Natural abundance solid-state carbon NMR studies of photosynthetic reaction centers with photoinduced polarization

Light-Induced 1H NMR Hyperpolarization in Solids at 9.4 and 21.1 T

The inherently low sensitivity of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the major limiting factor for its application to elucidate structure and dynamics in solids. In the solid state, nuclear spin hyperpolarization methods based on microwave-induced dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) provide a versatile platform to enhance the bulk NMR signal of many different sample formulations, leading to significant sensitivity improvements. Here we show that 1H NMR hyperpolarization can also be generated in solids at high magnetic fields by optical irradiation of the sample. We achieved this by exploiting a donor-chromophore-acceptor molecule with an excited state electron-electron interaction similar to the nuclear Larmor frequency, enabling solid-state 1H photochemically induced DNP (photo-CIDNP) at high magnetic fields. Through hyperpolarization relay, we obtained bulk NMR signal enhancements εH by factors of ∼100 at both 9.4 and 21.1 T for the 1H signal of o-terphenyl in magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR experiments at 100 K. These findings open a pathway toward a general light-induced hyperpolarization approach for dye-sensitized high-field NMR in solids.

Magic Angle Spinning Solid-State 13C Photochemically Induced Dynamic Nuclear Polarization by a Synthetic Donor-Chromophore-Acceptor System at 9.4 T

Solid-state photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization (photo-CIDNP) is a nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy technique in which nuclear spin hyperpolarization is generated upon optical irradiation of an appropriate donor-acceptor system. Until now, solid-state photo-CIDNP at high magnetic fields has been observed only in photosynthetic reaction centers and flavoproteins. In the present work, we show that the effect is not limited to such biomolecular samples, and solid-state 13C photo-CIDNP can be observed at 9.4 T under magic angle spinning using a frozen solution of a synthetic molecular system dissolved in an organic solvent. Signal enhancements for the source molecule larger than a factor of 2300 are obtained. In addition, we show that bulk 13C hyperpolarization of the solvent can be generated via spontaneous 13C-13C spin diffusion at natural abundance.

Optically Enhanced Solid-State 1H NMR Spectroscopy

Low sensitivity is the primary limitation to extending nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques to more advanced chemical and structural studies. Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization (photo-CIDNP) is an NMR hyperpolarization technique where light is used to excite a suitable donor-acceptor system, creating a spin-correlated radical pair whose evolution drives nuclear hyperpolarization. Systems that exhibit photo-CIDNP in solids are not common, and this effect has, up to now, only been observed for ¹³C and ¹⁵N nuclei. However, the low gyromagnetic ratio and natural abundance of these nuclei trap the local hyperpolarization in the vicinity of the chromophore and limit the utility for bulk hyperpolarization. Here, we report the first example of optically enhanced solid-state ¹H NMR spectroscopy in the high-field regime. This is achieved via photo-CIDNP of a donor-chromophore-acceptor molecule in a frozen solution at 0.3 T and 85 K, where spontaneous spin diffusion among the abundant strongly coupled ¹H nuclei relays polarization through the whole sample, yielding a 16-fold bulk ¹H signal enhancement under continuous laser irradiation at 450 nm. These findings enable a new strategy for hyperpolarized NMR beyond the current limits of conventional microwave-driven DNP.

Photo-CIDNP in Solid State

Photo-CIDNP (photo-chemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization) refers to nuclear polarization created by the spin-chemical evolution of spin-correlated radical pairs (SCRPs). This phenomenon occurs in gases, liquids and solids. Based on the solid-state photo-CIDNP effect observed under magic-angle spinning (MAS), photo-CIDNP MAS NMR has been developed as analytical method. Here we report the origin, the theory and the state of the art of this method.

