1
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Ramirez-Parada TH, Park IW, Record S, Davis CC, Ellison AM, Mazer SJ. Plasticity and not adaptation is the primary source of temperature-mediated variation in flowering phenology in North America. Nat Ecol Evol 2024; 8:467-476. [PMID: 38212525 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-02304-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Phenology varies widely over space and time because of its sensitivity to climate. However, whether phenological variation is primarily generated by rapid organismal responses (plasticity) or local adaptation remains unresolved. Here we used 1,038,027 herbarium specimens representing 1,605 species from the continental United States to measure flowering-time sensitivity to temperature over time (Stime) and space (Sspace). By comparing these estimates, we inferred how adaptation and plasticity historically influenced phenology along temperature gradients and how their contributions vary among species with different phenology and native climates and among ecoregions differing in species composition. Parameters Sspace and Stime were positively correlated (r = 0.87), of similar magnitude and more frequently consistent with plasticity than adaptation. Apparent plasticity and adaptation generated earlier flowering in spring, limited responsiveness in late summer and delayed flowering in autumn in response to temperature increases. Nonetheless, ecoregions differed in the relative contributions of adaptation and plasticity, from consistently greater importance of plasticity (for example, southeastern United States plains) to their nearly equal importance throughout the season (for example, Western Sierra Madre Piedmont). Our results support the hypothesis that plasticity is the primary driver of flowering-time variation along temperature gradients, with local adaptation having a widespread but comparatively limited role.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadeo H Ramirez-Parada
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
| | - Isaac W Park
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Sydne Record
- Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Conservation Biology, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Charles C Davis
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Aaron M Ellison
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Sound Solutions for Sustainable Science, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Susan J Mazer
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
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2
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Kordyum E, Akimov Y, Polishchuk O, Panas I, Stepanov S, Kozeko L. Psammophytes Alyssum desertorum Stapf and Secale sylvestre Host Are Sensitive to Soil Flooding. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:413. [PMID: 38337946 PMCID: PMC10857069 DOI: 10.3390/plants13030413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
While morphological and functional traits enable hydrophytes to survive under waterlogging and partial or complete submergence, the data on responses of psammophytes-sand plants-to flooding are very limited. We analyzed the effect of 5- and 10-day soil flooding on the photosynthetic apparatus and the synthesis of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), heat shock proteins 70 (HSP70), and ethylene in seedlings of psammophytes Alyssum desertorum and Secale sylvestre using electron microscopy, chlorophyll a fluorescence induction, and biochemical methods. It was found that seedlings growing under soil flooding differed from those growing in stationary conditions with such traits as chloroplast ultrastructure, pigment content, chlorophyll fluorescence induction, and the dynamics of ADH, HSP, and ethylene synthesis. Although flooding caused no apparent damage to the photosynthetic apparatus in all the variants, a significant decrease in total photosynthesis efficiency was observed in both studied plants, as indicated by decreased values of φR0 and PIABS,total. More noticeable upregulation of ADH in S. sylvestre, as well as increasing HSP70 level and more intensive ethylene emission in A. desertorum, indicate species-specific differences in these traits in response to short-term soil flooding. Meanwhile, the absence of systemic anaerobic metabolic adaptation to prolonged hypoxia causes plant death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Kordyum
- M.G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 2 Tereschenkivska Str., 01024 Kyiv, Ukraine (O.P.); (S.S.); (L.K.)
| | - Yuri Akimov
- M.G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 2 Tereschenkivska Str., 01024 Kyiv, Ukraine (O.P.); (S.S.); (L.K.)
| | - Oleksandr Polishchuk
- M.G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 2 Tereschenkivska Str., 01024 Kyiv, Ukraine (O.P.); (S.S.); (L.K.)
| | - Ihor Panas
- Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 9 Leontovicha Str., 01030 Kyiv, Ukraine;
| | - Sergiy Stepanov
- M.G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 2 Tereschenkivska Str., 01024 Kyiv, Ukraine (O.P.); (S.S.); (L.K.)
| | - Liudmyla Kozeko
- M.G. Kholodny Institute of Botany, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, 2 Tereschenkivska Str., 01024 Kyiv, Ukraine (O.P.); (S.S.); (L.K.)
