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Roohi A, Gharagozlou S. Vitamin D supplementation and calcium: Many-faced gods or nobody in fighting against Corona Virus Disease 2019. Clin Nutr ESPEN 2024; 62:172-184. [PMID: 38901939 DOI: 10.1016/j.clnesp.2024.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
In December 2019, Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified and designated as a pandemic in March 2020 due to rapid spread of the virus globally. At the beginning of the pandemic, only a few treatment options, mainly focused on supportive care and repurposing medications, were available. Due to its effects on immune system, vitamin D was a topic of interest during the pandemic, and researchers investigated its potential impact on COVID-19 outcomes. However, the results of studies about the impact of vitamin D on the disease are inconclusive. In the present narrative review, different roles of vitamin D regarding the COVID-19 have been discussed to show that vitamin D supplementation should be recommended carefully.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azam Roohi
- Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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2
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Cedillo-Barrón L, García-Cordero J, Visoso-Carvajal G, León-Juárez M. Viroporins Manipulate Cellular Powerhouses and Modulate Innate Immunity. Viruses 2024; 16:345. [PMID: 38543711 PMCID: PMC10974846 DOI: 10.3390/v16030345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Viruses have a wide repertoire of molecular strategies that focus on their replication or the facilitation of different stages of the viral cycle. One of these strategies is mediated by the activity of viroporins, which are multifunctional viral proteins that, upon oligomerization, exhibit ion channel properties with mild ion selectivity. Viroporins facilitate multiple processes, such as the regulation of immune response and inflammasome activation through the induction of pore formation in various cell organelle membranes to facilitate the escape of ions and the alteration of intracellular homeostasis. Viroporins target diverse membranes (such as the cellular membrane), endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria. Cumulative data regarding the importance of mitochondria function in multiple processes, such as cellular metabolism, energy production, calcium homeostasis, apoptosis, and mitophagy, have been reported. The direct or indirect interaction of viroporins with mitochondria and how this interaction affects the functioning of mitochondrial cells in the innate immunity of host cells against viruses remains unclear. A better understanding of the viroporin-mitochondria interactions will provide insights into their role in affecting host immune signaling through the mitochondria. Thus, in this review, we mainly focus on descriptions of viroporins and studies that have provided insights into the role of viroporins in hijacked mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leticia Cedillo-Barrón
- Department of Molecular Biomedicine, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN) Av., IPN # 2508 Col., San Pedro Zacatenco, Mexico City 07360, Mexico; (J.G.-C.); (G.V.-C.)
| | - Julio García-Cordero
- Department of Molecular Biomedicine, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN) Av., IPN # 2508 Col., San Pedro Zacatenco, Mexico City 07360, Mexico; (J.G.-C.); (G.V.-C.)
| | - Giovani Visoso-Carvajal
- Department of Molecular Biomedicine, Center for Research and Advanced Studies (CINVESTAV-IPN) Av., IPN # 2508 Col., San Pedro Zacatenco, Mexico City 07360, Mexico; (J.G.-C.); (G.V.-C.)
- Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Salvador Díaz Mirón esq, Plan de San Luis S/N, Miguel Hidalgo, Casco de Santo Tomas, Mexico City 11340, Mexico
| | - Moisés León-Juárez
- Instituto Nacional de Perinatología Isidro Espinosa de los Reyes, Mexico City 11000, Mexico;
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3
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Eria-Oliveira AS, Folacci M, Chassot AA, Fedou S, Thézé N, Zabelskii D, Alekseev A, Bamberg E, Gordeliy V, Sandoz G, Vivaudou M. Hijacking of internal calcium dynamics by intracellularly residing viral rhodopsins. Nat Commun 2024; 15:65. [PMID: 38167346 PMCID: PMC10761956 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44548-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Rhodopsins are ubiquitous light-driven membrane proteins with diverse functions, including ion transport. Widely distributed, they are also coded in the genomes of giant viruses infecting phytoplankton where their function is not settled. Here, we examine the properties of OLPVR1 (Organic Lake Phycodnavirus Rhodopsin) and two other type 1 viral channelrhodopsins (VCR1s), and demonstrate that VCR1s accumulate exclusively intracellularly, and, upon illumination, induce calcium release from intracellular IP3-dependent stores. In vivo, this light-induced calcium release is sufficient to remote control muscle contraction in VCR1-expressing tadpoles. VCR1s natively confer light-induced Ca2+ release, suggesting a distinct mechanism for reshaping the response to light of virus-infected algae. The ability of VCR1s to photorelease calcium without altering plasma membrane electrical properties marks them as potential precursors for optogenetics tools, with potential applications in basic research and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana-Sofia Eria-Oliveira
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IBS, Grenoble, France
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, INSERM, iBV, Nice, France
- Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Nice, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire InovPain, Cote d'Azur University, University Hospital Center Nice, Nice, France
| | - Mathilde Folacci
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IBS, Grenoble, France
- Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Nice, France
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anne Amandine Chassot
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, INSERM, iBV, Nice, France
- Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Nice, France
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire InovPain, Cote d'Azur University, University Hospital Center Nice, Nice, France
| | - Sandrine Fedou
- Univ. Bordeaux, Inserm, BRIC, UMR, 1312, Bordeaux, France
| | - Nadine Thézé
- Univ. Bordeaux, Inserm, BRIC, UMR, 1312, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Alexey Alekseev
- Advanced Optogenes Group, Institute for Auditory Neuroscience and InnerEarLab, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence "Multiscale Bioimaging: from Molecular Machines to Networks of Excitable Cells" (MBExC), University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ernst Bamberg
- Max Planck Institute of Biophysics, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Valentin Gordeliy
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IBS, Grenoble, France
- Institute of Biological Information Processing (IBI-7: Structural Biochemistry), Forschungszentrum Jülich, Jülich, Germany
| | - Guillaume Sandoz
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, INSERM, iBV, Nice, France.
- Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Nice, France.
- Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire InovPain, Cote d'Azur University, University Hospital Center Nice, Nice, France.
| | - Michel Vivaudou
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IBS, Grenoble, France.
- Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Nice, France.
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4
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Luganini A, Serra V, Scarpellino G, Bhat SM, Munaron L, Fiorio Pla A, Gribaudo G. The US21 viroporin of human cytomegalovirus stimulates cell migration and adhesion. mBio 2023; 14:e0074923. [PMID: 37477430 PMCID: PMC10470750 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00749-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) US12 gene family contributes to virus-host interactions by regulating the virus' cell tropism and its evasion of host innate immune responses. US21, one of the 10 US12 genes (US12-US21), is a descendant of a captured cellular transmembrane BAX inhibitor motif-containing gene. It encodes a 7TMD endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident viroporin (pUS21) capable of reducing the Ca2+ content of ER stores, which, in turn, protects cells against apoptosis. Since regulation of Ca2+ homeostasis affects a broad range of cellular responses, including cell motility, we investigated whether pUS21 might also interfere with this cytobiological consequence of Ca2+ signaling. Indeed, deletion of the US21 gene impaired the ability of HCMV-infected cells to migrate, whereas expression of US21 protein stimulated cell migration and adhesion, as well as focal adhesion (FA) dynamics, in a way that depended on its ability to manipulate ER Ca2+ content. Mechanistic studies revealed pUS21-mediated cell migration to involve calpain 2 activation since its inhibition prevented the viroporin's effects on cell motility. Pertinently, pUS21 expression stimulated a store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) mechanism that may determine the activation of calpain 2 by promoting Ca2+ entry. Furthermore, pUS21 was observed to interact with talin-1, a calpain 2 substrate, and crucial protein component of FA complexes. A functional consequence of this interaction was confirmed by talin-1 knockdown, which abrogated the pUS21-mediated increase in cell migration. Together, these results indicate the US21-encoded viroporin to be a viral regulator of cell adhesion and migration in the context of HCMV infection. IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is an opportunistic pathogen that owes part of its success to the capture, duplication, and tuning of cellular genes to generate modern viral proteins which promote infection and persistence in the host by interfering with many cell biochemical and physiological pathways. The US21 viral protein provides an example of this evolutionary strategy: it is a cellular-derived calcium channel that manipulates intracellular calcium homeostasis to confer edges to HCMV replication. Here, we report on the characterization of a novel function of the US21 protein as a viral regulator of cell migration and adhesion through mechanisms involving its calcium channel activity. Characterization of HCMV multifunctional regulatory proteins, like US21, supports the better understanding of viral pathogenesis and may open avenues for the design of new antiviral strategies that exploit their functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Luganini
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Valentina Serra
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Giorgia Scarpellino
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Shree Madhu Bhat
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Luca Munaron
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Alessandra Fiorio Pla
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gribaudo
- Department of Life Sciences and Systems Biology, University of Torino, Torino, Italy
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Zeng J, Cao D, Yang S, Jaijyan DK, Liu X, Wu S, Cruz-Cosme R, Tang Q, Zhu H. Insights into the Transcriptome of Human Cytomegalovirus: A Comprehensive Review. Viruses 2023; 15:1703. [PMID: 37632045 PMCID: PMC10458407 DOI: 10.3390/v15081703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a widespread pathogen that poses significant risks to immunocompromised individuals. Its genome spans over 230 kbp and potentially encodes over 200 open-reading frames. The HCMV transcriptome consists of various types of RNAs, including messenger RNAs (mRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), and microRNAs (miRNAs), with emerging insights into their biological functions. HCMV mRNAs are involved in crucial viral processes, such as viral replication, transcription, and translation regulation, as well as immune modulation and other effects on host cells. Additionally, four lncRNAs (RNA1.2, RNA2.7, RNA4.9, and RNA5.0) have been identified in HCMV, which play important roles in lytic replication like bypassing acute antiviral responses, promoting cell movement and viral spread, and maintaining HCMV latency. CircRNAs have gained attention for their important and diverse biological functions, including association with different diseases, acting as microRNA sponges, regulating parental gene expression, and serving as translation templates. Remarkably, HCMV encodes miRNAs which play critical roles in silencing human genes and other functions. This review gives an overview of human cytomegalovirus and current research on the HCMV transcriptome during lytic and latent infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Zeng
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, 225 Warren Street, Newark, NJ 070101, USA
| | - Di Cao
- Department of Pain Medicine, Huazhong University of Science and Technology Union Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen 518052, China
