Role of the putative zinc finger domain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae DNA polymerase epsilon in DNA replication and the S/M checkpoint pathway

Transient Zn2+ deficiency induces replication stress and compromises daughter cell proliferation

Cells must replicate their genome quickly and accurately, and they require metabolites and cofactors to do so. Ionic zinc (Zn2+) is an essential micronutrient that is required for hundreds of cellular processes, including DNA synthesis and adequate proliferation. Deficiency in this micronutrient impairs DNA synthesis and inhibits proliferation, but the mechanism is unknown. Using fluorescent reporters to track single cells via long-term live-cell imaging, we find that Zn2+ is required at the G1/S transition and during S phase for timely completion of S phase. A short pulse of Zn2+ deficiency impairs DNA synthesis and increases markers of replication stress. These markers of replication stress are reversed upon resupply of Zn2+. Finally, we find that if Zn2+ is chelated during the mother cell's S phase, daughter cells enter a transient quiescent state, maintained by sustained expression of p21, which disappears upon reentry into the cell cycle. In summary, short pulses of mild Zn2+ deficiency in S phase specifically induce replication stress, which causes downstream proliferation impairments in daughter cells.

Transient Zn2+ deficiency induces replication stress and compromises daughter cell proliferation

Cells must replicate their genome quickly and accurately, and they require metabolites and cofactors to do so. Ionic zinc (Zn2+) is an essential micronutrient that is required for hundreds of cellular processes, including DNA synthesis and adequate proliferation. Deficiency in this micronutrient impairs DNA synthesis and inhibits proliferation, but the mechanism is unknown. Using fluorescent reporters to track single cells via long-term live-cell imaging, we find that Zn2+ is required at the G1/S transition and during S-phase for timely completion of S-phase. A short pulse of Zn2+ deficiency impairs DNA synthesis and increases markers of replication stress. These markers of replication stress are reversed upon resupply of Zn2+. Finally, we find that if Zn2+ is removed during the mother cell's S-phase, daughter cells enter a transient quiescent state, maintained by sustained expression of p21, which disappears upon reentry into the cell cycle. In summary, short pulses of mild Zn2+ deficiency in S-phase specifically induce replication stress, which causes downstream proliferation impairments in daughter cells.

The Initiation of Eukaryotic DNA Replication

DNA replication in eukaryotic cells initiates from large numbers of sites called replication origins. Initiation of replication from these origins must be tightly controlled to ensure the entire genome is precisely duplicated in each cell cycle. This is accomplished through the regulation of the first two steps in replication: loading and activation of the replicative DNA helicase. Here we describe what is known about the mechanism and regulation of these two reactions from a genetic, biochemical, and structural perspective, focusing on recent progress using proteins from budding yeast. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biochemistry, Volume 91 is June 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Multiple roles of Pol epsilon in eukaryotic chromosome replication

Pol epsilon is a tetrameric assembly that plays distinct roles during eukaryotic chromosome replication. It catalyses leading strand DNA synthesis; yet this function is dispensable for viability. Its non-catalytic domains instead play an essential role in the assembly of the active replicative helicase and origin activation, while non-essential histone-fold subunits serve a critical function in parental histone redeposition onto newly synthesised DNA. Furthermore, Pol epsilon plays a structural role in linking the RFC–Ctf18 clamp loader to the replisome, supporting processive DNA synthesis, DNA damage response signalling as well as sister chromatid cohesion. In this minireview, we discuss recent biochemical and structural work that begins to explain various aspects of eukaryotic chromosome replication, with a focus on the multiple roles of Pol epsilon in this process.

Recombination and Pol ζ Rescue Defective DNA Replication upon Impaired CMG Helicase-Pol ε Interaction

The CMG complex (Cdc45, Mcm2–7, GINS (Psf1, 2, 3, and Sld5)) is crucial for both DNA replication initiation and fork progression. The CMG helicase interaction with the leading strand DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol ε) is essential for the preferential loading of Pol ε onto the leading strand, the stimulation of the polymerase, and the modulation of helicase activity. Here, we analyze the consequences of impaired interaction between Pol ε and GINS in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells with the psf1-100 mutation. This significantly affects DNA replication activity measured in vitro, while in vivo, the psf1-100 mutation reduces replication fidelity by increasing slippage of Pol ε, which manifests as an elevated number of frameshifts. It also increases the occurrence of single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) gaps and the demand for homologous recombination. The psf1-100 mutant shows elevated recombination rates and synthetic lethality with rad52Δ. Additionally, we observe increased participation of DNA polymerase zeta (Pol ζ) in DNA synthesis. We conclude that the impaired interaction between GINS and Pol ε requires enhanced involvement of error-prone Pol ζ, and increased participation of recombination as a rescue mechanism for recovery of impaired replication forks.