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3
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Lovell RSL, Collins S, Martin SH, Pigot AL, Phillimore AB. Space-for-time substitutions in climate change ecology and evolution. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:2243-2270. [PMID: 37558208 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
In an epoch of rapid environmental change, understanding and predicting how biodiversity will respond to a changing climate is an urgent challenge. Since we seldom have sufficient long-term biological data to use the past to anticipate the future, spatial climate-biotic relationships are often used as a proxy for predicting biotic responses to climate change over time. These 'space-for-time substitutions' (SFTS) have become near ubiquitous in global change biology, but with different subfields largely developing methods in isolation. We review how climate-focussed SFTS are used in four subfields of ecology and evolution, each focussed on a different type of biotic variable - population phenotypes, population genotypes, species' distributions, and ecological communities. We then examine the similarities and differences between subfields in terms of methods, limitations and opportunities. While SFTS are used for a wide range of applications, two main approaches are applied across the four subfields: spatial in situ gradient methods and transplant experiments. We find that SFTS methods share common limitations relating to (i) the causality of identified spatial climate-biotic relationships and (ii) the transferability of these relationships, i.e. whether climate-biotic relationships observed over space are equivalent to those occurring over time. Moreover, despite widespread application of SFTS in climate change research, key assumptions remain largely untested. We highlight opportunities to enhance the robustness of SFTS by addressing key assumptions and limitations, with a particular emphasis on where approaches could be shared between the four subfields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca S L Lovell
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Sinead Collins
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Simon H Martin
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Alex L Pigot
- Centre for Biodiversity and Environment Research, Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Albert B Phillimore
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, UK
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4
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Becker-Scarpitta A, Antão LH, Schmidt NM, Blanchet FG, Kaarlejärvi E, Raundrup K, Roslin T. Diverging trends and drivers of Arctic flower production in Greenland over space and time. Polar Biol 2023; 46:837-848. [PMID: 37589013 PMCID: PMC10425507 DOI: 10.1007/s00300-023-03164-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
The Arctic is warming at an alarming rate. While changes in plant community composition and phenology have been extensively reported, the effects of climate change on reproduction remain poorly understood. We quantified multidecadal changes in flower density for nine tundra plant species at a low- and a high-Arctic site in Greenland. We found substantial changes in flower density over time, but the temporal trends and drivers of flower density differed both between species and sites. Total flower density increased over time at the low-Arctic site, whereas the high-Arctic site showed no directional change. Within and between sites, the direction and rate of change differed among species, with varying effects of summer temperature, the temperature of the previous autumn and the timing of snowmelt. Finally, all species showed a strong trade-off in flower densities between successive years, suggesting an effective cost of reproduction. Overall, our results reveal region- and taxon-specific variation in the sensitivity and responses of co-occurring species to shared climatic drivers, and a clear cost of reproductive investment among Arctic plants. The ultimate effects of further changes in climate may thus be decoupled between species and across space, with critical knock-on effects on plant species dynamics, food web structure and overall ecosystem functioning. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00300-023-03164-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Becker-Scarpitta
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Institute of Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
- CIRAD, UMR PVBMT, 97410 Saint Pierre, La Réunion France
| | - Laura H. Antão
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Niels Martin Schmidt
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
- Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - F. Guillaume Blanchet
- Département de Biologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC Canada
- Département de Mathématiques, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC Canada
- Département Des Sciences de La Santé Communautaire, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC Canada
| | - Elina Kaarlejärvi
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katrine Raundrup
- Department of Environment and Mineral Resources, Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, Nuuk, Greenland
| | - Tomas Roslin
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Research Centre for Ecological Change, Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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5
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Theranostic Applications of an Ultra-Sensitive T1 and T2 Magnetic Resonance Contrast Agent Based on Cobalt Ferrite Spinel Nanoparticles. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14164026. [PMID: 36011020 PMCID: PMC9406498 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14164026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2022] [Revised: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Nano-dimensional materials have become a focus of multiple clinical applications due to their unique physicochemical properties. Magnetic nanoparticles represent an important class of nanomaterials that are widely studied for use as magnetic resonance (MR) contrast and drug delivery agents, especially as they can be detected and manipulated remotely. Using magnetic cobalt ferrite spinel (MCFS) nanoparticles, this study was aimed at developing a multifunctional drug delivery platform with MRI capability for use in cancer treatment. We found that MCFS nanoparticles demonstrated outstanding properties for contrast MRI (r1 = 22.1 s-1mM-1 and r2 = 499 s-1mM-1) that enabled high-resolution T1- and T2-weighted MRI-based signal detection. Furthermore, MCFS nanoparticles were used for the development of a multifunctional targeted drug delivery platform for cancer treatment that is concurrently empowered with the MR contrast properties. Their therapeutic effect in systemic chemotherapy and unique MRI double-contrast properties were confirmed in vivo using a breast cancer mouse tumor model. Our study thus provides an empirical basis for the development of a novel multimodal composite drug delivery system for anticancer therapy combined with noninvasive MRI capability.
