Surrogate gradients for analog neuromorphic computing

Memristive Circuit Implementation of Caenorhabditis Elegans Mechanism for Neuromorphic Computing

To overcome the energy efficiency bottleneck of the von Neumann architecture and scaling limit of silicon transistors, an emerging but promising solution is neuromorphic computing, a new computing paradigm inspired by how biological neural networks handle the massive amount of information in a parallel and efficient way. Recently, there is a surge of interest in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), an ideal model organism to probe the mechanisms of biological neural networks. In this article, we propose a neuron model for C. elegans with leaky integrate-and-fire (LIF) dynamics and adjustable integration time. We utilize these neurons to build the C. elegans neural network according to their neural physiology, which comprises: 1) sensory modules; 2) interneuron modules; and 3) motoneuron modules. Leveraging these block designs, we develop a serpentine robot system, which mimics the locomotion behavior of C. elegans upon external stimulus. Moreover, experimental results of C. elegans neurons presented in this article reveals the robustness (1% error w.r.t. 10% random noise) and flexibility of our design in term of parameter setting. The work paves the way for future intelligent systems by mimicking the C. elegans neural system.

Liquid-liquid phase separation in subcellular assemblages and signaling pathways: Chromatin modifications induced gene regulation for cellular physiology and functions including carcinogenesis

Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) describes many biochemical processes, including hydrogel formation, in the integrity of macromolecular assemblages and existence of membraneless organelles, including ribosome, nucleolus, nuclear speckles, paraspeckles, promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies, Cajal bodies (all exert crucial roles in cellular physiology), and evidence are emerging day by day. Also, phase separation is well documented in generation of plasma membrane subdomains and interplay between membranous and membraneless organelles. Intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) of biopolymers/proteins are the most critical sticking regions that aggravate the formation of such condensates. Remarkably, phase separated condensates are also involved in epigenetic regulation of gene expression, chromatin remodeling, and heterochromatinization. Epigenetic marks on DNA and histones cooperate with RNA-binding proteins through their IDRs to trigger LLPS for facilitating transcription. How phase separation coalesces mutant oncoproteins, orchestrate tumor suppressor genes expression, and facilitated cancer-associated signaling pathways are unravelling. That autophagosome formation and DYRK3-mediated cancer stem cell modification also depend on phase separation is deciphered in part. In view of this, and to linchpin insight into the subcellular membraneless organelle assembly, gene activation and biological reactions catalyzed by enzymes, and the downstream physiological functions, and how all these events are precisely facilitated by LLPS inducing organelle function, epigenetic modulation of gene expression in this scenario, and how it goes awry in cancer progression are summarized and presented in this article.

Reservoir computing with a random memristor crossbar array

Physical implementations of reservoir computing (RC) based on the emerging memristors have become promising candidates of unconventional computing paradigms. Traditionally, sequential approaches by time-multiplexing volatile memristors have been prevalent because of their low hardware overhead. However, they suffer from the problem of speed degradation and fall short of capturing the spatial relationship between the time-domain inputs. Here, we explore a new avenue for RC using memristor crossbar arrays with device-to-device variations, which serve as physical random weight matrices of the reservoir layers, enabling faster computation thanks to the parallelism of matrix-vector multiplication as an intensive operation in RC. To achieve this new RC architecture, ultralow-current, self-selective memristors are fabricated and integrated without the need of transistors, showing greater potential of high scalability and three-dimensional integrability compared to the previous realizations. The information processing ability of our RC system is demonstrated in asks of recognizing digit images and waveforms. This work indicates that the 'nonidealities' of the emerging memristor devices and circuits are a useful source of inspiration for new computing paradigms.

Application of Event Cameras and Neuromorphic Computing to VSLAM: A Survey

Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) is a crucial function for most autonomous systems, allowing them to both navigate through and create maps of unfamiliar surroundings. Traditional Visual SLAM, also commonly known as VSLAM, relies on frame-based cameras and structured processing pipelines, which face challenges in dynamic or low-light environments. However, recent advancements in event camera technology and neuromorphic processing offer promising opportunities to overcome these limitations. Event cameras inspired by biological vision systems capture the scenes asynchronously, consuming minimal power but with higher temporal resolution. Neuromorphic processors, which are designed to mimic the parallel processing capabilities of the human brain, offer efficient computation for real-time data processing of event-based data streams. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of recent research efforts in integrating event cameras and neuromorphic processors into VSLAM systems. It discusses the principles behind event cameras and neuromorphic processors, highlighting their advantages over traditional sensing and processing methods. Furthermore, an in-depth survey was conducted on state-of-the-art approaches in event-based SLAM, including feature extraction, motion estimation, and map reconstruction techniques. Additionally, the integration of event cameras with neuromorphic processors, focusing on their synergistic benefits in terms of energy efficiency, robustness, and real-time performance, was explored. The paper also discusses the challenges and open research questions in this emerging field, such as sensor calibration, data fusion, and algorithmic development. Finally, the potential applications and future directions for event-based SLAM systems are outlined, ranging from robotics and autonomous vehicles to augmented reality.

