Carbon dioxide/bicarbonate is required for sensitive inactivation of mammalian glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase by hydrogen peroxide

Endogenous electrophiles and peroxymonocarbonate can link tyrosine phosphorylation cascades with the cytosolic TXNRD1 selenoprotein and the KEAP1/NRF2 system

Endogenously formed reactive molecules, such as lipid peroxides, 4-hydroxynonenal, methylglyoxal and other reactive oxygen species, can have major effects on cells. Accumulation of these molecules is counteracted by antioxidant enzymes, including the glutathione (GSH) and thioredoxin (Trx) systems, in turn regulated by the KEAP1/NRF2 system. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) and their counteracting protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTP) are also modulated through redox regulation of PTP activities. The cytosolic selenoprotein thioredoxin reductase (TXNRD1) is particularly prone to attack at its easily accessible catalytic selenocysteine (Sec) residue by reactive electrophilic compounds. Therefore, we here discuss how endogenously formed electrophiles can modulate RTK/PTP signaling in a concentration- and time dependent manner by reactions either directly or indirectly linking TXNRD1 with the KEAP1/NRF2 system. Moreover, recent findings suggest that endogenous formation of peroxymonocarbonate can efficiently inhibit PTP activities and stimulate RTK signaling, seemingly bypassing PTP reduction as otherwise supported by the GSH/Trx systems.

Redox proteomic analysis of H2O2 -treated Jurkat cells and effects of bicarbonate and knockout of peroxiredoxins 1 and 2

Oxidation of thiol proteins and redox signaling occur in cells exposed to H2O2 but mechanisms are unclear. We used redox proteomics to seek evidence of oxidation of specific proteins either by a mechanism involving reaction of H2O2 with CO2/bicarbonate to give the more reactive peroxymonocarbonate, or via a relay involving peroxiredoxins (Prdxs). Changes in oxidation state of specific Cys-SH residues on treating Jurkat T lymphoma cells with H2O2 were measured by isotopically labeling reduced thiols and analysis by mass spectrometry. The effects of bicarbonate and of knocking out either Prdx1 or Prdx2 were examined. Approximately 14,000 Cys-peptides were detected, of which ∼1 % underwent 2-10 fold loss in thiol content with H2O2. Those showing the most oxidation were not affected by the presence of bicarbonate or knockout of either Prdx. Consistent with previous evidence that bicarbonate potentiates inactivation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, the GAPDH active site Cys residues were significantly more sensitive to H2O2 when bicarbonate was present. Several other proteins were identified as promising candidates for further investigation. Although we identified some potential protein candidates for Prdx-dependent oxidation, most of the significant differences between KO and WT cells were seen in proteins for which H2O2 unexpectedly increased their CysSH content over untreated cells. We conclude that facilitation of protein oxidation by bicarbonate or Prdx-mediated relays is restricted to a small number of proteins and is insufficient to explain the majority of the oxidation of the cell thiols that occured in response to H2O2.

Energy insufficiency induced by high purine diet: Catalysts for renal impairment in hyperuricemia nephropathy rat model

A high purine diet emerges as a significant risk factor for hyperuricemia, and this diet may potentiate hyperuricemia nephropathy. Despite this, the mechanistic underpinnings of kidney damage precipitated by a high purine diet warrant further research. In the current investigation, a hyperuricemia nephropathy rat model was developed through induction via a high purine diet. Subsequently, metabolomic and proteomic analyses were employed to explore the metabolic characteristics of the kidney and shed light on the corresponding mechanistic pathway. Finally, fluorescence imaging and 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography computed tomography (18F-FDG-PET/CT) were utilized to validate the overarching energy metabolism state. The results revealed extensive damage to the kidneys of hyperuricemia nephropathy rats following eight weeks of induction via a high purine diet. We used metabolomic to found that acyl carnitines and L-carnitine reduced in high purine diet group, indicated abnormal fatty acid metabolism. Irregularities were discerned in metabolites and enzymes associated with fatty acid β-oxidation, glycolysis, and oxidative phosphorylation within the kidneys of hyperuricemia nephropathy rats by proteomic and co-expression network analysis. The application of fluorescence imaging and 18F-FDG-PET/CT substantiated the inhibition of fatty acid β-oxidation and glycolysis within the kidneys of hyperuricemia nephropathy rats. On the contrary, a compensatory enhancement in the function of oxidative phosphorylation was observed. Given that the primary energy supply for renal function was derived from the metabolic pathway of fatty acids β-oxidation, any disruption within this pathway could contribute to a deficit in the energy provision to the kidneys. Such an energy insufficiency potentially laid the groundwork for eventual renal impairment. In addition, inhibition of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors signaling pathway was noted in the present findings, which could further exacerbate the impediment in the β-oxidation function. In conclusion, it was discerned that a deficiency in energy supply plays a critical role in the kidney injury in hyperuricemia nephropathy rats, thereby endorsing paying more attention to renal energy supply in the therapy of hyperuricemia nephropathy.