Studying hydrogen bonding and dynamics of the acetylate groups of the Special Pair of Rhodobacter sphaeroides WT

Although the cofactors in the bacterial reaction centre of Rhodobacter sphaeroides wild type (WT) are arranged almost symmetrically in two branches, the light-induced electron transfer occurs selectively in one branch. As origin of this functional symmetry break, a hydrogen bond between the acetyl group of P_L in the primary donor and His-L168 has been discussed. In this study, we investigate the existence and rigidity of this hydrogen bond with solid-state photo-CIDNP MAS NMR methods offering information on the local electronic structure due to highly sensitive and selective NMR experiments. On the time scale of the experiment, the hydrogen bond between P_L and His-L168 appears to be stable and not to be affected by illumination confirming a structural asymmetry within the Special Pair.

Field-cycling NMR with high-resolution detection under magic-angle spinning: determination of field-window for nuclear hyperpolarization in a photosynthetic reaction center

Several parameters in NMR depend on the magnetic field strength. Field-cycling NMR is an elegant way to explore the field dependence of these properties. The technique is well developed for solution state and in relaxometry. Here, a shuttle system with magic-angle spinning (MAS) detection is presented to allow for field-dependent studies on solids. The function of this system is demonstrated by exploring the magnetic field dependence of the solid-state photochemically induced nuclear polarization (photo-CIDNP) effect. The effect allows for strong nuclear spin-hyperpolarization in light-induced spin-correlated radical pairs (SCRPs) under solid-state conditions. To this end, ¹³C MAS NMR is applied to a photosynthetic reaction center (RC) of the purple bacterium Rhodobacter (R.) sphaeroides wildtype (WT). For induction of the effect in the stray field of the magnet and its subsequent observation at 9.4 T under MAS NMR conditions, the sample is shuttled by the use of an aerodynamically driven sample transfer technique. In the RC, we observe the effect down to 0.25 T allowing to determine the window for the occurrence of the effect to be between about 0.2 and 20 T.

Strategy for Enhancement of (13)C-Photo-CIDNP NMR Spectra by Exploiting Fractional (13)C-Labeling of Tryptophan

The photo-CIDNP effect has proven to be useful to strongly enhance NMR signals of photochemically active proteins simply by irradiation with light. The evolving characteristic patterns of enhanced absorptive and emissive NMR lines can be exploited to elucidate the photochemistry and photophysics of light-driven protein reactions. In particular, by the assignment of (13)C NMR resonances, redox-active amino acids may be identified and thereby electron-transfer pathways unraveled, in favorable cases, even with (13)C at natural abundance. If signal enhancement is weak, uniform (13)C isotope labeling is traditionally applied to increase the signal strength of protein (13)C NMR. However, this typically leads to cross relaxation, which transfers light-induced nuclear-spin polarization to adjacent (13)C nuclei, thereby preventing an unambiguous analysis of the photo-CIDNP effect. In this contribution, two isotope labeling strategies are presented; one leads to specific but ubiquitous (13)C labeling in tryptophan, and the other is based on fractional isotope labeling affording sets of isotopologs with low probability of next-neighbor isotope accumulation within individual tryptophan molecules. Consequently, cross relaxation is largely avoided while the signal enhancement by (13)C enrichment is preserved. This results in significantly simplified polarization patterns that are easier to analyze with respect to the generation of light-generated nuclear-spin polarization.

Structural studies of proteins by paramagnetic solid-state NMR spectroscopy

Paramagnetism-based nuclear pseudocontact shifts and spin relaxation enhancements contain a wealth of information in solid-state NMR spectra about electron-nucleus distances on the ∼20 Å length scale, far beyond that normally probed through measurements of nuclear dipolar couplings. Such data are especially vital in the context of structural studies of proteins and other biological molecules that suffer from a sparse number of experimentally-accessible atomic distances constraining their three-dimensional fold or intermolecular interactions. This perspective provides a brief overview of the recent developments and applications of paramagnetic magic-angle spinning NMR to biological systems, with primary focus on the investigations of metalloproteins and natively diamagnetic proteins modified with covalent paramagnetic tags.