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6
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Dow C, Kim AY, D'Orangeville L, Gonzalez-Akre EB, Helcoski R, Herrmann V, Harley GL, Maxwell JT, McGregor IR, McShea WJ, McMahon SM, Pederson N, Tepley AJ, Anderson-Teixeira KJ. Warm springs alter timing but not total growth of temperate deciduous trees. Nature 2022; 608:552-557. [PMID: 35948636 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05092-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
As the climate changes, warmer spring temperatures are causing earlier leaf-out1-3 and commencement of CO2 uptake1,3 in temperate deciduous forests, resulting in a tendency towards increased growing season length3 and annual CO2 uptake1,3-7. However, less is known about how spring temperatures affect tree stem growth8,9, which sequesters carbon in wood that has a long residence time in the ecosystem10,11. Here we show that warmer spring temperatures shifted stem diameter growth of deciduous trees earlier but had no consistent effect on peak growing season length, maximum growth rates, or annual growth, using dendrometer band measurements from 440 trees across two forests. The latter finding was confirmed on the centennial scale by 207 tree-ring chronologies from 108 forests across eastern North America, where annual ring width was far more sensitive to temperatures during the peak growing season than in the spring. These findings imply that any extra CO2 uptake in years with warmer spring temperatures4,5 does not significantly contribute to increased sequestration in long-lived woody stem biomass. Rather, contradicting projections from global carbon cycle models1,12, our empirical results imply that warming spring temperatures are unlikely to increase woody productivity enough to strengthen the long-term CO2 sink of temperate deciduous forests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron Dow
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA.,Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Albert Y Kim
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA.,Statistical & Data Sciences, Smith College, Northampton, MA, USA
| | - Loïc D'Orangeville
- Harvard Forest, Petersham, MA, USA.,Faculty of Forestry and Environmental Management, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
| | - Erika B Gonzalez-Akre
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Ryan Helcoski
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Valentine Herrmann
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Grant L Harley
- Department of Earth and Spatial Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA
| | - Justin T Maxwell
- Department of Geography, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Ian R McGregor
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA.,Center for Geospatial Analytics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - William J McShea
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA
| | - Sean M McMahon
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA.,Forest Global Earth Observatory, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, Republic of Panama
| | | | - Alan J Tepley
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA.,Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.,Department of Forestry and Wildland Resources, Cal Poly Humboldt University, Arcata, CA, USA
| | - Kristina J Anderson-Teixeira
- Conservation Ecology Center, Smithsonian's National Zoo & Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA, USA. .,Forest Global Earth Observatory, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama, Republic of Panama.