| | - Shaomin Yang
- Department of Pain Medicine, Huazhong University of Science and Technology Union Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen 518052, China
| | - Dabbu Kumar Jaijyan
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, 225 Warren Street, Newark, NJ 070101, USA
| | - Xiaolian Liu
- Institute of Pathogenic Organisms, Shenzhen Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Songbin Wu
- Department of Pain Medicine, Huazhong University of Science and Technology Union Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen 518052, China
| | - Ruth Cruz-Cosme
- Department of Microbiology, Howard University College of Medicine, 520 W Street NW, Washington, DC 20059, USA
| | - Qiyi Tang
- Department of Microbiology, Howard University College of Medicine, 520 W Street NW, Washington, DC 20059, USA
| | - Hua Zhu
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, 225 Warren Street, Newark, NJ 070101, USA
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6
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Kim HJ, Lee Y, Lee S, Park B. HCMV-encoded viral protein US12 promotes autophagy by inducing autophagy flux. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 654:94-101. [PMID: 36898229 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-encoded US12 gene family is a group of ten predicted seven-transmembrane domain proteins that are structurally similar to G-protein-coupled receptors or transmembrane Bax inhibitor-1 motif-containing proteins; however, the roles of US12 family proteins in virus-host interactions remain to be discovered. Here, we suggest a new function of the US12 protein in regulating cellular autophagy. US12 is predominantly located to the lysosome and interacts with the lysosomal membrane protein 2 (LAMP2). A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (MS)/MS-based targeted proteomics analysis shows that US12 is tightly correlated with autophagy. US12 induces autophagy via upregulating ULK1 phosphorylation and subsequent LC3-II conversion, thereby accelerating autophagic flux. Moreover, HeLa cells overexpressing US12 displays intense LC3-specific staining and autolysosome formation even under nutrient-sufficient conditions. Furthermore, the physical interaction of p62/SQSTM1 with US12 is involved in the resistance to the degradation of p62/SQSTM1 by autophagy, despite the induction of both autolysosome formation and autophagic flux. Although the effect of US12 expression in HCMV infection on autophagy remains undetermined, these findings provide new insights into the viral drivers of host autophagy during HCMV evolution and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung Jin Kim
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
| | - Yoora Lee
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea
| | - Sungwook Lee
- Division of Tumor Immunology, Research Institute, National Cancer Center, Goyang, 10408, South Korea
| | - Boyoun Park
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, 03722, South Korea.
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7
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Xia S, Fang P, Pan T, Xiao W, Zhang H, Zhu X, Xiao S, Fang L. Porcine deltacoronavirus accessory protein NS7a possesses the functional characteristics of a viroporin. Vet Microbiol 2022; 274:109551. [PMID: 36067658 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 08/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Viroporins are virus-encoded proteins that mediate ion channel (IC) activity, playing critical roles in virus entry, replication, pathogenesis, and immune evasion. Previous studies have shown that some coronavirus accessory proteins have viroporin-like activity. Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV) is an emerging enteropathogenic coronavirus that encodes three accessory proteins, NS6, NS7, and NS7a. However, whether any of the PDCoV accessory proteins possess viroporin-like activity, and if so which, remains unknown. In this study, we analyzed the biochemical properties of the three PDCoV-encoded accessory proteins and found that NS7a could enhance the membrane permeability of both mammalian cells and Escherichia coli cells. Indirect immunofluorescence assay and co-immunoprecipitation assay results further indicated that NS7a is an integral membrane protein and can form homo-oligomers. A bioinformation analysis revealed that a putative viroporin domain (VPD) is located within amino acids 69-88 (aa69-88) of NS7a. Experiments with truncated mutants and alanine scanning mutagenesis additionally demonstrated that the amino acid residues 69FLR71 of NS7a are essential for its viroporin-like activity. Together, our findings are the first to demonstrate that PDCoV NS7a possesses viroporin-like activity and identify its key amino acid residues associated with viroporin-like activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sijin Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; The Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Puxian Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; The Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Ting Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; The Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Wenwen Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; The Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Huichang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; The Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xuerui Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; The Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Shaobo Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; The Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Liurong Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; The Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine in Hubei Province, Cooperative Innovation Center for Sustainable Pig Production, Wuhan 430070, China.