Imitating and exploring the human brain's resting and task-performing states via brain computing: scaling and architecture

A computational human brain model with the voxel-wise assimilation method was established based on individual structural and functional imaging data. We found that the more similar the brain model is to the biological counterpart in both scale and architecture, the more similarity was found between the assimilated model and the biological brain both in resting states and during tasks by quantitative metrics. The hypothesis that resting state activity reflects internal body states was validated by the interoceptive circuit's capability to enhance the similarity between the simulation model and the biological brain. We identified that the removal of connections from the primary visual cortex (V1) to downstream visual pathways significantly decreased the similarity at the hippocampus between the model and its biological counterpart, despite a slight influence on the whole brain. In conclusion, the model and methodology present a solid quantitative framework for a digital twin brain for discovering the relationship between brain architecture and functions, and for digitally trying and testing diverse cognitive, medical and lesioning approaches that would otherwise be unfeasible in real subjects.

Brain topology improved spiking neural network for efficient reinforcement learning of continuous control

The brain topology highly reflects the complex cognitive functions of the biological brain after million-years of evolution. Learning from these biological topologies is a smarter and easier way to achieve brain-like intelligence with features of efficiency, robustness, and flexibility. Here we proposed a brain topology-improved spiking neural network (BT-SNN) for efficient reinforcement learning. First, hundreds of biological topologies are generated and selected as subsets of the Allen mouse brain topology with the help of the Tanimoto hierarchical clustering algorithm, which has been widely used in analyzing key features of the brain connectome. Second, a few biological constraints are used to filter out three key topology candidates, including but not limited to the proportion of node functions (e.g., sensation, memory, and motor types) and network sparsity. Third, the network topology is integrated with the hybrid numerical solver-improved leaky-integrated and fire neurons. Fourth, the algorithm is then tuned with an evolutionary algorithm named adaptive random search instead of backpropagation to guide synaptic modifications without affecting raw key features of the topology. Fifth, under the test of four animal-survival-like RL tasks (i.e., dynamic controlling in Mujoco), the BT-SNN can achieve higher scores than not only counterpart SNN using random topology but also some classical ANNs (i.e., long-short-term memory and multi-layer perception). This result indicates that the research effort of incorporating biological topology and evolutionary learning rules has much in store for the future.

Neuromorphic hardware for somatosensory neuroprostheses

In individuals with sensory-motor impairments, missing limb functions can be restored using neuroprosthetic devices that directly interface with the nervous system. However, restoring the natural tactile experience through electrical neural stimulation requires complex encoding strategies. Indeed, they are presently limited in effectively conveying or restoring tactile sensations by bandwidth constraints. Neuromorphic technology, which mimics the natural behavior of neurons and synapses, holds promise for replicating the encoding of natural touch, potentially informing neurostimulation design. In this perspective, we propose that incorporating neuromorphic technologies into neuroprostheses could be an effective approach for developing more natural human-machine interfaces, potentially leading to advancements in device performance, acceptability, and embeddability. We also highlight ongoing challenges and the required actions to facilitate the future integration of these advanced technologies.

Temporal dendritic heterogeneity incorporated with spiking neural networks for learning multi-timescale dynamics

It is widely believed the brain-inspired spiking neural networks have the capability of processing temporal information owing to their dynamic attributes. However, how to understand what kind of mechanisms contributing to the learning ability and exploit the rich dynamic properties of spiking neural networks to satisfactorily solve complex temporal computing tasks in practice still remains to be explored. In this article, we identify the importance of capturing the multi-timescale components, based on which a multi-compartment spiking neural model with temporal dendritic heterogeneity, is proposed. The model enables multi-timescale dynamics by automatically learning heterogeneous timing factors on different dendritic branches. Two breakthroughs are made through extensive experiments: the working mechanism of the proposed model is revealed via an elaborated temporal spiking XOR problem to analyze the temporal feature integration at different levels; comprehensive performance benefits of the model over ordinary spiking neural networks are achieved on several temporal computing benchmarks for speech recognition, visual recognition, electroencephalogram signal recognition, and robot place recognition, which shows the best-reported accuracy and model compactness, promising robustness and generalization, and high execution efficiency on neuromorphic hardware. This work moves neuromorphic computing a significant step toward real-world applications by appropriately exploiting biological observations.

