On the limitation of brood size in passerine birds by the ability of adults to nourish their young

Variations of salinity during reproduction and development affect ontogenetic trajectories in a coastal amphibian

Although coastal ecosystems are naturally submitted to temporal variations of salinity, salinization has been increasing over time threatening coastal biodiversity. Species that exploit such habitats can thus be exposed to brackish water at different life stages. However, the impacts of variations of salinity on wildlife remain poorly understood. This is particularly true for coastal amphibians, due to the strong dependency of early life stages (embryos and larvae) on aquatic environments. In order to investigate the effect of salinity during egg laying and embryonic and larval development of coastal amphibians, we used a full-factorial design to expose reproductive adults, eggs, and larvae of coastal spined toads (Bufo spinosus) to fresh (0 g.l-1) or brackish water (4 g.l-1). At egg laying, we evaluated parental investment in reproduction. During embryonic and larval development, we assessed effects on survival, development, and growth. We highlighted strong effects of environmental salinity on reproduction (reduced egg laying time, marginally reduced egg size, and reduced investment in reproduction). Responses to salinity were highly dependent on the developmental stages of exposure (stronger effects when individuals were exposed during embryonic development). These effects carried over when exposure occurred at egg laying or during embryonic development, highlighting the importance of the environmental conditions during early life on ontogenetic trajectories. We also highlighted partial compensation when individuals were transferred back to freshwater. Whether the magnitude of these responses can allow coastal biodiversity to overcome the observed detrimental effects of salinization remain to be assessed.

Winter corticosterone and body condition predict breeding investment in a nonmigratory bird

Reproduction is an energetically demanding life history stage that requires costly physiological and behavioral changes, yet some individuals will invest more into reproduction and breed more successfully than others. To understand variation in reproductive investment, previous studies have evaluated factors during breeding, but conditions outside of this life history stage may also play a role. Using a free-ranging population of black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus), we assessed the repeatability of plastic traits relating to energetic condition (circulating initial corticosterone concentrations and body condition) during the nonbreeding season and evaluated whether these traits predicted reproductive investment in the subsequent breeding season. We found that initial corticosterone concentrations and an index of body condition, but not fat score, were moderately repeatable over a 1-week period in winter. This trait repeatability supports the interpretation that among-individual variation in these phenotypic traits could reflect an intrinsic strategy to cope with challenging conditions across life history stages. We found that females with larger fat reserves during winter laid eggs sooner and tended to spend more time incubating their eggs and feeding their offspring. In contrast, we found that females with higher residual body mass delayed breeding, after controlling for the relationship between fat score and timing of breeding. Additionally, females with higher initial corticosterone in winter laid lighter eggs. Our findings suggest that conditions experienced outside of the breeding season may be important factors explaining variation in reproductive investment.

Experimental food supplementation increases reproductive effort in the Variable Antshrike in subtropical Brazil

Food limitation may interact with nest predation and influence nesting patterns, such as breeding season length and renesting intervals. If so, reproductive effort should change with food availability. Thus, when food is limited, birds should have fewer attempts and shorter seasons than when food is not limiting. Here we experimentally test that increased food availability results in increased reproductive effort in a fragmented landscape in the Variable Antshrike (Thamnophilus caerulescens) in southern Brazil. We followed nesting pairs in a naturally fragmented habitat and experimentally supplemented food for half of those pairs. Birds were seen, but evidence of nesting was never found in two small fragments, even though these fragments were larger than individual territories. Pairs with supplemented food were more likely to increase clutch size from two to three eggs and tended to renest sooner (20 d on average) than control pairs. Also, fragment size was associated with breeding patterns, although fragment replicates were unavailable. Nest duration, nest success and breeding season length were all greater, while renesting intervals were shorter, in the largest fragments. Simulations showed that only the largest fragments were able to have a net production of young. Food availability clearly influenced reproductive effort and as a consequence, because of the interaction with predation risk, forest fragments of varying sizes will have complex reproductive dynamics.

The evolution of different maternal investment strategies in two closely related desert vertebrates

We compared egg size phenotypes and tested several predictions from the optimal egg size (OES) and bet-hedging theories in two North American desert-dwelling sister tortoise taxa, Gopherus agassizii and G. morafkai, that inhabit different climate spaces: relatively unpredictable and more predictable climate spaces, respectively. Observed patterns in both species differed from the predictions of OES in several ways. Mean egg size increased with maternal body size in both species. Mean egg size was inversely related to clutch order in G. agassizii, a strategy more consistent with the within-generation hypothesis arising out of bet-hedging theory or a constraint in egg investment due to resource availability, and contrary to theories of density dependence, which posit that increasing hatchling competition from later season clutches should drive selection for larger eggs. We provide empirical evidence that one species, G. agassizii, employs a bet-hedging strategy that is a combination of two different bet-hedging hypotheses. Additionally, we found some evidence for G. morafkai employing a conservative bet-hedging strategy. (e.g., lack of intra- and interclutch variation in egg size relative to body size). Our novel adaptive hypothesis suggests the possibility that natural selection favors smaller offspring in late-season clutches because they experience a more benign environment or less energetically challenging environmental conditions (i.e., winter) than early clutch progeny, that emerge under harsher and more energetically challenging environmental conditions (i.e., summer). We also discuss alternative hypotheses of sexually antagonistic selection, which arise from the trade-offs of son versus daughter production that might have different optima depending on clutch order and variation in temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) among clutches. Resolution of these hypotheses will require long-term data on fitness of sons versus daughters as a function of incubation environment, data as yet unavailable for any species with TSD.