DNA polymerase ε relies on a unique domain for efficient replisome assembly and strand synthesis

DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol ε) is required for genome duplication and tumor suppression. It supports both replisome assembly and leading strand synthesis; however, the underlying mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Here we report that a conserved domain within the Pol ε catalytic core influences both of these replication steps in budding yeast. Modeling cancer-associated mutations in this domain reveals its unexpected effect on incorporating Pol ε into the four-member pre-loading complex during replisome assembly. In addition, genetic and biochemical data suggest that the examined domain supports Pol ε catalytic activity and symmetric movement of replication forks. Contrary to previously characterized Pol ε cancer variants, the examined mutants cause genome hyper-rearrangement rather than hyper-mutation. Our work thus suggests a role of the Pol ε catalytic core in replisome formation, a reliance of Pol ε strand synthesis on a unique domain, and a potential tumor-suppressive effect of Pol ε in curbing genome re-arrangements.

Sumoylation of the DNA polymerase ε by the Smc5/6 complex contributes to DNA replication

DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol ε) is critical for genome duplication, but little is known about how post-translational modification regulates its function. Here we report that the Pol ε catalytic subunit Pol2 in yeast is sumoylated at a single lysine within a catalytic domain insertion uniquely possessed by Pol2 family members. We found that Pol2 sumoylation occurs specifically in S phase and is increased under conditions of replication fork blockade. Analyses of the genetic requirements of this modification indicate that Pol2 sumoylation is associated with replication fork progression and dependent on the Smc5/6 SUMO ligase known to promote DNA synthesis. Consistently, the pol2 sumoylation mutant phenotype suggests impaired replication progression and increased levels of gross chromosomal rearrangements. Our findings thus indicate a direct role for SUMO in Pol2-mediated DNA synthesis and a molecular basis for Smc5/6-mediated regulation of genome stability.

DNA replication factors are tightly regulated to ensure genome duplication accuracy and efficiency. Among these factors, the Pol ε replicative polymerase plays a vital role by copying half of the genome every cell cycle. However, little is known about how this critical enzyme is regulated. Here we describe SUMO-based regulation of the catalytic subunit of Pol ε, Pol2. Our data suggest that Pol2 sumoylation occurs during replication elongation, particularly when replication forks encounter template obstacles. This modification is mediated by the conserved Smc5/6 SUMO ligase complex and occurs at a single site within the Pol2 catalytic domain. Several observations suggest that Pol2 sumoylation makes positive contributions to the synthesis of DNA regions enriched with template barriers and helps to prevent large-scale genomic alterations. Our work thus provides new insights into DNA polymerase regulation, specifically the role played by contributions from SUMO and the Smc5/6 complex.

The S phase checkpoint promotes the Smc5/6 complex dependent SUMOylation of Pol2, the catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase ε

Replication fork stalling and accumulation of single-stranded DNA trigger the S phase checkpoint, a signalling cascade that, in budding yeast, leads to the activation of the Rad53 kinase. Rad53 is essential in maintaining cell viability, but its targets of regulation are still partially unknown. Here we show that Rad53 drives the hyper-SUMOylation of Pol2, the catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase ε, principally following replication forks stalling induced by nucleotide depletion. Pol2 is the main target of SUMOylation within the replisome and its modification requires the SUMO-ligase Mms21, a subunit of the Smc5/6 complex. Moreover, the Smc5/6 complex co-purifies with Pol ε, independently of other replisome components. Finally, we map Pol2 SUMOylation to a single site within the N-terminal catalytic domain and identify a SUMO-interacting motif at the C-terminus of Pol2. These data suggest that the S phase checkpoint regulate Pol ε during replication stress through Pol2 SUMOylation and SUMO-binding ability.