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8
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Yan N, Wang Y, Chen Z, Liu A, Li Y, Yang B, Li K, Qi X, Gao Y, Gao L, Liu C, Zhang Y, Cui H, Pan Q, Wang X. Stromal Interaction Molecule 1 Promotes the Replication of vvIBDV by Mobilizing Ca2+ in the ER. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071524. [PMID: 35891504 PMCID: PMC9320076 DOI: 10.3390/v14071524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is one of the main threats to the poultry industry worldwide. Very virulent IBDV (vvIBDV) is a fatal virus strain that causes heavy mortality in young chicken flocks. Ca2+ is one of the most universal and versatile signalling molecules and is involved in almost every aspect of cellular processes. Clinical examination showed that one of the characteristics of vvIBDV-infected chickens was severe metabolic disorders, and the chemical examination showed that their serum Ca2+ level decreased significantly. However, there are limited studies on how vvIBDV infection modulates the cellular Ca2+ level and the effect of Ca2+ level changes on vvIBDV replication. In our study, we found Ca2+ levels in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of vvIBDV-infected B cells were higher than that of mock-infected cells, and the expression level of stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1), an ER Ca2+ sensor, was significantly upregulated due to vvIBDV infection. The knock-down expression of STIM1 led to decreased Ca2+ level in the ER and suppressed vvIBDV replication, while the over-expressed STIM1 led to ER Ca2+ upregulation and promoted vvIBDV replication. We also showed that the inhibition of Ca2+-release-activated-Ca2+ (CRAC) channels could reduce vvIBDV infection by blocking Ca2+ from entering the ER. This study suggests a new mechanism that STIM1 promotes the replication of vvIBDV by mobilizing Ca2+ in the ER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nana Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Yongqiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
- Correspondence: (Y.W.); (X.W.); Fax: +86-451-5199-7166 (X.W.)
| | - Zehua Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Aijing Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Yue Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Bo Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Kai Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Xiaole Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Yulong Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Li Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Changjun Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Yanping Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Hongyu Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Qing Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
| | - Xiaomei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Avian Immunosuppressive Diseases Division, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China; (N.Y.); (Z.C.); (A.L.); (Y.L.); (B.Y.); (K.L.); (X.Q.); (Y.G.); (L.G.); (C.L.); (Y.Z.); (H.C.); (Q.P.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonose, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
- Correspondence: (Y.W.); (X.W.); Fax: +86-451-5199-7166 (X.W.)
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9
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Xia X, Cheng A, Wang M, Ou X, Sun D, Mao S, Huang J, Yang Q, Wu Y, Chen S, Zhang S, Zhu D, Jia R, Liu M, Zhao XX, Gao Q, Tian B. Functions of Viroporins in the Viral Life Cycle and Their Regulation of Host Cell Responses. Front Immunol 2022; 13:890549. [PMID: 35720341 PMCID: PMC9202500 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.890549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Viroporins are virally encoded transmembrane proteins that are essential for viral pathogenicity and can participate in various stages of the viral life cycle, thereby promoting viral proliferation. Viroporins have multifaceted effects on host cell biological functions, including altering cell membrane permeability, triggering inflammasome formation, inducing apoptosis and autophagy, and evading immune responses, thereby ensuring that the virus completes its life cycle. Viroporins are also virulence factors, and their complete or partial deletion often reduces virion release and reduces viral pathogenicity, highlighting the important role of these proteins in the viral life cycle. Thus, viroporins represent a common drug-protein target for inhibiting drugs and the development of antiviral therapies. This article reviews current studies on the functions of viroporins in the viral life cycle and their regulation of host cell responses, with the aim of improving the understanding of this growing family of viral proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Xia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Xumin Ou
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Di Sun
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Sai Mao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Juan Huang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Shaqiu Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Xin-Xin Zhao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Qun Gao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
| | - Bin Tian
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu City, China
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10
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Peñaflor-Téllez Y, Chávez-Munguía B, Lagunes-Guillén A, Salazar-Villatoro L, Gutiérrez-Escolano AL. The Feline Calicivirus Leader of the Capsid Protein Has the Functional Characteristics of a Viroporin. Viruses 2022; 14:v14030635. [PMID: 35337042 PMCID: PMC8955107 DOI: 10.3390/v14030635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The leader of the capsid (LC) protein is exclusive to the Vesivirus genus, and it is needed for successful feline calicivirus (FCV) replication, as well as an efficient apoptosis induction through the mitochondrial pathway. In this work, we aimed to determine if the LC protein from the FCV is a viroporin. Although lacking in a transmembrane domain or an amphipathic helix, the LC protein from the FCV is toxic when expressed in bacteria and it oligomerizes through disulfide bonds, which are both key characteristics of viroporins. An electron microscopy analysis of LC-expressing E. coli cells suggest that the protein induces osmotic stress. Moreover, we found that the previously studied C40A LC mutant, that fails to induce apoptosis and that hinders the replication cycle, also oligomerizes but it has a reduced toxicity and fails to induce osmotic stress in bacteria. We propose that the LC protein is a viroporin that acts as a disulfide bond-dependent antimicrobial peptide, similar to the Ebola virus delta peptide.
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11
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Deciphering the Potential Coding of Human Cytomegalovirus: New Predicted Transmembrane Proteome. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052768. [PMID: 35269907 PMCID: PMC8911422 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
CMV is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised individuals that will benefit from the availability of a vaccine. Despite the efforts made during the last decade, no CMV vaccine is available. An ideal CMV vaccine should elicit a broad immune response against multiple viral antigens including proteins involved in virus-cell interaction and entry. However, the therapeutic use of neutralizing antibodies targeting glycoproteins involved in viral entry achieved only partial protection against infection. In this scenario, a better understanding of the CMV proteome potentially involved in viral entry may provide novel candidates to include in new potential vaccine design. In this study, we aimed to explore the CMV genome to identify proteins with putative transmembrane domains to identify new potential viral envelope proteins. We have performed in silico analysis using the genome sequences of nine different CMV strains to predict the transmembrane domains of the encoded proteins. We have identified 77 proteins with transmembrane domains, 39 of which were present in all the strains and were highly conserved. Among the core proteins, 17 of them such as UL10, UL139 or US33A have no ascribed function and may be good candidates for further mechanistic studies.