Recurrent violations of invariant rules for offspring size: evidence from turtles and the implications for small clutch size models

Smith and Fretwell's classic model predicts that parents can maximize fitness by dividing the energy available for reproduction into offspring of an optimal size. However, this model breaks down when clutch size is small (~1-10 offspring). Invariant rules are an extension of the Smith-Fretwell model, and these rules predict how offspring size will vary among and within individuals that produce small clutch sizes. Here, we provide a narrow test of invariant rules using three turtle species, then we synthesize and re-analyze existing data from 18 different species (comprising five Orders) to evaluate whether invariant rules are followed across broad taxa. We do not find support for most invariant rules in turtles, and our re-analysis demonstrates a general mismatch between observed and expected values across all taxa evaluated, suggesting that invariant rules fail to predict reproductive patterns in nature. Morphological constraints on offspring size and reproductive effort may be important reasons for disparities between theory and observation both in turtles and other taxa. Paradoxically, morphological constraints are most common in small-bodied species and individuals, but these same candidates are also those which produce the small clutch sizes that are necessary to test invariant rules, such that a fair test of invariant rules will often be challenging. Mismatches between theory and observation might also occur because theory assumes that mothers exert control over resource allocation to offspring. In fact, there is evidence of widespread genetic correlations among investment per offspring and reproductive effort, such that these traits are not independent.

Evaluation of offspring size-number invariants in 12 species of lizard

The optimal division of resources into offspring size vs. number is one of the classic problems in life-history evolution. Importantly, models that take into account the discrete nature of resource division at low clutch sizes suggest that the variance in offspring size should decline with increasing clutch size according to an invariant relationship. We tested this prediction in 12 species of lizard with small clutch sizes. Contrary to expectations, not all species showed a negative relationship between variance in offspring size and clutch size, and the pattern significantly deviated from quantitative predictions in five of the 12 species. We suggest that the main limitation of current size-number models for small clutch sizes is that they rely on assumptions of hierarchical allocation strategies with independence between allocation decisions. Indeed, selection may favour alternative mechanisms of reproductive allocation that avoid suboptimal allocation imposed by the indivisible fraction at low clutch sizes.

Sibling competition in a brood-tending leech

Conflict among siblings over parental investment, particularly over parental feeding, is a feature of family life in many kinds of animals. In some bird species, the size of prey items provided to juveniles has been implicated as a cause of aggressive competition among sibling chicks, because prey size determines whether dominance allows monopolization of parental offerings. Our experiment was meant to test the generality of this factor in creating intrafamilial conflict. We investigated sibling competition in relation to prey size using the carnivorous, brood-tending leech Helobdella papillornata. We equalized the total amount of food available to H. papillornata broods, but varied the size of individual prey items. Competition, measured by disparity in body size at independence, was more intense in broods provisioned with small items than in broods receiving large items, but similar between broods receiving large items and broods fed ad libitum. These patterns suggest that the intensity of conflict did not depend only on the total food amount, but was enhanced by small prey size. Our results indicate that conflict over the provision of parental resources to offspring can have a similar basis across very dissimilar organisms.

Geographic variation and the evolution of reproductive allocation in the pitcher-plant mosquito, Wyeomyia smithii

We measured the egg size of six geographic populations of the pitcher-plant mosquito, Wyeomyia smithii, from Florida (30 degrees N) to Ontario (49 degrees N). Populations from northern latitudes produced larger eggs than populations from southern latitudes. Egg size increased with increasing latitude more rapidly when larvae were reared under low rather than high density. One southern (30 degrees N) and one northern (49 degrees N) population of W. smithii that persisted through 10 generations of selection for increased persistence under conditions of chronic thermal- and nutrient-limiting stress (conditions similar to southern rather than northern habitats) produced smaller eggs more rapidly than unselected control lines. However, there were no differences in lifetime fecundity or fertility between control and selected lines. Thus, laboratory evolution in an environment representative of extreme southern latitudes caused evolutionary changes consistent with geographic patterns of egg size. These results implicate temperature as a selective factor influencing the geographic variation of egg size in W. smithii, and demonstrate a novel trade-off in reproductive allocation between egg size and egg maturation time.