Interleukin 2 receptor beta chain expressed in an oligodendroglioma line binds interleukin 2 and delivers growth signal

A novel Drosophila receptor tyrosine kinase expressed specifically in the nervous system. Unique structural features and implication in developmental signaling

We report the identification and characterization of Dnrk (Drosophila neurospecific receptor kinase), a Drosophila gene encoding a putative receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) highly related to the Trk and Ror families of RTKs. During Drosophila embryogenesis, the Dnrk gene is expressed specifically in the developing nervous system. The Dnrk protein possesses two conserved cysteine-containing domains and a kringle domain within its extracellular domain, resembling those observed in Ror family RTKs (Ror1, Ror2, and a Drosophila Ror, Dror). This protein contains the catalytic tyrosine kinase (TK) domain with two putative ATP-binding motifs, resembling those observed in another Drosophila RTK (Dtrk) that mediates homophilic cell adhesion. The TK domain of Dnrk, expressed in bacteria or mammalian cells, exhibits apparent autophosphorylation activities in vitro. The TK domain lacking the distal ATP-binding motif also exhibits autophosphorylation activity, yet to a lesser extent. In addition to its TK activity, there are several putative tyrosine-containing motifs that upon phosphorylation may interact with Src homology 2 regions of other signaling molecules. Collectively, these results suggest that Dnrk may play an important role in neural development during Drosophila embryogenesis.

Phage-displayed Fab fragments against anti-human interleukin-2 receptor alpha. Detection of antigen-bound phages with anti-cpIII monoclonal antibodies

The genes encoding the VHCH1 and VLCL parts of the mouse anti-human IL-2R alpha antibody 7G7B6 were amplified by PCR and the corresponding antibody fragments displayed on the surface of filamentous phages. The expression of Fab fragments was analysed by immunoblotting using HRP-labelled goat anti-mouse Ig antisera. By traditional hybridoma technology, splenocytes from Balb/c mice, immunized with native phage particles, were fused with P3X63-Ag8.653 myeloma cells in order to yield monoclonal antibodies against filamentous phage proteins. The obtained monoclonal antibody IF8 (mu/kappa) recognized the minor coat protein III as a 65-70 kDa protein band by immunoblotting, whereas the monoclonal antibody IVC8 (mu/kappa), in addition to cpIII, recognized a protein with an approximate molecular weight of 38-43 kDa. Both antibodies were employed to determine the binding specificity of the phage-displayed anti-human IL-2R alpha Fab fragments in an ELISA using recombinant baculovirus-expressed human IL-2R alpha proteins as antigens.

Lack of intermediate-affinity interleukin-2 receptor in mice leads to dependence on interleukin-2 receptor alpha, beta and gamma chain expression for T cell growth

An interleukin (IL)-4 dependent mouse T cell clone 8.2 derived from an IL-2-dependent T cell line was characterized. As measured by flow cytometric analysis and Northern blotting, it expresses IL-2 receptor beta (IL-2R beta) and gamma (IL-2R gamma) chains, but has lost expression of IL-2 receptor alpha chain (IL-2R alpha). To investigate the properties of the mouse IL-2R beta gamma complex and the role of IL-2R alpha gene expression, this clone was further studied. T cell clone 8.2 has lost the capacity to bind 125I-labeled human IL-2 under experimental conditions able to detect intermediate-affinity IL-2R in human cells. Mouse IL-2 is unable to block the binding of mAb TM beta 1 to 8.2 cells. Under the same experimental conditions, mouse IL-2 blocks the binding of TM beta 1 to C30-1 cells expressing the IL-2 alpha beta gamma complex. Since TM beta 1 recognizes an epitope related to the IL-2 binding site of IL-2R beta, these results can be taken as a demonstration that mouse IL-2R beta gamma does not bind mouse IL-2. Furthermore, T cell clone 8.2 does not proliferate in response to recombinant mouse or human IL-2. On the other hand, T cell transfectant lines expressing heterospecific receptors made of the human IL-2R beta and mouse IL-2R gamma chains bind 125I-labeled human IL-2 and proliferate in response to IL-2. This establishes the difference between mouse and human IL-2R beta chains. Transfection of T cell clone 8.2 with human IL-2R alpha genes restores their capacity to proliferate in response to IL-2. In addition, all transfectants grown in IL-2 express the endogeneous mouse IL-2R alpha chain. When grown in IL-4, the endogeneous mouse IL-2R alpha gene remains silent in all these transfectants. These results show that, contrary to the human, the mouse does not express an intermediate-affinity IL-2R. Expression of the IL-2R alpha gene is therefore required for the formation of the functional IL-2R in mice.