How are hydrogen peroxide messages relayed to affect cell signalling?

H2O2 signals trigger adaptive responses affecting cell division, differentiation, migration, and survival. These signals are transduced by selective oxidation of cysteines on specific target proteins, with redox-sensitive cysteines now identified in many proteins, including both kinases and phosphatases. Assessing the contribution of these oxidation events to cell signalling presents several challenges including understanding how and when the selective oxidation of specific proteins takes place in vivo. In recent years, a combination of biochemical, structural, genetic, and computational approaches in fungi, plants, and animals have revealed different ways in which thiol peroxidases (peroxiredoxins) are bypassed or utilised in relaying these signals. Together, these mechanisms provide a conceptual framework for selectively oxidising proteins that will further advance understanding of how redox modifications contribute to health and disease.

Ten "Cheat Codes" for Measuring Oxidative Stress in Humans

Formidable and often seemingly insurmountable conceptual, technical, and methodological challenges hamper the measurement of oxidative stress in humans. For instance, fraught and flawed methods, such as the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances assay kits for lipid peroxidation, rate-limit progress. To advance translational redox research, we present ten comprehensive "cheat codes" for measuring oxidative stress in humans. The cheat codes include analytical approaches to assess reactive oxygen species, antioxidants, oxidative damage, and redox regulation. They provide essential conceptual, technical, and methodological information inclusive of curated "do" and "don't" guidelines. Given the biochemical complexity of oxidative stress, we present a research question-grounded decision tree guide for selecting the most appropriate cheat code(s) to implement in a prospective human experiment. Worked examples demonstrate the benefits of the decision tree-based cheat code selection tool. The ten cheat codes define an invaluable resource for measuring oxidative stress in humans.

Production of Peroxymonocarbonate by Steady-State Micromolar H2O2 and Activated Macrophages in the Presence of CO2/HCO3- Evidenced by Boronate Probes

Peroxymonocarbonate (HCO4-/HOOCO2-) is produced by the reversible reaction of CO2/HCO3- with H2O2 (K = 0.33 M-1, pH 7.0). Although produced in low yields at physiological pHs and H2O2 and CO2/HCO3- concentrations, HCO4- oxidizes most nucleophiles with rate constants 10 to 100 times higher than those of H2O2. Boronate probes are known examples because HCO4- reacts with coumarin-7-boronic acid pinacolate ester (CBE) with a rate constant that is approximately 100 times higher than that of H2O2 and the same holds for fluorescein-boronate (Fl-B) as reported here. Therefore, we tested whether boronate probes could provide evidence for HCO4- formation under biologically relevant conditions. Glucose/glucose oxidase/catalase were adjusted to produce low steady-state H2O2 concentrations (2-18 μM) in Pi buffer at pH 7.4 and 37 °C. Then, CBE (100 μM) was added and fluorescence increase was monitored with time. The results showed that each steady-state H2O2 concentration reacted more rapidly (∼30%) in the presence of CO2/HCO3- (25 mM) than in its absence, and the data permitted the calculation of consistent rate constants. Also, RAW 264.7 macrophages were activated with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) (1 μg/mL) at pH 7.4 and 37 °C to produce a time-dependent H2O2 concentration (8.0 ± 2.5 μM after 60 min). The media contained 0, 21.6, or 42.2 mM HCO3- equilibrated with 0, 5, or 10% CO2, respectively. In the presence of CBE or Fl-B (30 μM), a time-dependent increase in the fluorescence of the bulk solution was observed, which was higher in the presence of CO2/HCO3- in a concentration-dependent manner. The Fl-B samples were also examined by fluorescence microscopy. Our results demonstrated that mammalian cells produce HCO4- and boronate probes can evidence and distinguish it from H2O2 under biologically relevant concentrations of H2O2 and CO2/HCO3-.