Detecting a new source for photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization in the LOV2 domain of phototropin by magnetic-field dependent (13)C NMR spectroscopy

Phototropin is a flavin mononucleotide (FMN) containing blue-light receptor, which regulates, governed by its two LOV domains, the phototropic response of higher plants. Upon photoexcitation, the FMN cofactor triplet state, (3)F, reacts with a nearby cysteine to form a covalent adduct. Cysteine-to-alanine mutants of LOV domains instead generate a flavin radical upon illumination. Here, we explore the formation of photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization (CIDNP) in LOV2-C450A of Avena sativa phototropin and demonstrate that photo-CIDNP observed in solution (13)C NMR spectra can reliably be interpreted in terms of solid-state mechanisms including a novel triplet mechanism. To minimize cross-polarization, which transfers light-induced magnetization to adjacent (13)C nuclei, our experiments were performed on proteins reconstituted with specifically (13)C-labeled flavins. Two potential sources for photo-CIDNP can be identified: The photogenerated triplet state, (3)F, and the triplet radical pair (3)(F(-•)W(+•)), formed by electron abstraction of (3)F from tryptophan W491. To separate the two contributions, photo-CIDNP studies were performed at four different magnetic fields ranging from 4.7 to 11.8 T. Analysis revealed that, at fields <9 T, both (3)(F(-•)W(+•)) and (3)F contribute to photo-CIDNP, whereas at high magnetic fields, the calculated enhancement factors of (3)F agree favorably with their experimental counterparts. Thus, we have for the first time detected that a triplet state is the major source for photo-CIDNP in a photoactive protein. Since triplet states are frequently encountered upon photoexcitation of flavoproteins, the novel triplet mechanism opens up new means of studying electronic structures of the active cofactors in these proteins at atomic resolution.

Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance structural studies of proteins using paramagnetic probes

Determination of three-dimensional structures of biological macromolecules by magic-angle spinning (MAS) solid-state NMR spectroscopy is hindered by the paucity of nuclear dipolar coupling-based restraints corresponding to distances exceeding 5 Å. Recent MAS NMR studies of uniformly (13)C,(15)N-enriched proteins containing paramagnetic centers have demonstrated the measurements of site-specific nuclear pseudocontact shifts and spin relaxation enhancements, which report on electron-nucleus distances up to ~20 Å. These studies pave the way for the application of such long-distance paramagnetic restraints to protein structure elucidation and analysis of protein-protein and protein-ligand interactions in the solid phase. Paramagnetic species also facilitate the rapid acquisition of high resolution and sensitivity multidimensional solid-state NMR spectra of biomacromolecules using condensed data collection schemes, and characterization of solvent-accessible surfaces of peptides and proteins. In this review we discuss some of the latest applications of magic-angle spinning NMR spectroscopy in conjunction with paramagnetic probes to the structural studies of proteins in the solid state.

Quantum mechanical theory of dynamic nuclear polarization in solid dielectrics

Microwave driven dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) is a process in which the large polarization present in an electron spin reservoir is transferred to nuclei, thereby enhancing NMR signal intensities. In solid dielectrics there are three mechanisms that mediate this transfer--the solid effect (SE), the cross effect (CE), and thermal mixing (TM). Historically these mechanisms have been discussed theoretically using thermodynamic parameters and average spin interactions. However, the SE and the CE can also be modeled quantum mechanically with a system consisting of a small number of spins and the results provide a foundation for the calculations involving TM. In the case of the SE, a single electron-nuclear spin pair is sufficient to explain the polarization mechanism, while the CE requires participation of two electrons and a nuclear spin, and can be used to understand the improved DNP enhancements observed using biradical polarizing agents. Calculations establish the relations among the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) frequencies and the microwave irradiation frequency that must be satisfied for polarization transfer via the SE or the CE. In particular, if δ, Δ < ω(0I), where δ and Δ are the homogeneous linewidth and inhomogeneous breadth of the EPR spectrum, respectively, we verify that the SE occurs when ω(M) = ω(0S) ± ω(0I), where ω(M), ω(0S) and ω(0I) are, respectively, the microwave, and the EPR and NMR frequencies. Alternatively, when Δ > ω(0I) > δ, the CE dominates the polarization transfer. This two-electron process is optimized when ω(0S(1))-ω(0S(2)) = ω(0I) and ω(M)~ω(0S(1)) or ω(0S(2)), where ω(0S(1)) and ω(0S(2)) are the EPR Larmor frequencies of the two electrons. Using these matching conditions, we calculate the evolution of the density operator from electron Zeeman order to nuclear Zeeman order for both the SE and the CE. The results provide insights into the influence of the microwave irradiation field, the external magnetic field, and the electron-electron and electron-nuclear interactions on DNP enhancements.