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12
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Saurav S, Tanwar J, Ahuja K, Motiani RK. Dysregulation of host cell calcium signaling during viral infections: Emerging paradigm with high clinical relevance. Mol Aspects Med 2021; 81:101004. [PMID: 34304899 PMCID: PMC8299155 DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2021.101004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Viral infections are one of the leading causes of human illness. Viruses take over host cell signaling cascades for their replication and infection. Calcium (Ca2+) is a versatile and ubiquitous second messenger that modulates plethora of cellular functions. In last two decades, a critical role of host cell Ca2+ signaling in modulating viral infections has emerged. Furthermore, recent literature clearly implicates a vital role for the organellar Ca2+ dynamics (influx and efflux across organelles) in regulating virus entry, replication and severity of the infection. Therefore, it is not surprising that a number of viral infections including current SARS-CoV-2 driven COVID-19 pandemic are associated with dysregulated Ca2+ homeostasis. The focus of this review is to first discuss the role of host cell Ca2+ signaling in viral entry, replication and egress. We further deliberate on emerging literature demonstrating hijacking of the host cell Ca2+ dynamics by viruses. In particular, a variety of viruses including SARS-CoV-2 modulate lysosomal and cytosolic Ca2+ signaling for host cell entry and replication. Moreover, we delve into the recent studies, which have demonstrated the potential of several FDA-approved drugs targeting Ca2+ handling machinery in inhibiting viral infections. Importantly, we discuss the prospective of targeting intracellular Ca2+ signaling for better management and treatment of viral pathogenesis including COVID-19. Finally, we highlight the key outstanding questions in the field that demand critical and timely attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Saurav
- Laboratory of Calciomics and Systemic Pathophysiology, Regional Centre for Biotechnology (RCB), Faridabad-121001, Delhi-NCR, India
| | - Jyoti Tanwar
- CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB), New Delhi-110025, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad-201002, India
| | - Kriti Ahuja
- Laboratory of Calciomics and Systemic Pathophysiology, Regional Centre for Biotechnology (RCB), Faridabad-121001, Delhi-NCR, India
| | - Rajender K Motiani
- Laboratory of Calciomics and Systemic Pathophysiology, Regional Centre for Biotechnology (RCB), Faridabad-121001, Delhi-NCR, India.
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13
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Long X, Qiu Y, Zhang Z, Wu M. Insight for Immunotherapy of HCMV Infection. Int J Biol Sci 2021; 17:2899-2911. [PMID: 34345215 PMCID: PMC8326118 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.58127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), a ubiquitous in humans, has a high prevalence rate. Young people are susceptible to HCMV infection in developing countries, while older individuals are more susceptible in developed countries. Most patients have no obvious symptoms from the primary infection. Studies have indicated that the virus has gradually adapted to the host immune system. Therefore, the control of HCMV infection requires strong immune modulation. With the recent advances in immunotherapy, its application to HCMV infections is receiving increasing attention. Here, we discuss the immune response to HCMV infection, the immune escape mechanism, and the different roles that HCMV plays in various types of immunotherapy, including vaccines, adoptive cell therapy, checkpoint blockade therapy, and targeted antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinmiao Long
- Hunan Cancer Hospital and the Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
- The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis of the Chinese Ministry of Health, The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of the Chinese Ministry of Education, Cancer Research Institute, Central South University, Changsha, 410008 , Hunan, China
- Department of Pathogeny Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, Hunan, China
| | - Yi Qiu
- Hunan Cancer Hospital and the Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
- The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis of the Chinese Ministry of Health, The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of the Chinese Ministry of Education, Cancer Research Institute, Central South University, Changsha, 410008 , Hunan, China
- Department of Pathogeny Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, Hunan, China
| | - Zuping Zhang
- Department of Pathogeny Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Central South University, Changsha, 410078, Hunan, China
| | - Minghua Wu
- Hunan Cancer Hospital and the Affiliated Cancer Hospital of Xiangya School of Medicine, Central South University, Changsha 410013, Hunan, China
- The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis of the Chinese Ministry of Health, The Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion of the Chinese Ministry of Education, Cancer Research Institute, Central South University, Changsha, 410008 , Hunan, China
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14
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Yu Z, Wang Y, Liu L, Zhang X, Jiang S, Wang B. Apoptosis Disorder, a Key Pathogenesis of HCMV-Related Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22084106. [PMID: 33921122 PMCID: PMC8071541 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22084106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) belongs to the β-herpesvirus family, which is transmitted in almost every part of the world and is carried by more than 90% of the general population. Increasing evidence indicates that HCMV infection triggers numerous diseases by disrupting the normal physiological activity of host cells, particularly apoptosis. Apoptosis disorder plays a key role in the initiation and development of multiple diseases. However, the relationship and molecular mechanism of HCMV-related diseases and apoptosis have not yet been systematically summarized. This review aims to summarize the role of apoptosis in HCMV-related diseases and provide an insight into the molecular mechanism of apoptosis induced by HCMV infection. We summarize the literature on HCMV-related diseases and suggest novel strategies for HCMV treatment by regulating apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongjie Yu
- Department of Special Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China;
| | - Yashuo Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China;
| | - Lili Liu
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China;
| | - Xianjuan Zhang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China; (X.Z.); (S.J.)