Amyloid formation and depolymerization of tumor suppressor p16INK4a are regulated by a thiol-dependent redox mechanism

The conversion of a soluble protein into polymeric amyloid structures is a process that is poorly understood. Here, we describe a fully redox-regulated amyloid system in which cysteine oxidation of the tumor suppressor protein p16INK4a leads to rapid amyloid formation. We identify a partially-structured disulfide-bonded dimeric intermediate species that subsequently assembles into fibrils. The stable amyloid structures disassemble when the disulfide bond is reduced. p16INK4a is frequently mutated in cancers and is considered highly vulnerable to single-point mutations. We find that multiple cancer-related mutations show increased amyloid formation propensity whereas mutations stabilizing the fold prevent transition into amyloid. The complex transition into amyloids and their structural stability is therefore strictly governed by redox reactions and a single regulatory disulfide bond.

Oxidation of the active site cysteine residue of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase to the hyper-oxidized sulfonic acid form is favored under crowded conditions

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a key cellular enzyme, with major roles in both glycolysis, and 'moonlighting' activities in the nucleus (uracil DNA glycosylase activity, nuclear protein nitrosylation), as a regulator of mRNA stability, a transferrin receptor, and as an antimicrobial agent. These activities are dependent, at least in part, on the integrity of an active site Cys residue, and a second neighboring Cys. These residues are differentially sensitive to oxidation, and determine both its catalytic activity and the redox signaling capacity of the protein. Such Cys modification is critical to cellular adaptation to oxidative environments by re-routing metabolic pathways to favor NADPH generation and antioxidant defenses. Despite the susceptibility of GAPDH to oxidation, it remains a puzzle as to how this enzyme acts as a redox signaling hub for oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the presence of high concentrations of specialized high-efficiency peroxide-removing enzymes. One possibility is that crowded environments, such as the cell cytosol, alter the oxidation pathways of GAPDH. In this study, we investigated the role of crowding (induced by dextran) on H2O2- and SIN-1-induced GAPDH oxidation, with data for crowded and dilute conditions compared. LC-MS/MS data revealed a lower extent of modification of the catalytic Cys under crowded conditions (i.e. less monomer units modified), but enhanced formation of the sulfonic acid resulting from hyper-oxidation. This effect was not observed with SIN-1. These data indicate that molecular crowding can modulate the oxidation pathways of GAPDH and its extent of oxidation and inactivation.

Redox Regulation of PTEN by Reactive Oxygen Species: Its Role in Physiological Processes

Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) is a tumor suppressor due to its ability to regulate cell survival, growth, and proliferation by downregulating the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. In addition, PTEN plays an essential role in other physiological events associated with cell growth demands, such as ischemia-reperfusion, nerve injury, and immune responsiveness. Therefore, recently, PTEN inhibition has emerged as a potential therapeutic intervention in these situations. Increasing evidence demonstrates that reactive oxygen species (ROS), especially hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), are produced and required for the signaling in many important cellular processes under such physiological conditions. ROS have been shown to oxidize PTEN at the cysteine residue of its active site, consequently inhibiting its function. Herein, we provide an overview of studies that highlight the role of the oxidative inhibition of PTEN in physiological processes.

