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Arshavsky YI. Memory: Synaptic or Cellular, That Is the Question. Neuroscientist 2023; 29:538-553. [PMID: 35713238 DOI: 10.1177/10738584221086488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
According to the commonly accepted opinion, memory engrams are formed and stored at the level of neural networks due to a change in the strength of synaptic connections between neurons. This hypothesis of synaptic plasticity (HSP), formulated by Donald Hebb in the 1940s, continues to dominate the directions of experimental studies and the interpretations of experimental results in the field. The universal acceptance of the HSP has transformed it from a hypothesis into an incontrovertible theory. In this article, I show that the entire body of experimental and clinical data obtained in studies of long-term memory in mammals and humans is inconsistent with the HSP. Instead, these data suggest that long-term memory is formed and stored at the intracellular level where it is reliably protected from ongoing synaptic activity, including pathological epileptic activity. It seems that the generally accepted HSP became a serious obstacle to understanding the mechanisms of memory and that progress in this field requires rethinking this doctrine and shifting experimental efforts toward exploring the intracellular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri I Arshavsky
- BioCircuits Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Li C, Tian W, He Y, Wang C, Wang X, Xu X, Bai L, Xue T, Liao Y, Xu T, Liu X, Wu S. How are patterned movements stored in working memory? Front Psychol 2023; 14:1074520. [PMID: 36874799 PMCID: PMC9982134 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1074520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction In this study, the change detection paradigm was used to study the working memory of patterned movements and the relationship of this type of memory with the visuospatial sketchpad in three experiments. Methods Experiment 1 measured participants' working memory capacity for patterned movements and explored the influence of stimulus type with indicators such as response time and accuracy rate. Experiments 2 and 3 explored the relationship between patterned movements and the visual and spatial subsystems, respectively. Results The results of Experiment 1 indicated that individuals can store 3-4 patterned movements in working memory; however, a change in stimulus format or an increase in memory load may decrease the speed and efficiency of working memory processing. The results of Experiment 2 showed that working memory and visual working memory are independent when processing patterned movements. The results of Experiment 3 showed that the working memory of patterned movements was affected by spatial working memory. Discussion Changes in stimulus type and memory load exerted different effects on the working memory capacity of participants. These results provide behavioral evidence that the storage of patterned movement information is independent of the visual subsystem but requires the spatial subsystem of the visuospatial sketchpad.
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Affiliation(s)
- Congchong Li
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Wenqing Tian
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yang He
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Chaoxian Wang
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xianyang Wang
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiang Xu
- Air Force Bureau of Trainee Pilot Selection, Nanjing Central Division, Nanjing, China
| | - Lifeng Bai
- Department of Social Sciences, Aviation University of Air Force, Changchun, China
| | - Ting Xue
- Department of Social Sciences, Aviation University of Air Force, Changchun, China
| | - Yang Liao
- Air Force Medical Center, Air Force Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Xu
- Secondary Air Force Healthcare Center for Special Services, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xufeng Liu
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Shengjun Wu
- Department of Military Medical Psychology, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, China
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Grazia A, Wimmer M, Müller-Putz GR, Wriessnegger SC. Neural Suppression Elicited During Motor Imagery Following the Observation of Biological Motion From Point-Light Walker Stimuli. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 15:788036. [PMID: 35069155 PMCID: PMC8779203 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.788036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Advantageous effects of biological motion (BM) detection, a low-perceptual mechanism that allows the rapid recognition and understanding of spatiotemporal characteristics of movement via salient kinematics information, can be amplified when combined with motor imagery (MI), i.e., the mental simulation of motor acts. According to Jeannerod's neurostimulation theory, asynchronous firing and reduction of mu and beta rhythm oscillations, referred to as suppression over the sensorimotor area, are sensitive to both MI and action observation (AO) of BM. Yet, not many studies investigated the use of BM stimuli using combined AO-MI tasks. In this study, we assessed the neural response in the form of event-related synchronization and desynchronization (ERD/S) patterns following the observation of point-light-walkers and concordant MI, as compared to MI alone. Methods: Twenty right-handed healthy participants accomplished the experimental task by observing BM stimuli and subsequently performing the same movement using kinesthetic MI (walking, cycling, and jumping conditions). We recorded an electroencephalogram (EEG) with 32 channels and performed time-frequency analysis on alpha (8-13 Hz) and beta (18-24 Hz) frequency bands during the MI task. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA was performed to test statistical significance among conditions and electrodes of interest. Results: The results revealed significant ERD/S patterns in the alpha frequency band between conditions and electrode positions. Post hoc comparisons showed significant differences between condition 1 (walking) and condition 3 (jumping) over the left primary motor cortex. For the beta band, a significantly less difference in ERD patterns (p < 0.01) was detected only between condition 3 (jumping) and condition 4 (reference). Discussion: Our results confirmed that the observation of BM combined with MI elicits a neural suppression, although just in the case of jumping. This is in line with previous findings of AO and MI (AOMI) eliciting a neural suppression for simulated whole-body movements. In the last years, increasing evidence started to support the integration of AOMI training as an adjuvant neurorehabilitation tool in Parkinson's disease (PD). Conclusion: We concluded that using BM stimuli in AOMI training could be promising, as it promotes attention to kinematic features and imitative motor learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Grazia
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, Rostock-Greifswald, Rostock, Germany
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Michael Wimmer
- Institute of Neural Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Gernot R. Müller-Putz
- Institute of Neural Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Selina C. Wriessnegger
- Institute of Neural Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
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Gu Q, Wan X, Ma H, Lu X, Guo Y, Shen M, Gao Z. Event-based encoding of biological motion and location in visual working memory. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2020; 73:1261-1277. [DOI: 10.1177/1747021820903042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
We make use of discrete yet meaningful events to orient ourselves to the dynamic environment. Among these events, biological motion, referring to the movements of animate entities, is one of the most biologically salient. We usually encounter biological motions of multiple human beings taking place simultaneously at distinct locations. How we encode biological motions into visual working memory (VWM) to form a coherent experience of the external world and guide our social behaviour remains unclear. This study for the first time addressed the VWM encoding mechanism of biological motions and their corresponding locations. We tested an event-based encoding hypothesis for biological motion and location: When one element of an event is required to be memorised, the irrelevant element of an event will also be extracted into VWM. We presented participants with three biological motions at different locations and required them to memorise only the biological motions or their locations while ignoring the other dimension. We examined the event-based encoding by probing a distracting effect: If the event-based encoding took place, the change of irrelevant dimension in the probe would lead to a significant distraction and impair the performance of detecting target dimension. We found significant distracting effects, which lasted for 3 s but vanished at 6 s, regardless of the target dimension (biological motions vs. locations, Experiment 1) and the exposure time of memory array (1 s vs. 3 s, Experiment 2). These results together support an event-based encoding mechanism during VWM encoding of biological motions and their corresponding locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Gu
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Xueyi Wan
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Hong Ma
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Xiqian Lu
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Yang Guo
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Mowei Shen
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Zaifeng Gao
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
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Ye T, Li P, Zhang Q, Gu Q, Lu X, Gao Z, Shen M. Relation Between Working Memory Capacity of Biological Movements and Fluid Intelligence. Front Psychol 2019; 10:2313. [PMID: 31749726 PMCID: PMC6842976 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies have revealed that there is an independent buffer for holding biological movements (BM) in working memory (WM), and this BM-WM has a unique link to our social ability. However, it remains unknown as to whether the BM-WM also correlates to our cognitive abilities, such as fluid intelligence (Gf). Since BM processing has been considered as a hallmark of social cognition, which distinguishes from canonical cognitive abilities in many ways, it has been hypothesized that only canonical object-WM (e.g., memorizing color patches), but not BM-WM, emerges to have an intimate relation with Gf. We tested this prediction by measuring the relationship between WM capacity of BM and Gf. With two Gf measurements, we consistently found moderate correlations between BM-WM capacity, the score of both Raven's advanced progressive matrix (RAPM), and the Cattell culture fair intelligence test (CCFIT). This result revealed, for the first time, a close relation between WM and Gf with a social stimulus, and challenged the double-dissociation hypothesis for distinct functions of different WM buffers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Ye
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Peng Li
- School of Education and Management, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, China
| | - Qiong Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Quan Gu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiqian Lu
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zaifeng Gao
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Mowei Shen
- Department of Psychology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Larsch J, Baier H. Biological Motion as an Innate Perceptual Mechanism Driving Social Affiliation. Curr Biol 2018; 28:3523-3532.e4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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