| | - Shasha Jiang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China; (X.Z.); (S.J.)
| | - Bin Wang
- Department of Special Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-136-8532-6203
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15
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Zhang X, Zhang L, Bi Y, Xi T, Zhang Z, Huang Y, Lu YY, Liu X, Shu S, Fang F. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyladenine restricts murine cytomegalovirus replication. J Med Virol 2021; 93:5001-5016. [PMID: 33421149 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.26787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) induced autophagy affects virus replication and survival of the infected cells. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of autophagy inhibition by 3-methyladenine (3-MA) on murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) replication and whether it is associated with caspase-3 dependent apoptosis. The eyecup isolated from adult C57BL/6J mice (6-8 weeks old) and mouse embryo fibroblast cells (MEFs) were infected with MCMV K181 strain, followed by the treatment of 3-methyladenine (3-MA), chloroquine, or rapamycin to block or stimulate autophagy. In cultured MEFs, the ratio of LC3I/II was reduced at 24 hours post infection (hpi), but was increased at 48 hpi In the eyecup culture, LC3I/II ratio was also decreased at 4 and 7 days post infection (dpi). In addition, caspase-3 cleavage was increased at 48 hpi in MEFs and also elevated in MCMV infected eyecups at 4, 7, 10, and 14 dpi. 3-MA treatment significantly inhibited the virus replication in MEFs and eyecups. The expression of early antigen (EA) of MCMV was also decreased in MEFs and eyecups. Meanwhile, cleaved caspase-3 dependent cell death was promoted with the presence of 3-MA in MCMV infected MEFs and eyecups, while RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL pathway was inhibited by 3-MA in eyecups. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-MA restricts virus replication and promotes caspase-3 dependent apoptosis in the eyecup and MEFs with MCMV infection. It can be explained that during the early period of MCMV infection, the suppressed autophagy process directly reduced virus release, but later caspase-3 dependent apoptosis dominated and resulted in decreased virus replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyan Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yidan Bi
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Ting Xi
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zhan Zhang
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yuan Huang
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yuan Yuan Lu
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xinglou Liu
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Sainan Shu
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Feng Fang
- Department of Pediatrics, Tongji Hospital of Tongji Medical College of Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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16
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Crespi B, Alcock J. Conflicts over calcium and the treatment of COVID-19. EVOLUTION MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 9:149-156. [PMID: 33732462 PMCID: PMC7717197 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eoaa046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Several recent studies have provided evidence that use of calcium channel blockers (CCBs), especially amlodipine and nifedipine, can reduce mortality from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Moreover, hypocalcemia (a reduced level of serum ionized calcium) has been shown to be strongly positively associated with COVID-19 severity. Both effectiveness of CCBs as antiviral therapy, and positive associations of hypocalcemia with mortality, have been demonstrated for many other viruses as well. We evaluate these findings in the contexts of virus–host evolutionary conflicts over calcium metabolism, and hypocalcemia as either pathology, viral manipulation or host defence against pathogens. Considerable evidence supports the hypothesis that hypocalcemia represents a host defence. Indeed, hypocalcemia may exert antiviral effects in a similar manner as do CCBs, through interference with calcium metabolism in virus-infected cells. Prospective clinical studies that address the efficacy of CCBs and hypocalcemia should provide novel insights into the pathogenicity and treatment of COVID-19 and other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Crespi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Joe Alcock
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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17
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Largo E, Queralt-Martín M, Carravilla P, Nieva JL, Alcaraz A. Single-molecule conformational dynamics of viroporin ion channels regulated by lipid-protein interactions. Bioelectrochemistry 2020; 137:107641. [PMID: 32889489 PMCID: PMC7444495 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2020.107641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Classic swine fever is a highly contagious and often fatal viral disease that is caused by the classical swine fever virus (CSFV). Protein p7 of CFSV is a prototype of viroporin, a family of small, highly hydrophobic proteins postulated to modulate virus-host interactions during the processes of virus entry, replication and assembly. It has been shown that CSFV p7 displays substantial ion channel activity when incorporated into membrane systems, but a deep rationalization of the size and dynamics of the induced pores is yet to emerge. Here, we use high-resolution conductance measurements and current fluctuation analysis to demonstrate that CSFV p7 channels are ruled by equilibrium conformational dynamics involving protein-lipid interactions. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) confirms the existence of a variety of pore sizes and their tight regulation by solution pH. We conclude that p7 viroporin forms subnanometric channels involved in virus propagation, but also much larger pores (1-10 nm in diameter) with potentially significant roles in virus pathogenicity. Our findings provide new insights into the sources of noise in protein electrochemistry and demonstrate the existence of slow complex dynamics characteristic of crowded systems like biomembrane surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eneko Largo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain; Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain
| | - María Queralt-Martín
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Department of Physics, University Jaume I, 12071 Castellón, Spain
| | - Pablo Carravilla
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain; Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain; Institute of Applied Optics and Biophysics, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Max-Wien Platz 1, 07743 Jena, Germany; Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Albert Einstein Strasse 9, Jena, Germany
| | - José L Nieva
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain; Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), University of the Basque Country, Leioa E-48940, Spain
| | - Antonio Alcaraz
- Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics, Department of Physics, University Jaume I, 12071 Castellón, Spain.