The electronic structure of the primary electron donor of reaction centers of purple bacteria at atomic resolution as observed by photo-CIDNP 13C NMR

Composed of the two bacteriochlorophyll cofactors, P(L) and P(M), the special pair functions as the primary electron donor in bacterial reaction centers of purple bacteria of Rhodobacter sphaeroides. Under light absorption, an electron is transferred to a bacteriopheophytin and a radical pair is produced. The occurrence of the radical pair is linked to the production of enhanced nuclear polarization called photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization (photo-CIDNP). This effect can be used to study the electronic structure of the special pair at atomic resolution by detection of the strongly enhanced nuclear polarization with laser-flash photo-CIDNP magic-angle spinning NMR on the carotenoid-less mutant R26. In the electronic ground state, P(L) is strongly disturbed, carrying a slightly negative charge. In the radical cation state, the ratio of total electron spin densities between P(L) and P(M) is 2:1, although it is 2.5:1 for the pyrrole carbons, 2.2:1 for all porphyrinic carbons, and 4:1 for the pyrrole nitrogen. It is shown that the symmetry break between the electronic structures in the electronic ground state and in the radical cation state is an intrinsic property of the special pair supermolecule, which is particularly attributable to a modification of the structure of P(L). The significant difference in electron density distribution between the ground and radical cation states is explained by an electric polarization effect of the nearby histidine.

The solid-state photo-CIDNP effect

The solid-state photo-CIDNP effect is the occurrence of a non-Boltzmann nuclear spin polarization in rigid samples upon illumination. For solid-state NMR, which can detect this enhanced nuclear polarization as a strong modification of signal intensity, the effect allows for new classes of experiments. Currently, the photo- and spin-chemical machinery of various RCs is studied by photo-CIDNP MAS NMR in detail. Until now, the effect has only been observed at high magnetic fields with (13)C and (15)N MAS NMR and in natural photosynthetic RC preparations in which blocking of the acceptor leads to cyclic electron transfer. In terms of irreversible thermodynamics, the high-order spin structure of the initial radical pair can be considered as a transient order phenomenon emerging under non-equilibrium conditions and as a first manifestation of order in the photosynthetic process. The solid-state photo- CIDNP effect appears to be an intrinsic property of natural RCs. The conditions of its occurrence seem to be conserved in evolution. The effect may be based on the same fundamental principles as the highly optimized electron transfer. Hence, the effect may allow for guiding artificial photosynthesis.

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization in the reaction center of the green sulphur bacterium Chlorobium tepidum observed by 13C MAS NMR

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization has been observed in reaction centres of the green sulphur bacterium Chlorobium tepidum by (13)C magic-angle spinning solid-state NMR under continuous illumination with white light. An almost complete set of chemical shifts of the aromatic ring carbons of a BChl a molecule has been obtained. All light-induced (13)C NMR signals appear to be emissive, which is similar to the pattern observed in the reaction centers of plant photosystem I and purple bacterial reaction centres of Rhodobacter sphaeroides wild type. The donor in RCs of green sulfur bacteria clearly differs from the substantially asymmetric special pair of purple bacteria and appears to be similar to the more symmetric donor of photosystem I.

