA on single-stranded DNA is measured and interpreted as a stochastic finite-state machine that is able to discriminate fine differences between sequences, a basic computational operation. RecA filaments efficiently scan DNA sequence through a cascade of random nucleation and disassembly events that is mechanistically similar to the dynamic instability of microtubules. This iterative cascade is a multistage kinetic proofreading process that amplifies minute differences, even a single base change. Our measurements suggest that this stochastic Turing-like machine can compute certain integral transforms.