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18
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Dunn DM, Munger J. Interplay Between Calcium and AMPK Signaling in Human Cytomegalovirus Infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:384. [PMID: 32850483 PMCID: PMC7403205 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Calcium signaling and the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling networks broadly regulate numerous aspects of cell biology. Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection has been found to actively manipulate the calcium-AMPK signaling axis to support infection. Many HCMV genes have been linked to modulating calcium signaling, and HCMV infection has been found to be reliant on calcium signaling and AMPK activation. Here, we focus on the cell biology of calcium and AMPK signaling and what is currently known about how HCMV modulates these pathways to support HCMV infection and potentially contribute to oncomodulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M Dunn
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Joshua Munger
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
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19
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Dell'Oste V, Biolatti M, Galitska G, Griffante G, Gugliesi F, Pasquero S, Zingoni A, Cerboni C, De Andrea M. Tuning the Orchestra: HCMV vs. Innate Immunity. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:661. [PMID: 32351486 PMCID: PMC7174589 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how the innate immune system keeps human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in check has recently become a critical issue in light of the global clinical burden of HCMV infection in newborns and immunodeficient patients. Innate immunity constitutes the first line of host defense against HCMV as it involves a complex array of cooperating effectors – e.g., inflammatory cytokines, type I interferon (IFN-I), natural killer (NK) cells, professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and phagocytes – all capable of disrupting HCMV replication. These factors are known to trigger a highly efficient adaptive immune response, where cellular restriction factors (RFs) play a major gatekeeping role. Unlike other innate immunity components, RFs are constitutively expressed in many cell types, ready to act before pathogen exposure. Nonetheless, the existence of a positive regulatory feedback loop between RFs and IFNs is clear evidence of an intimate cooperation between intrinsic and innate immunity. In the course of virus-host coevolution, HCMV has, however, learned how to manipulate the functions of multiple cellular players of the host innate immune response to achieve latency and persistence. Thus, HCMV acts like an orchestra conductor able to piece together and rearrange parts of a musical score (i.e., innate immunity) to obtain the best live performance (i.e., viral fitness). It is therefore unquestionable that innovative therapeutic solutions able to prevent HCMV immune evasion in congenitally infected infants and immunocompromised individuals are urgently needed. Here, we provide an up-to-date review of the mechanisms regulating the interplay between HCMV and innate immunity, focusing on the various strategies of immune escape evolved by this virus to gain a fitness advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Dell'Oste
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Matteo Biolatti
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Ganna Galitska
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Gloria Griffante
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Francesca Gugliesi
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Selina Pasquero
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandra Zingoni
- Department of Molecular Immunology and Immunopathology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Cristina Cerboni
- Department of Molecular Immunology and Immunopathology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco De Andrea
- Laboratory of Pathogenesis of Viral Infections, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.,Center for Translational Research on Autoimmune and Allergic Disease - CAAD, University of Piemonte Orientale, Novara, Italy
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Abstract
: The use of cytomegalovirus (CMV) as a vaccine vector to express antigens against multiple infectious diseases, including simian immunodeficiency virus, Ebola virus, plasmodium, and mycobacterium tuberculosis, in rhesus macaques has generated extraordinary levels of protective immunity against subsequent pathogenic challenge. Moreover, the mechanisms of immune protection have altered paradigms about viral vector-mediated immunity against ectopically expressed vaccine antigens. Further optimization of CMV-vectored vaccines, particularly as this approach moves to human clinical trials will be augmented by a more complete understanding of how CMV engenders mechanisms of immune protection. This review summarizes the particulars of the specific CMV vaccine vector that has been used to date (rhesus CMV strain 68-1) in relation to CMV natural history.
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21
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Human Cytomegalovirus Disruption of Calcium Signaling in Neural Progenitor Cells and Organoids. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00954-19. [PMID: 31217241 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00954-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The herpesvirus human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a leading cause of congenital birth defects. Infection can result in infants born with a variety of symptoms, including hepatosplenomegaly, microcephaly, and developmental disabilities. Microcephaly is associated with disruptions in the neural progenitor cell (NPC) population. Here, we defined the impact of HCMV infection on neural tissue development and calcium regulation, a critical activity in neural development. Regulation of intracellular calcium involves purinergic receptors and voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCC). HCMV infection compromised the ability of both pathways in NPCs as well as fibroblasts to respond to stimulation. We observed significant drops in basal calcium levels in infected NPCs which were accompanied by loss in VGCC activity and purinergic receptor responses. However, uninfected cells in the population retained responsiveness. Addition of the HCMV inhibitor maribavir reduced viral spread but failed to restore activity in infected cells. To study neural development, we infected three-dimensional cortical organoids with HCMV. Infection spread to a subset of cells over time and disrupted organoid structure, with alterations in developmental and neural layering markers. Organoid-derived infected neurons and astrocytes were unable to respond to stimulation whereas uninfected cells retained nearly normal responses. Maribavir partially restored structural features, including neural rosette formation, and dampened the impact of infection on neural cellular function. Using a tissue model system, we have demonstrated that HCMV alters cortical neural layering and disrupts calcium regulation in infected cells.IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) replicates in several cell types throughout the body, causing disease in the absence of an effective immune response. Studies on HCMV require cultured human cells and tissues due to species specificity. In these studies, we investigated the impact of infection on developing three-dimensional cortical organoid tissues, with specific emphasis on cell-type-dependent calcium signaling. Calcium signaling is an essential function during neural differentiation and cortical development. We observed that HCMV infects and spreads within these tissues, ultimately disrupting cortical structure. Infected cells exhibited depleted calcium stores and loss of ATP- and KCl-stimulated calcium signaling while uninfected cells in the population maintained nearly normal responses. Some protection was provided by the viral inhibitor maribavir. Overall, our studies provide new insights into the impact of HCMV on cortical tissue development and function.