Photo-CIDNP MAS NMR in Intact Cells ofRhodobactersphaeroidesR26: Molecular and Atomic Resolution at Nanomolar Concentration

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization (photo-CIDNP) is observed in photosynthetic reaction centers of the carotenoid-less strain R26 of the purple bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides by (13)C solid-state NMR at three different magnetic fields (4.7, 9.4, and 17.6 T). The signals of the donor appear enhanced absorptive (positive) and of the acceptor emissive (negative). This spectral feature is in contrast to photo-CIDNP data of reactions centers of Rhodobacter sphaeroides wildtype reported previously (Prakash, S.; Alia; Gast, P.; de Groot, H. J. M.; Jeschke, G.; Matysik, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 14290-14298) in which all signals appear emissive. The difference is due to an additional mechanism occurring in RCs of R26 in the long-living triplet state of the donor, allowing for spectral editing by different enhancement mechanisms. The overall shape of the spectra remains independent of the magnetic field. The strongest enhancement is observed at 4.7 T, enabling the observation of photo-CIDNP enhanced NMR signals from reaction center cofactors in entire bacterial cells allowing for detection of subtle changes in the electronic structure at nanomolar concentration of the donor cofactor. Therefore, we establish in this paper photo-CIDNP MAS NMR as a method to study the electronic structure of photosynthetic cofactors at the molecular and atomic resolution as well as at cellular concentrations.

Frequency-selective homonuclear dipolar recoupling in solid state NMR

We introduce a new approach to frequency-selective homonuclear dipolar recoupling in solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) with magic-angle spinning (MAS). This approach, to which we give the acronym SEASHORE, employs alternating periods of double-quantum recoupling and chemical shift evolution to produce phase modulations of the recoupled dipole-dipole interactions that average out undesired couplings, leaving only dipole-dipole couplings between nuclear spins with a selected pair of NMR frequencies. In principle, SEASHORE is applicable to systems with arbitrary coupling strengths and arbitrary sets of NMR frequencies. Arbitrary MAS frequencies are also possible, subject only to restrictions imposed by the pulse sequence chosen for double-quantum recoupling. We demonstrate the efficacy of SEASHORE in experimental (13)C NMR measurements of frequency-selective polarization transfer in uniformly (15)N, (13)C-labeled L-valine powder and frequency-selective intermolecular polarization transfer in amyloid fibrils formed by a synthetic decapeptide containing uniformly (15)N, (13)C-labeled residues.

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization in a C450A mutant of the LOV2 domain of the Avena sativa blue-light receptor phototropin

Phototropin is a blue-light receptor involved in the phototropic response of higher plants. The photoreceptor comprises a protein kinase domain and two structurally similar flavin-mononucleotide (FMN) binding domains designated LOV1 and LOV2. Blue-light irradiation of recombinant LOV2 domains induces the formation of a covalent adduct of the thiol group of a functional cysteine in the cofactor-binding pocket to C(4a) of the FMN. Cysteine-to-alanine mutants of LOV domains are unable to form that adduct but generate an FMN radical upon illumination. The recombinant C450A mutant of the LOV2 domain of Avena sativa phototropin was reconstituted with universally and site-selectively (13)C-labeled FMN and the (13)C NMR signals were unequivocally assigned. (13)C NMR spectra were acquired in darkness and under blue-light irradiation. The chemical shifts and the coupling patterns of the signals were not affected by irradiation. However, under blue-light exposure, exceptionally strong nuclear-spin polarization was developed in the resonances belonging to certain carbons of the FMN's isoalloxazine moiety. An enhancement of the NMR absorption was observed for the signals of C(5a), C(7), and C(9). NMR lines in emission were detected for the signals belonging to C(2), C(4), C(4a), C(6), C(8), and C(9a). The signal of C(10a) remained in absorption but was slightly attenuated. In contrast, the intensities of the NMR signals belonging to the carbons of the ribityl side chain of FMN were not affected by light. The observation of spin-polarized (13)C-nuclei in the NMR spectra of the mutant LOV2 domain is clear evidence for radical-pair intermediates in the reaction steps following optical sample excitation.