Expression of the human interleukin-2 receptor gamma chain in insect cells using a baculovirus expression vector

The gene encoding the gamma-chain of the human Interleukin-2 receptor was expressed in lepidopteran insect cells using the baculovirus expression vector system. The corresponding gene was inserted under the polyhedrin promoter of the Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus and expressed in the Spodoptera frugiperda insect cell line Sf9 during viral infection. The recombinant receptor protein was identified by immunoblotting in cell lysates, prepared from insect cells infected with the recombinant virus. At 40 h post infection the corresponding protein was detected as two major bands with apparent molecular weights of 50-60 kDa using a rabbit anti-human IL-2R gamma-receptor specific antiserum. Metabolic labelling with [35S]-methionine and SDS-PAGE analysis of the recombinant baculovirus infected insect cells verified the immunoblotting data. The expressed IL-2R gamma- protein could also be determined on the surface of infected insect cells by flow cytometer analysis.

A role for the intermediate affinity IL-2R in the protection against glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis

Recent work has shown that T lymphocytes undergo apoptosis upon treatment with the glucocorticoid analogue dexamethasone. These cells can be protected from the effect of dexamethasone by interleukin-2 (IL-2) or IL-4. We were interested in analysing whether a transfected cell dependent on three different lymphokines could be protected by them from the effect of dexamethasone. In addition, we took advantage of our cellular system, in which we expressed intermediate- or high-affinity IL-2R independently, to analyse the role of these receptors in the protection from glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis. In this report we show that IL-2 rescues murine T cells expressing exogenous intermediate- (TS1 beta) or high-affinity (TS1 alpha beta) IL-2 receptor (IL-2R) from dexamethasone-induced apoptosis. This result suggests that intermediate-affinity IL-2R alone can replace high-affinity IL-2R for the protection from the effect of dexamethasone. In addition, IL-4 and IL-9 are rescue-factors, as well as IL-2, of glucocorticoid-treated TS1 beta and TS1 alpha beta cells. Our data suggest that the presence of the alpha-chain of the IL-2R is not required for rescue by IL-2 from the effect of dexamethasone. In addition, we show that proliferation is not required for preventing glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis. This result implies a new role for the intermediate-affinity IL-2R.

How interleukin-2 can affect human fibroblasts behaviour

The alpha and beta chains of the Interleukin 2 receptor (IL2R alpha and IL2R beta) were detected at the surface of cultured fibroblastic cells by flow cytometry, using monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) directed against the IL2R alpha and the IL2R beta. These cells bound FITC-IL2 and this binding was inhibited by an excess of cold ligand and by mAbs recognizing the IL2 binding sites of the alpha and beta chains. Internalisation studies show that the fibroblastic IL2R/IL2 complex is internalized at 37 degrees C. By Northern Blot analysis we detected the presence of specific transcripts for the IL2R alpha and IL2R beta genes. Finally, the addition of exogenous IL2 specifically modified the surface expression of different antigens involved in the process of immunosurveillance. Indeed, IL2, at concentrations affecting the high affinity IL2R, caused the down regulation of ICAM-1 protein. IL2 also decreased the surface expression of the class I and class II HLA. By contrast, the use of IL2 concentrations which saturate the intermediate affinity IL2R beta caused the up regulation of the surface expression of the ICAM-1 protein. ICAM-1 is the natural ligand for the LFA-1 integrin expressed at the surface of lymphoid cells. ICAM-1/LFA-1 interactions favour homotypic and heterotypic cell-cell adhesion. Since human fibroblasts express an LFA-1 like molecule, we propose that in these cells IL2 can modify homotypic and heterotypic interactions acting on the surface expression of ICAM-1 protein.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Cytokine receptors on glial cells