Sparse-firing regularization methods for spiking neural networks with time-to-first-spike coding

The training of multilayer spiking neural networks (SNNs) using the error backpropagation algorithm has made significant progress in recent years. Among the various training schemes, the error backpropagation method that directly uses the firing time of neurons has attracted considerable attention because it can realize ideal temporal coding. This method uses time-to-first-spike (TTFS) coding, in which each neuron fires at most once, and this restriction on the number of firings enables information to be processed at a very low firing frequency. This low firing frequency increases the energy efficiency of information processing in SNNs. However, only an upper limit has been provided for TTFS-coded SNNs, and the information-processing capability of SNNs at lower firing frequencies has not been fully investigated. In this paper, we propose two spike-timing-based sparse-firing (SSR) regularization methods to further reduce the firing frequency of TTFS-coded SNNs. Both methods are characterized by the fact that they only require information about the firing timing and associated weights. The effects of these regularization methods were investigated on the MNIST, Fashion-MNIST, and CIFAR-10 datasets using multilayer perceptron networks and convolutional neural network structures.

Beyond spiking networks: The computational advantages of dendritic amplification and input segregation

The brain can efficiently learn a wide range of tasks, motivating the search for biologically inspired learning rules for improving current artificial intelligence technology. Most biological models are composed of point neurons and cannot achieve state-of-the-art performance in machine learning. Recent works have proposed that input segregation (neurons receive sensory information and higher-order feedback in segregated compartments), and nonlinear dendritic computation would support error backpropagation in biological neurons. However, these approaches require propagating errors with a fine spatiotemporal structure to all the neurons, which is unlikely to be feasible in a biological network. To relax this assumption, we suggest that bursts and dendritic input segregation provide a natural support for target-based learning, which propagates targets rather than errors. A coincidence mechanism between the basal and the apical compartments allows for generating high-frequency bursts of spikes. This architecture supports a burst-dependent learning rule, based on the comparison between the target bursting activity triggered by the teaching signal and the one caused by the recurrent connections, providing support for target-based learning. We show that this framework can be used to efficiently solve spatiotemporal tasks, such as context-dependent store and recall of three-dimensional trajectories, and navigation tasks. Finally, we suggest that this neuronal architecture naturally allows for orchestrating "hierarchical imitation learning", enabling the decomposition of challenging long-horizon decision-making tasks into simpler subtasks. We show a possible implementation of this in a two-level network, where the high network produces the contextual signal for the low network.

Exploiting noise as a resource for computation and learning in spiking neural networks

Networks of spiking neurons underpin the extraordinary information-processing capabilities of the brain and have become pillar models in neuromorphic artificial intelligence. Despite extensive research on spiking neural networks (SNNs), most studies are established on deterministic models, overlooking the inherent non-deterministic, noisy nature of neural computations. This study introduces the noisy SNN (NSNN) and the noise-driven learning (NDL) rule by incorporating noisy neuronal dynamics to exploit the computational advantages of noisy neural processing. The NSNN provides a theoretical framework that yields scalable, flexible, and reliable computation and learning. We demonstrate that this framework leads to spiking neural models with competitive performance, improved robustness against challenging perturbations compared with deterministic SNNs, and better reproducing probabilistic computation in neural coding. Generally, this study offers a powerful and easy-to-use tool for machine learning, neuromorphic intelligence practitioners, and computational neuroscience researchers.

Hybrid photonic deep convolutional residual spiking neural networks for text classification

Spiking neural networks (SNNs) offer powerful computation capability due to its event-driven nature and temporal processing. However, it is still limited to shallow structure and simple tasks due to the training difficulty. In this work, we propose a deep convolutional residual spiking neural network (DCRSNN) for text classification tasks. In the DCRSNN, the feature extraction is achieved via a convolution SNN with residual connection, using the surrogate gradient direct training technique. Classification is performed by a fully-connected network. We also suggest a hybrid photonic DCRSNN, in which photonic SNNs are used for classification with a converted training method. The accuracy of hard and soft reset methods, as well as three different surrogate functions, were evaluated and compared across four different datasets. Results indicated a maximum accuracy of 76.36% for MR, 91.03% for AG News, 88.06% for IMDB and 93.99% for Yelp review polarity. Soft reset methods used in the deep convolutional SNN yielded slightly better accuracy than their hard reset counterparts. We also considered the effects of different pooling methods and observation time windows and found that the convergence accuracy achieved by convolutional SNNs was comparable to that of convolutional neural networks under the same conditions. Moreover, the hybrid photonic DCRSNN also shows comparable testing accuracy. This work provides new insights into extending the SNN applications in the field of text classification and natural language processing, which is interesting for the resources-restrained scenarios.