Magnetic Field Dependence of Photo-CIDNP MAS NMR on Photosynthetic Reaction Centers ofRhodobacter sphaeroidesWT

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization (photo-CIDNP) is observed in frozen and quinone depleted photosynthetic reaction centers of the purple bacteria Rhodobacter sphaeroides wild type (WT) by (13)C solid-state NMR at three different magnetic fields. All light-induced signals appear to be emissive at all three fields. At 4.7 T (200 MHz proton frequency), the strongest enhancement of NMR signals is observed, which is more than 10 000 above the Boltzmann polarization. At higher fields, the enhancement factor decreases. At 17.6 T, the enhancement factor is about 60. The field dependence of the enhancement appears to be the same for all nuclei. The observed field dependence is in line with simulations that assume two competing mechanisms of polarization transfer from electrons to nuclei, three-spin mixing (TSM) and differential decay (DD). These simulations indicate a ratio of the electron spin density on the special pair cofactors is 3:2 in favor of the L-BChl during the radical cation state. The good agreement of simulations with the experiments raises expectations that artificial solid reaction centers can be tuned to show photo-CIDNP in the near future.

Photochemically Induced Dynamic Nuclear Polarization in Photosystem I of Plants Observed by13C Magic-Angle Spinning NMR

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarization (photo-CIDNP) has been observed in photosystem I of spinach by (13)C magic angle spinning solid-state NMR under continuous illumination with white light. An almost complete set of chemical shifts of the aromatic ring carbons of a single Chl a molecule has been obtained which is assigned to the P2-cofactor of the primary electron donor P700. Since all light-induced (13)C NMR signals appear to be emissive, a predominance of the three-spin mixing mechanism over the differential decay mechanism is proposed. The origin of the strong contribution of the three-spin mixing mechanism and the differences with photosystem II are discussed.

Photo-CIDNP 13C magic angle spinning NMR on bacterial reaction centres: exploring the electronic structure of the special pair and its surroundings

Photochemically induced dynamic nuclear polarisation (photo-CIDNP) in intact bacterial reaction centres has been observed by 13C-solid state NMR under continuous illumination with white light. Strong intensity enhancement of 13C NMR signals of the aromatic rings allows probing the electronic ground state of the two BChl cofactors of the special pair at the molecular scale with atomic selectivity. Differences between the two BChl cofactors are discussed. Several aliphatic 13C atoms of cofactors, as well as 13C atoms of the imidazole ring of histidine residue(s), show nuclear-spin polarisation to the same extent as the aromatic nuclei of the cofactors. Mechanisms and applications of polarisation transfer are discussed.

Biomolecular solid state NMR: advances in structural methodology and applications to peptide and protein fibrils

Solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) methods can provide atomic-level structural constraints on peptides and proteins in forms that are not amenable to characterization by other high-resolution structural techniques, owing to insolubility, high molecular weight, noncrystallinity, or other characteristics. Important examples include peptide and protein fibrils and membrane-bound peptides and proteins. Recent advances in solid state NMR methodology aimed at structural problems in biological systems are reviewed. The power of these methods is illustrated by experimental results on amyloid fibrils and other protein fibrils.

Photochemically induced nuclear spin polarization in reaction centers of photosystem II observed by 13C-solid-state NMR reveals a strongly asymmetric electronic structure of the P680(.+) primary donor chlorophyll

We report (13)C magic angle spinning NMR observation of photochemically induced dynamic nuclear spin polarization (photo-CIDNP) in the reaction center (RC) of photosystem II (PS2). The light-enhanced NMR signals of the natural abundance (13)C provide information on the electronic structure of the primary electron donor P(680) (chlorophyll a molecules absorbing around 680 nm) and on the p(z) spin density pattern in its oxidized form, P(680)(.+). Most centerband signals can be attributed to a single chlorophyll a (Chl a) cofactor that has little interaction with other pigments. The chemical shift anisotropy of the most intense signals is characteristic for aromatic carbon atoms. The data reveal a pronounced asymmetry of the electronic spin density distribution within the P(680)(.+). PS2 shows only a single broad and intense emissive signal, which is assigned to both the C-10 and C-15 methine carbon atoms. The spin density appears shifted toward ring III. This shift is remarkable, because, for monomeric Chl a radical cations in solution, the region of highest spin density is around ring II. It leads to a first hypothesis as to how the planet can provide itself with the chemical potential to split water and generate an oxygen atmosphere using the Chl a macroaromatic cycle. A local electrostatic field close to ring III can polarize the electronic charge and associated spin density and increase the redox potential of P(680) by stabilizing the highest occupied molecular orbital, without a major change of color. This field could be produced, e.g., by protonation of the keto group of ring V. Finally, the radical cation electronic structure in PS2 is different from that in the bacterial RC, which shows at least four emissive centerbands, indicating a symmetric spin density distribution over the entire bacteriochlorophyll macrocycle.