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7
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De Lisle SP, Mäenpää MI, Svensson EI. Phenotypic plasticity is aligned with phenological adaptation on both micro- and macroevolutionary timescales. Ecol Lett 2022; 25:790-801. [PMID: 35026042 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In seasonally variable environments, phenotypic plasticity in phenology may be critical for adaptation to fluctuating environmental conditions. Using an 18-generation longitudinal dataset from natural damselfly populations, we show that phenology has strongly advanced. Individual fitness data suggest this is likely an adaptive response towards a temperature-dependent optimum. A laboratory experiment revealed that developmental plasticity qualitatively matches the temperature dependence of selection, partially explaining observed advance in phenology. Expanding our analysis to the macroevolutionary level, we use a database of over 1-million occurrence records and spatiotemporally matched temperature data from 49 Swedish Odonate species to infer macroevolutionary dynamics of phenology. Phenological plasticity was more closely aligned with adaptation for species that have recently colonised northern latitudes, but with higher phenological mismatch at lower latitudes. Our results show that phenological plasticity plays a key role in microevolutionary dynamics within a single species, and such plasticity may have facilitated post-Pleistocene range expansion in this insect clade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P De Lisle
- Evolutionary Ecology Unit, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | | | - Erik I Svensson
- Evolutionary Ecology Unit, Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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8
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Arevalo E, Maire A, Tétard S, Prévost E, Lange F, Marchand F, Josset Q, Drouineau H. Does global change increase the risk of maladaptation of Atlantic salmon migration through joint modifications of river temperature and discharge? Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20211882. [PMID: 34875197 PMCID: PMC8651411 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.1882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
In freshwater ecosystems, water temperature and discharge are two intrinsically associated triggers of key events in the life cycle of aquatic organisms such as the migration of diadromous fishes. However, global changes have already profoundly altered the thermal and hydrological regimes of rivers, affecting the timing of fish migration as well as the environmental conditions under which it occurs. In this study, we focused on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), an iconic diadromous species whose individuals migrate between marine nursery areas and continental spawning grounds. An innovative multivariate method was developed to analyse long-term datasets of daily water temperature, discharge and both salmon juvenile downstream and adult upstream migrations in three French rivers (the Bresle, Oir and Nivelle rivers). While all three rivers have gradually warmed over the last 35 years, changes in discharge have been very heterogeneous. Juveniles more frequently used warmer temperatures to migrate. Adults migrating a few weeks before spawning more frequently used warm temperatures associated with high discharges. This has already led to modifications in preferential niches of both life stages and suggests a potential mismatch between these populations' ecological preference and changes in their local environment due to global change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elorri Arevalo
- INRAE, Unité EABX-Écosystèmes Aquatiques et Changements Globaux, HYNES (Irstea-EDF R&D), 50 avenue de Verdun, 33612 Cestas Cedex, France
| | - Anthony Maire
- EDF Recherche et Développement, Laboratoire National d'Hydraulique et Environnement, HYNES (Irstea-EDF R&D), 6 quai Watier, 78401 Chatou Cedex, France
| | - Stéphane Tétard
- ICEO Environnement, 220 rue des Ailes, 85440 Talmont-Saint-Hilaire, France
| | - Etienne Prévost
- Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, e2s UPPA, INRAE, ECOBIOP, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Frédéric Lange
- Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, e2s UPPA, INRAE, ECOBIOP, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Frédéric Marchand
- INRAE, Unité Expérimentale d'Écologie et d'Écotoxicologie Aquatique, 65, rue de Saint-Brieuc, 35042 Rennes CEDEX, France
| | - Quentin Josset
- UMR BOREA 7208, Muséum National D'Histoire Naturelle, Service des Stations Marines, 35800 Dinard, France.,MIAME - Management of Diadromous Fish in their Environment, OFB, INRAE, Institut Agro, UNIV PAU & PAYS ADOUR/E2S UPPA, Rennes, France.,Office Français de la Biodiversité, Direction Recherche et Appui Scientifique, Rue des Fontaines, 76260 Eu, France
| | - Hilaire Drouineau
- INRAE, Unité EABX-Écosystèmes Aquatiques et Changements Globaux, HYNES (Irstea-EDF R&D), 50 avenue de Verdun, 33612 Cestas Cedex, France
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9
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Ekholm A, Faticov M, Tack AJM, Berger J, Stone GN, Vesterinen E, Roslin T. Community phenology of insects on oak: local differentiation along a climatic gradient. Ecosphere 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Adam Ekholm
- Department of Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7044 Uppsala SE‐750 07 Sweden
| | - Maria Faticov
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences Stockholm University Svante Arrhenius väg 20A Stockholm Sweden
| | - Ayco J. M. Tack
- Department of Ecology, Environment and Plant Sciences Stockholm University Svante Arrhenius väg 20A Stockholm Sweden
| | - Josef Berger
- Department of Biology Biodiversity Unit Lund University Sölvegatan 37 Lund 22362 Sweden
| | - Graham N. Stone
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology University of Edinburgh Edinburgh EH9 3FL United Kingdom
| | - Eero Vesterinen
- Department of Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7044 Uppsala SE‐750 07 Sweden
- Department of Biology University of Turku Vesilinnantie 5 Turku FI‐20014 Finland
| | - Tomas Roslin
- Department of Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Box 7044 Uppsala SE‐750 07 Sweden
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