Given what evidence there is for the molecular and functional nature of cytokines and their cognate binding proteins in the immune system and the emerging similarities or even identities for these ligands and receptors in the nervous system, two general models may be relevant. The first emerging pattern is that receptors for related but distinct trophic factors in the CNS are in many instances multichain complexes with one or more shared components. The shared components of the receptor complex may be either signal- or nonsignal-transducing chains. A second emerging motif is that related ligands and related receptors fall into gene families. Undoubtedly, these models will facilitate the cloning of novel members of these families whose function is quite specific to the nervous system and in particular to glial cells. This article will review the function of the receptors for cytokines and families of differentiation/survival/growth factors as they operate on astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes in development, health, and disease.

Characterisation of a new mouse monoclonal antibody (ONS-M21) reactive with both medulloblastomas and gliomas

We developed an IgG1 mouse monoclonal antibody (ONS-M21) directed against a cell surface antigen of medulloblastomas and gliomas in immunisation of mice with the ONS-76 medulloblastoma cell line. The antibody specifically reacted with medulloblastomas, supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumours (SPNETs) and gliomas, but not with other neuroectodermally derived tumours (neuroblastoma and melanoma) or with other kinds of tumours (meningioma, neurinoma, leukaemia, and small cell lung cancer). No reactivity was identified with normal body tissues, including peripheral blood cells. Characterisation of the ONS-M21 antigen showed that it was a trypsin-sensitive glycoprotein with a molecular weight of 80 kDa on SDS-PAGE. The pattern of reactivity and the biochemical properties of this antigen were different from those of other markers of medulloblastoma. These results indicate that ONS-M21 detects a new tumour-associated cell surface antigen specifically expressed by medulloblastomas, SPNETs, and gliomas. This is the first report that medulloblastomas may share common cell surface antigens with gliomas, although most studies have concluded that medulloblastoma has a predominantly neuronal phenotype. The lack of reactivity with normal tissue implies that ONS-M21 has potential applications as both a diagnostic tool and a therapeutic agent.

Intermediate- and high-affinity interleukin-2 receptors expressed in an IL-4-dependent T-cell line induce different signals

In order to understand the respective roles of IL-2R alpha and IL-2R beta subunits in transmission of the interleukin-2 (IL-2)-mediated growth signals, we have established two IL-4-dependent murine T-cell clones stably expressing the human IL-2R beta chain and three clones stably expressing the human IL-2R alpha chain. Whereas parental LD8 cells (which express only the murine IL-2R beta chain) do not proliferate in response to IL-2, cell lines stably expressing human IL-2R beta or the chimeric IL-2R alpha beta complex proliferate in response to IL-2. Stably transfected cells expressing the chimeric high-affinity receptor (human IL-2R alpha and murine IL-2R beta) expressed de novo endogenous murine IL-2R alpha when cultured in the presence of IL-2 but not IL-4. Both chimeric and endogenous receptors are functional in response to IL-2, since only addition of both anti-human and anti-murine IL-2R alpha monoclonal antibodies (mAb) inhibited IL-2-induced proliferation. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that human and murine IL-2R beta molecules are different since interaction of IL-2 with human p70 IL-2R is sufficient for transduction of proliferative signals in the absence of p55 IL-2R or, alternatively, that over-expression of the IL-2R beta chain renders cells responsive to IL-2. In addition, IL-2 stimulation of T cells through different forms of IL-2R results in the induction of distinct cellular responses.