Optical pumping in indium phosphide: 31P NMR measurements and potential for signal enhancement in biological solid state NMR

The initial results of optically-pumped, directly-detected NMR experiments on InP are reported. At low temperatures (4.2 K and above) and in a 9.39 T magnetic field, irradiation of a sample of an undoped InP wafer with 835-nm-wavelength light from a diode laser enhances the spin polarization of 31P nuclei near the sample surface in a manner that depends on the polarization of the light. The nuclear spin polarization is monitored by direct radio-frequency detection of nuclear free induction-decay signals. The maximum nuclear spin polarization (Szn> generated by optical pumping is approximately - 0.004, corresponding to a spin temperature of -0.5 K. The nuclear spin polarization may be limited in these experiments by the use of a high photon energy (1.484 eV) relative to the InP band gap (1.423 eV at low temperatures). It is proposed that optically-pumped InP may be useful as a source of enhanced nuclear spin polarizations for solid state NMR measurements on organic and biological overlayers deposited on InP substrates. Estimates are given for the magnitude of the spin polarization and the efficiency of the polarization transfer from the semiconductor substrate to the overlayer that would be required to permit solid state NMR measurements on sub-nanomole quantities of molecules in the overlayer. These estimates appear well within the range of possibility.

Solid state NMR studies of photoinduced polarization in photosynthetic reaction centers: mechanism and simulations

We simulate Photo-Chemically Induced Dynamic Nuclear Polarization in the 15N-solid-state NMR of 15N-labeled photosynthetic reaction centers using a Radical Pair Mechanism (RPM). According to the experimental data, the directly polarized nuclei include all eight nitrogens in the ground state of the bacteriochlorophyll special pair (P), and N-II in the bacteriopheophytin acceptor (H) [M.G. Zysmilich, A.E. McDermott, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 116 (1994) 8362-8363.] [M.G. Zysmilich, A. McDermott, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 118 (1996) 5867-5873.] [M.G. Zysmilich, A. McDermott, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 93 (1996) 6857-6860.]; other signals are polarized in nonspecifically labeled samples, but the polarization apparently results from magnetization exchange with neighboring polarized nitrogens, and these are not treated in this work. Two quantitative models for the polarization associated with the RPM are presented and are used to test the validity of the proposal that this mechanism is cooperative in the reaction centers. The kinetic models can treat the steady state polarizations as well as the approach to steady state, and in principle could be expanded to include anisotropic effects, or pulse-probe experiments. Several features of the detailed simulations of the steady-state amplitudes and the kinetics of the approach to steady-state are compared with our data, including the signs and approximate absolute magnitudes of the polarization on the nitrogen nuclei in P and H(L), and the changes in the relative amplitudes with the change in the lifetime of the molecular triplet, photoaccumulation time, nuclear relaxation rate and illumination intensity. The simulations demonstrate that the polarization intensities are in qualitative agreement with those predicted for the RPM, including the curious observation of strong polariza-tion on the pheophytin acceptor for certain experimental conditions. However, this agreement requires efficient relaxation of the nitrogens on H(L) by 3P, due to a fortuitous low nanosecond value for the spin-lattice relaxation for the electrons in the molecular triplet of the donor, T1e of 3P. Whether this fortuitous match is valid is unproven.