The enzymes of the oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway as targets of reactive species: consequences for NADPH production

The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is a key metabolic pathway. The oxidative phase of this process involves three reactions catalyzed by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH), 6-phosphogluconolactonase (6PGL) and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6PGDH) enzymes. The first and third steps (catalyzed by G6PDH and 6PGDH, respectively) are responsible for generating reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAPDH), a key cofactor for maintaining the reducing power of cells and detoxification of both endogenous and exogenous oxidants and electrophiles. Despite the importance of these enzymes, little attention has been paid to the fact that these proteins are targets of oxidants. In response to oxidative stimuli metabolic pathways are modulated, with the PPP often up-regulated in order to enhance or maintain the reductive capacity of cells. Under such circumstances, oxidation and inactivation of the PPP enzymes could be detrimental. Damage to the PPP enzymes may result in a downward spiral, as depending on the extent and sites of modification, these alterations may result in a loss of enzymatic activity and therefore increased oxidative damage due to NADPH depletion. In recent years, it has become evident that the three enzymes of the oxidative phase of the PPP have different susceptibilities to inactivation on exposure to different oxidants. In this review, we discuss existing knowledge on the role that these enzymes play in the metabolism of cells, and their susceptibility to oxidation and inactivation with special emphasis on NADPH production. Perspectives on achieving a better understanding of the molecular basis of the oxidation these enzymes within cellular environments are given.

Evidence that protein thiols are not primary targets of intracellular reactive oxygen species in growing Escherichia coli

The oxidizability of cysteine residues is exploited in redox chemistry and as a source of stabilizing disulfide bonds, but it also raises the possibility that these side chains will be oxidized when they should not be. It has often been suggested that intracellular oxidative stress from hydrogen peroxide or superoxide may result in the oxidation of the cysteine residues of cytoplasmic proteins. That view seemed to be supported by the discovery that one cellular response to hydrogen peroxide is the induction of glutaredoxin 1 and thioredoxin 2. In this study we used model compounds as well as alkaline phosphatase to test this idea. Our results indicate that molecular oxygen, superoxide, and hydrogen peroxide are very poor oxidants of N-acetylcysteine and of the protein thiols of alkaline phosphatase in vitro. Copper could accelerate thiol oxidation, but iron did not. When alkaline phosphatase was engineered to remain in the cytoplasm of live cells, unnaturally high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide were required to oxidize it to its active, disulfide-dependent form, and toxic levels of superoxide had no effect. At the same time, far lower concentrations of these oxidants were sufficient to poison key metalloenzymes. The elimination of glutaredoxin 1 and thioredoxin 2 did not change these results, raising the question of why E. coli induces them during peroxide stress. In fact, when catalase/peroxidase mutants were chronically stressed with hydrogen peroxide, the absence of glutaredoxin 1 and thioredoxin 2 did not impair growth at all, even in a minimal medium over many generations. We conclude that physiological levels of reduced oxygen species are not potent oxidants of typical protein thiols. Glutaredoxin and thioredoxin must either have an alternative purpose or else play a role under culture conditions that differ from the ones we tested.

50 shades of oxidative stress: A state-specific cysteine redox pattern hypothesis

Oxidative stress is biochemically complex. Like primary colours, specific reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant inputs can be mixed to create unique "shades" of oxidative stress. Even a minimal redox module comprised of just 12 (ROS & antioxidant) inputs and 3 outputs (oxidative damage, cysteine-dependent redox-regulation, or both) yields over half a million "shades" of oxidative stress. The present paper proposes the novel hypothesis that: state-specific shades of oxidative stress, such as a discrete disease, are associated with distinct tell-tale cysteine oxidation patterns. The patterns are encoded by many parameters, from the identity of the oxidised proteins, the cysteine oxidation type, and magnitude. The hypothesis is conceptually grounded in distinct ROS and antioxidant inputs coalescing to produce unique cysteine oxidation outputs. And considers the potential biological significance of the holistic cysteine oxidation outputs. The literature supports the existence of state-specific cysteine oxidation patterns. Measuring and manipulating these patterns offer promising avenues for advancing oxidative stress research. The pattern inspired hypothesis provides a framework for understanding the complex biochemical nature of state-specific oxidative stress.