Interleukin 2 activates extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 2

Interleukin 2 (IL-2) stimulated activation of the 42-kD extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 (Erk2) in murine IL-3-dependent cells, expressing either high or intermediate affinity IL-2 receptors. Activation was both rapid, occurring within 5 min of IL-2 addition, and prolonged, remaining elevated for 30 min. Activation of Erk2 appeared to be necessary for IL-2 stimulation of proliferation, as deletion of a region of the cytoplasmic domain of the IL-2 receptor beta chain, essential for IL-2 stimulation of proliferation, abolished Erk2 activation by IL-2. Furthermore, cells that had been deprived of cytokine for 24 h were then refractory to IL-2 stimulation of both Erk2 activity and proliferation. However, elevation of Erk2 activity was not sufficient to stimulate proliferation, as protein kinase C activation stimulated Erk2 activity but not DNA synthesis. Also, cells exposed to IL-2 in the presence of rapamycin showed full Erk2 activation but not DNA synthesis. These data suggest that IL-2 must stimulate both Erk2 activity and a further pathway(s) to trigger cell proliferation.

Human melanoma cells express a functional interleukin-2 receptor

Flow cytometric analysis reveals that 5 human melanoma cell lines (M14, IGR3, ME1477, JUSO, GLL19) express both alpha and beta chain of the interleukin 2 receptor (IL-2R alpha and IL-2R beta). These chains are able to specifically bind IL-2 and to form high-affinity heterodimers (IL-2R alpha beta). Analysis of poly A+ RNAs by Northern blot reveals the presence of typical transcripts for both the IL-2R alpha gene (3.6 kb) and the IL-2R beta gene (4 kb). Reverse transcription/polymerase chain reaction analysis allowed transcripts for the IL2R gamma (p64) gene to be detected in 3 of these melanoma cell lines (M14, IGR3, ME 1477). Incubation with human recombinant IL-2 modifies in IL-2R alpha+beta+gamma+ (M14) the expression of several surface molecules: down-regulation of ICAM-1, HLA class I and HLA-DR and up-regulation of CD44. IL-2 is also active on IL-2 alpha+beta+gamma- cell lines since it decreases ICAM-1 and HLA class-II expression at the surface of JUSO cells. Down-regulation of ICAM-1, whose expression in melanoma cells is a marker of tumor progression, is detectable within 3 hr in M14 cells and is maximal after 48 hr incubation, at IL-2 concentrations corresponding to the high-affinity heterodimers. This feature is specific since it is partially inhibited by MAbs directed against the IL-2 binding site of the IL-2R alpha (MAR93, 10T14) and IL-2R beta (MiK beta 1, TU27) chains. Our data support the notion of a direct effect of IL-2 on human melanoma cells. Modulation of the expression of surface molecules which is important for the interaction with immunocompetent cells or for tumor progression, could have a role to play during in vivo IL-2 treatment of human melanomas.

Interferon-alpha and interleukin 2 synergistically enhance basic fibroblast growth factor synthesis and induce release, promoting endothelial cell growth

To elucidate mechanisms underlying neovascularization that accompanies certain chronic immune/inflammatory disorders, the effects of interferon-alpha (IFN-alpha) and interleukin 2 (IL-2) on endothelial cell (EC) growth in vitro and angiogenesis in vivo were studied. Preincubation of cultured human ECs with IFN-alpha, followed by exposure to IL-2, resulted in effective stimulation of cell growth, whereas either cytokine alone had only a slight effect. The combination of IFN-alpha/IL-2 induced an angiogenic response in the rabbit cornea. IL-2 receptor expression was enhanced on IFN-alpha-treated ECs: p55 was increased and p70 was induced. 125I-IL-2 binding to ECs treated with IFN-alpha was enhanced (Kd from approximately 7 nM to approximately 260 pM with IFN-alpha), and anti-p55 IgG blocked 125I-IL-2/EC interaction as well as IL-2-mediated EC proliferation. Consistent with these findings in cell culture, immunohistologic studies demonstrated p55 and p70 antigen in the vasculature of rheumatoid joints, but not in normal joint tissue. Exposure of cultured ECs to IFN-alpha increased levels of intracellular EC basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), and subsequent addition of IL-2 led to bFGF release into the medium. The observation that anti-bFGF IgG largely blocked EC proliferation in response to IFN-alpha/IL-2 suggested that bFGF was a critical agent in this setting. These data suggest a mechanism rendering ECs responsive to IL-2 which may be relevant in immune/inflammatory disorders: IFN-alpha-mediated induction of functional EC receptors for IL-2, which drives cell proliferation by a mechanism dependent on increased synthesis and release of bFGF.