Leveraging the Academic Artificial Intelligence Silecosystem to Advance the Community Oncology Enterprise

Over the last 75 years, artificial intelligence has evolved from a theoretical concept and novel paradigm describing the role that computers might play in our society to a tool with which we daily engage. In this review, we describe AI in terms of its constituent elements, the synthesis of which we refer to as the AI Silecosystem. Herein, we provide an historical perspective of the evolution of the AI Silecosystem, conceptualized and summarized as a Kuhnian paradigm. This manuscript focuses on the role that the AI Silecosystem plays in oncology and its emerging importance in the care of the community oncology patient. We observe that this important role arises out of a unique alliance between the academic oncology enterprise and community oncology practices. We provide evidence of this alliance by illustrating the practical establishment of the AI Silecosystem at the City of Hope Comprehensive Cancer Center and its team utilization by community oncology providers.

Spiking CMOS-NVM mixed-signal neuromorphic ConvNet with circuit- and training-optimized temporal subsampling

We increasingly rely on deep learning algorithms to process colossal amount of unstructured visual data. Commonly, these deep learning algorithms are deployed as software models on digital hardware, predominantly in data centers. Intrinsic high energy consumption of Cloud-based deployment of deep neural networks (DNNs) inspired researchers to look for alternatives, resulting in a high interest in Spiking Neural Networks (SNNs) and dedicated mixed-signal neuromorphic hardware. As a result, there is an emerging challenge to transfer DNN architecture functionality to energy-efficient spiking non-volatile memory (NVM)-based hardware with minimal loss in the accuracy of visual data processing. Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is the staple choice of DNN for visual data processing. However, the lack of analog-friendly spiking implementations and alternatives for some core CNN functions, such as MaxPool, hinders the conversion of CNNs into the spike domain, thus hampering neuromorphic hardware development. To address this gap, in this work, we propose MaxPool with temporal multiplexing for Spiking CNNs (SCNNs), which is amenable for implementation in mixed-signal circuits. In this work, we leverage the temporal dynamics of internal membrane potential of Integrate & Fire neurons to enable MaxPool decision-making in the spiking domain. The proposed MaxPool models are implemented and tested within the SCNN architecture using a modified version of the aihwkit framework, a PyTorch-based toolkit for modeling and simulating hardware-based neural networks. The proposed spiking MaxPool scheme can decide even before the complete spatiotemporal input is applied, thus selectively trading off latency with accuracy. It is observed that by allocating just 10% of the spatiotemporal input window for a pooling decision, the proposed spiking MaxPool achieves up to 61.74% accuracy with a 2-bit weight resolution in the CIFAR10 dataset classification task after training with back propagation, with only about 1% performance drop compared to 62.78% accuracy of the 100% spatiotemporal window case with the 2-bit weight resolution to reflect foundry-integrated ReRAM limitations. In addition, we propose the realization of one of the proposed spiking MaxPool techniques in an NVM crossbar array along with periphery circuits designed in a 130nm CMOS technology. The energy-efficiency estimation results show competitive performance compared to recent neuromorphic chip designs.

Photonic online learning: a perspective

Emerging neuromorphic hardware promises to solve certain problems faster and with higher energy efficiency than traditional computing by using physical processes that take place at the device level as the computational primitives in neural networks. While initial results in photonic neuromorphic hardware are very promising, such hardware requires programming or "training" that is often power-hungry and time-consuming. In this article, we examine the online learning paradigm, where the machinery for training is built deeply into the hardware itself. We argue that some form of online learning will be necessary if photonic neuromorphic hardware is to achieve its true potential.