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Li M, Xi P, Xu Y, Wang Z, Han X, Ren W, Phouthapane V, Miao J. Taurine Attenuates Streptococcus uberis-Induced Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells Inflammation via Phosphoinositides/Ca 2+ Signaling. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1825. [PMID: 31447841 PMCID: PMC6692464 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Taurine may alleviate the inflammatory injury induced by Streptococcus uberis (S. uberis) infection by regulating intracellular Ca2+ levels. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Infection leads to subversion of phosphoinositides (PIs) which are closely related to Ca2+ signaling. In order to investigate whether taurine regulates inflammation by means of PIs/ Ca2+ systems, competitive inhibitors of taurine (β-alanine) siTauT, siPAT1, siPLC, siCaN, siPKC, and inhibitors of PLC (U73122), PKC (RO31-8220), and CaN (FK 506) were used. The results indicate that taurine transfers the extracellular nutrient signal for intercellular innate immunity to phosphoinositides without a need to enter the cytoplasm while regulating intracellular Ca2+ levels during inflammation. Both the Ca2+-PKCα-NF-κB, and Ca2+-CaM-CaN-NFAT signaling pathways of S. uberis infection and the regulatory roles of taurine follow activation of PIs/Ca2+ systems. These data increase our understanding on the mechanisms of multifunctional nutrient, taurine attenuated inflammatory responses caused by S. uberis infection, and provide theoretical support for the prevention of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Li
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Panpan Xi
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuanyuan Xu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhenglei Wang
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiangan Han
- Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenkai Ren
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control, College of Animal Science, Subtropical Institute of Animal Nutrition and Feed, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Vanhnaseng Phouthapane
- Biotechnology and Ecology Institute, Ministry of Science and Technology, Vientiane, Laos
| | - Jinfeng Miao
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, China
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Guo G, Xu M, Chang Y, Luyten T, Seitaj B, Liu W, Zhu P, Bultynck G, Shi L, Quick M, Liu Q. Ion and pH Sensitivity of a TMBIM Ca 2+ Channel. Structure 2019; 27:1013-1021.e3. [PMID: 30930064 PMCID: PMC6560632 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The anti-apoptotic transmembrane Bax inhibitor motif (TMBIM) containing protein family regulates Ca2+ homeostasis, cell death, and the progression of diseases including cancers. The recent crystal structures of the TMBIM homolog BsYetJ reveal a conserved Asp171-Asp195 dyad that is proposed in regulating a pH-dependent Ca2+ translocation. Here we show that BsYetJ mediates Ca2+ fluxes in permeabilized mammalian cells, and its interaction with Ca2+ is sensitive to protons and other cations. We report crystal structures of BsYetJ in additional states, revealing the flexibility of the dyad in a closed state and a pore-opening mechanism. Functional studies show that the dyad is responsible for both Ca2+ affinity and pH dependence. Computational simulations suggest that protonation of Asp171 weakens its interaction with Arg60, leading to an open state. Our integrated analysis provides insights into the regulation of the BsYetJ Ca2+ channel that may inform understanding of human TMBIM proteins regarding their roles in cell death and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gongrui Guo
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA; NSLS-II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Min Xu
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse - Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MA 21224, USA
| | - Yanqi Chang
- New York Consortium on Membrane Protein Structure, New York Structural Biology Center, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Tomas Luyten
- Laboratory Molecular and Cellular Signaling, Department Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Campus Gasthuisberg O/N-I Bus 802, Herestraat 49 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bruno Seitaj
- Laboratory Molecular and Cellular Signaling, Department Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Campus Gasthuisberg O/N-I Bus 802, Herestraat 49 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wu Liu
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA; NSLS-II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Ping Zhu
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Geert Bultynck
- Laboratory Molecular and Cellular Signaling, Department Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Campus Gasthuisberg O/N-I Bus 802, Herestraat 49 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lei Shi
- Computational Chemistry and Molecular Biophysics Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse - Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MA 21224, USA.
| | - Matthias Quick
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, NY 10032, USA; Division of Molecular Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY 10032, USA.
| | - Qun Liu
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA; NSLS-II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA.
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