Functional coupling of the src-family protein tyrosine kinases p59fyn and p53/56lyn with the interleukin 2 receptor: implications for redundancy and pleiotropism in cytokine signal transduction

The binding of interleukin 2 (IL-2) to the IL-2 receptor (IL-2R) induces a rapid increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of cellular proteins. In a previous study, we have shown that p56lck (lck), a src-family protein tyrosine kinase (src-PTK), physically and functionally associates with the IL-2R beta chain (IL-2R beta). To further investigate a role of src-PTKs in IL-2 signaling, we analyzed a mouse pro-B-cell line, in which lck is not expressed detectably. We observed that in this cell line, IL-2 induces activation of at least two src-PTKs, p59fyn (fyn) and p53/56lyn (lyn). Interestingly, stimulation of this cell line with IL-3 also induces activation of src-PTKs. The activation of fyn or lyn seems to be selective for stimulation with IL-2 or IL-3 since stimulation with IL-6 fails to activate them. Furthermore, we provide evidence for the physical association of fyn with IL-2R beta. Taken together with previous results, our current study suggests that different src-PTKs, each of which is expressed in a cell-type-specific manner, can participate in the IL-2 signal transduction.

Cell type-specific tyrosine phosphorylation of IL-2 receptor beta chain in response to IL-2

Functional activities of the IL-2 receptor (IL-2R) beta chain exogenously expressed on lymphoid and non-lymphoid cells were examined in terms of phosphorylation of IL-2R beta and cell growth. Lymphoid MOLT-4 and its transfectants expressing IL-2R beta either alone or with IL-2R alpha chain were found to be rapidly phosphorylated predominantly at tyrosine residues of IL-2R beta and to be affected in their growth in an IL-2-dependent manner. In contrast, IL-2 induced neither phosphorylation of IL-2R beta nor cell growth in non-lymphoid transfectants derived from COS7, HeLa and L929, even though they acquired the IL-2 binding ability when coexpressed as IL-2R beta and IL-2R alpha. These results suggest that IL-2 induces activation of a tyrosine kinase possibly associated with IL-2R beta in a cell type-specific manner.

CD4 and CD8 regulate interleukin 2 responses of T cells

To characterize the T-cell surface molecules involved in regulation of T-cell interleukin 2 (IL-2) responses, we established several monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that inhibit IL-2 responses of freshly isolated CD8+ T cells and the IL-2-dependent cell line CTLL-2. Here we show that two inhibitory mAbs are directed against Lyt-2 (CD8 alpha). In fact, all anti-Lyt-2 mAbs tested were able to inhibit the IL-2 response of the Lyt-2- and L3T4-deficient cell line HT-2 after transfection with a Lyt-2 cDNA clone. Similarly, anti-L3T4 mAbs inhibited the IL-2 response of CD4-transfected HT-2 cells. These inhibitory effects of anti-CD4 and anti-CD8 mAbs occur on normal T lymphocytes, since they also were observed with CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell blasts, and are specific for IL-2 responses, since IL-4 responses of CD4- and CD8-transfected HT-2 cells were not affected by the anti-CD4 and anti-CD8 mAbs. The inhibitory effects of anti-CD4 or anti-CD8 mAbs could not be explained by interference with IL-2 binding and depended on CD4 and CD8 crosslinking, because F(ab')2 or Fab plus crosslinking second antibody, but not Fab alone, were effective. A mutant Lyt-2 molecule lacking the cytoplasmic region that mediates p56lck binding could not mediate the inhibitory effect upon crosslinking. These results suggest that CD4 and CD8 mediate negative regulation of T-cell IL-2 responses via cytoplasmically associated p56lck.