HCN channels at the cell soma ensure the rapid electrical reactivity of fast-spiking interneurons in human neocortex

Accumulating evidence indicates that there are substantial species differences in the properties of mammalian neurons, yet theories on circuit activity and information processing in the human brain are based heavily on results obtained from rodents and other experimental animals. This knowledge gap may be particularly important for understanding the neocortex, the brain area responsible for the most complex neuronal operations and showing the greatest evolutionary divergence. Here, we examined differences in the electrophysiological properties of human and mouse fast-spiking GABAergic basket cells, among the most abundant inhibitory interneurons in cortex. Analyses of membrane potential responses to current input, pharmacologically isolated somatic leak currents, isolated soma outside-out patch recordings, and immunohistochemical staining revealed that human neocortical basket cells abundantly express hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated cation (HCN) channel isoforms HCN1 and HCN2 at the cell soma membrane, whereas these channels are sparse at the rodent basket cell soma membrane. Antagonist experiments showed that HCN channels in human neurons contribute to the resting membrane potential and cell excitability at the cell soma, accelerate somatic membrane potential kinetics, and shorten the lag between excitatory postsynaptic potentials and action potential generation. These effects are important because the soma of human fast-spiking neurons without HCN channels exhibit low persistent ion leak and slow membrane potential kinetics, compared with mouse fast-spiking neurons. HCN channels speed up human cell membrane potential kinetics and help attain an input-output rate close to that of rodent cells. Computational modeling demonstrated that HCN channel activity at the human fast-spiking cell soma membrane is sufficient to accelerate the input-output function as observed in cell recordings. Thus, human and mouse fast-spiking neurons exhibit functionally significant differences in ion channel composition at the cell soma membrane to set the speed and fidelity of their input-output function. These HCN channels ensure fast electrical reactivity of fast-spiking cells in human neocortex.

Neuromorphic quantum computing

Quantum computation builds on the use of correlations. Correlations could also play a central role for artificial intelligence, neuromorphic computing or "biological computing." As a step toward a systematic exploration of "correlated computing" we demonstrate that neuromorphic computing can perform quantum operations. Spiking neurons in the active or silent states are connected to the two states of Ising spins. A quantum density matrix is constructed from the expectation values and correlations of the Ising spins. We show for a two qubit system that quantum gates can be learned as a change of parameters for neural network dynamics. These changes respect restrictions which ensure the quantum correlations. Our proposal for probabilistic computing goes beyond Markov chains and is not based on transition probabilities. Constraints on classical probability distributions relate changes made in one part of the system to other parts, similar to entangled quantum systems.

Neuromorphic artificial intelligence systems

Modern artificial intelligence (AI) systems, based on von Neumann architecture and classical neural networks, have a number of fundamental limitations in comparison with the mammalian brain. In this article we discuss these limitations and ways to mitigate them. Next, we present an overview of currently available neuromorphic AI projects in which these limitations are overcome by bringing some brain features into the functioning and organization of computing systems (TrueNorth, Loihi, Tianjic, SpiNNaker, BrainScaleS, NeuronFlow, DYNAP, Akida, Mythic). Also, we present the principle of classifying neuromorphic AI systems by the brain features they use: connectionism, parallelism, asynchrony, impulse nature of information transfer, on-device-learning, local learning, sparsity, analog, and in-memory computing. In addition to reviewing new architectural approaches used by neuromorphic devices based on existing silicon microelectronics technologies, we also discuss the prospects for using a new memristor element base. Examples of recent advances in the use of memristors in neuromorphic applications are also given.

A Scalable Approach to Modeling on Accelerated Neuromorphic Hardware

Neuromorphic systems open up opportunities to enlarge the explorative space for computational research. However, it is often challenging to unite efficiency and usability. This work presents the software aspects of this endeavor for the BrainScaleS-2 system, a hybrid accelerated neuromorphic hardware architecture based on physical modeling. We introduce key aspects of the BrainScaleS-2 Operating System: experiment workflow, API layering, software design, and platform operation. We present use cases to discuss and derive requirements for the software and showcase the implementation. The focus lies on novel system and software features such as multi-compartmental neurons, fast re-configuration for hardware-in-the-loop training, applications for the embedded processors, the non-spiking operation mode, interactive platform access, and sustainable hardware/software co-development. Finally, we discuss further developments in terms of hardware scale-up, system usability, and efficiency.

The BrainScaleS-2 Accelerated Neuromorphic System With Hybrid Plasticity

Since the beginning of information processing by electronic components, the nervous system has served as a metaphor for the organization of computational primitives. Brain-inspired computing today encompasses a class of approaches ranging from using novel nano-devices for computation to research into large-scale neuromorphic architectures, such as TrueNorth, SpiNNaker, BrainScaleS, Tianjic, and Loihi. While implementation details differ, spiking neural networks-sometimes referred to as the third generation of neural networks-are the common abstraction used to model computation with such systems. Here we describe the second generation of the BrainScaleS neuromorphic architecture, emphasizing applications enabled by this architecture. It combines a custom analog accelerator core supporting the accelerated physical emulation of bio-inspired spiking neural network primitives with a tightly coupled digital processor and a digital event-routing network.