IL-2-dependent in vivo and in vitro tyrosine phosphorylation of IL-2 receptor gamma chain

We previously reported a molecule, p64, which was tentatively named the gamma chain, coprecipitable with the beta chain of human interleukin-2 receptor (IL-2R). The present study demonstrated that the gamma chain, as well as the beta chain expressed on IL-2-responsive cells, is phosphorylated on tyrosine residues in an IL-2-dependent manner in vivo and in vitro. The in vivo tyrosine phosphorylation of both chains was similarly induced within 1 min after IL-2 stimulation, and their in vitro tyrosine phosphorylation with the anti-IL-2R beta antibody-directed immunocomplex was also increased by treatment of cells with IL-2. These results suggest that a tyrosine kinase is associated with the beta gamma subunit complex, of which activation by IL-2 may result in transduction of intracellular signals.

Interaction between oligodendroglia and immune cells: mitogenic effect of an oligodendrocyte precursor cell line on syngeneic T lymphocytes

We analyzed cellular interactions between T lymphocytes and a recently established immortal glial line, L3 that retains several properties of immature oligodendrocytes (Aloisi et al., J Neurosci Res 27:16-24, 1990). L3 oligodendrocytes (L3-OL) cannot be induced to express class II antigens, nor do they specifically present antigen to syngeneic specific T lymphocyte. However, L3-OL strongly enhance the proliferation of freshly activated, interleukin-2(IL-2)-dependent T-line lymphocytes and concanavalin A (ConA)-activated lymphoblasts, irrespective of their antigen specificity or surface phenotype (CD4+ or CD8+). Resting and some activated T cells were susceptible to the mitogenic effect of L3-OL only in the presence of exogenous IL-2, not of other cytokines. The mitogenic effect of L3-OL did not depend on cell viability. It was observed in paraformaldehyde-fixed L3-OL cells and in membrane preparations, but not in culture supernatant. Neither intact L3-OL cells nor membrane preparations had direct IL-2 activity. The conclusion that the mitogenic effect of L3-OL cells is exerted by membrane structures acting as a costimulatory factor(s) of IL-2 is supported by the finding that it is largely blocked by a monoclonal anti-IL-2 receptor antibody. The effect is distinct from membrane-bound IL-1, membrane-bound tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), IL-3, or IL-6 and cannot be reconstituted by these cytokines.

The interleukin-2/interleukin-2 receptor system: structural, immunological, and clinical features

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) has been the first and more extensively studied cytokine, in particular for its central role in the mechanisms of cell growth and differentiation. The function of IL-2 is mediated through specific receptors (IL-2R) present on the membrane of reacting cells. Using hybridoma and recombinant DNA technologies, both IL-2 and IL-2R have been biochemically characterized and purified and are available for in vitro and in vivo studies. The biological and clinical investigations on IL-2/IL-2R system have contributed to opening new avenues for the comprehension of phenomena that are critically important for biology, immunology and medicine.

Bellini, Carpaccio, and receptors in the central nervous system

With the convergence of science from the fields of neurobiology and immunology, many exciting and challenging surprises have emerged regarding cytokines, neuroendocrine hormones, neuropeptides, excitatory amino acids, and their receptors. For some time neurobiologists have known that subsets of neural cells had different receptors for the same ligand. Those subsets of cells could be as different as neurons and astrocytes and as closely related as astrocytes from different lineages or anatomical areas. The neurobiological puzzle has been to determine the functional meaning of these differences. Immunologists in contrast have long understood the clear cut differences between T and B lymphocytes or T helper/inducer and T cytotoxic/suppressor cells and their response to cytokines. However, it is only very recently that they have discovered preferential use by these cells of different receptors for an identical cytokine ligand. Indeed, identical cytokines in the central nervous system and immune response may induce their pleiotropic responses by utilizing different receptors in these two systems. Immunologic paradigms may help neurobiologists predict the existence of subsets of neural cells and their function. Likewise, neurobiology may enable immunologists to predict roles for receptors in gene families as well as the existence of as yet unidentified receptors.