Crystal structure of the human Polϵ B-subunit in complex with the C-terminal domain of the catalytic subunit

The eukaryotic B-family DNA polymerases include four members: Polα, Polδ, Polϵ, and Polζ, which share common architectural features, such as the exonuclease/polymerase and C-terminal domains (CTDs) of catalytic subunits bound to indispensable B-subunits, which serve as scaffolds that mediate interactions with other components of the replication machinery. Crystal structures for the B-subunits of Polα and Polδ/Polζ have been reported: the former within the primosome and separately with CTD and the latter with the N-terminal domain of the C-subunit. Here we present the crystal structure of the human Polϵ B-subunit (p59) in complex with CTD of the catalytic subunit (p261_C). The structure revealed a well defined electron density for p261_C and the phosphodiesterase and oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide-binding domains of p59. However, electron density was missing for the p59 N-terminal domain and for the linker connecting it to the phosphodiesterase domain. Similar to Polα, p261_C of Polϵ contains a three-helix bundle in the middle and zinc-binding modules on each side. Intersubunit interactions involving 11 hydrogen bonds and numerous hydrophobic contacts account for stable complex formation with a buried surface area of 3094 Ų Comparative structural analysis of p59-p261_C with the corresponding Polα complex revealed significant differences between the B-subunits and CTDs, as well as their interaction interfaces. The B-subunit of Polδ/Polζ also substantially differs from B-subunits of either Polα or Polϵ. This work provides a structural basis to explain biochemical and genetic data on the importance of B-subunit integrity in replisome function in vivo.

Diverse roles of Dpb2, the non-catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase ε

Timely progression of living cells through the cell cycle is precisely regulated. This involves a series of phosphorylation events which are regulated by various cyclins, activated in coordination with the cell cycle progression. Phosphorylated proteins govern cell growth, division as well as duplication of the genetic material and transcriptional activation of genes involved in these processes. A subset of these tightly regulated genes, which depend on the MBF transcription factor and are mainly involved in DNA replication and cell division, is transiently activated at the transition from G1 to S phase. A Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutant in the Dpb2 non-catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase ε (Polε) demonstrates abnormalities in transcription of MBF-dependent genes even in normal growth conditions. It is, therefore, tempting to speculate that Dpb2 which, as described previously, participates in the early stages of DNA replication initiation, has an impact on the regulation of replication-related genes expression with possible implications for genomic stability.

Mutations in the Non-Catalytic Subunit Dpb2 of DNA Polymerase Epsilon Affect the Nrm1 Branch of the DNA Replication Checkpoint

To preserve genome integrity, the S-phase checkpoint senses damaged DNA or nucleotide depletion and when necessary, arrests replication progression and delays cell division. Previous studies, based on two pol2 mutants have suggested the involvement of DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol ε) in sensing DNA replication accuracy in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Here we have studied the involvement of Pol ε in sensing proper progression of DNA replication, using a mutant in DPB2, the gene coding for a non-catalytic subunit of Pol ε. Under genotoxic conditions, the dpb2-103 cells progress through S phase faster than wild-type cells. Moreover, the Nrm1-dependent branch of the checkpoint, which regulates the expression of many replication checkpoint genes, is impaired in dpb2-103 cells. Finally, deletion of DDC1 in the dpb2-103 mutant is lethal supporting a model of strand-specific activation of the replication checkpoint. This lethality is suppressed by NRM1 deletion. We postulate that improper activation of the Nrm1-branch may explain inefficient replication checkpoint activation in Pol ε mutants.

The viability of living organisms depends on the integrity of their genomes. Each cell has to constantly monitor DNA replication and coordinate it with cell division to avoid genomic instability. This is achieved through pathways known as cell cycle checkpoints. Therefore, upon replication perturbation, DNA synthesis slows down and cell division is delayed. For that, a specific signal is induced and propagated through a mechanism that have already been identified but still need investigations. We have isolated a mutated form of Dpb2, the essential subunit of DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol ε) holoenzyme. This mutated form of Pol ε impairs proper activation of the cellular response to replication stress. We show that yeast cells with mutations in the DPB2 gene fail to activate the Nrm1-regulated branch of the checkpoint, which controls numerous genes expressed in response to replication stress. Moreover, our results support the model of parallel activation of replication checkpoint from the leading and lagging DNA strands. This strongly suggests that Pol ε, the leading strand replicase, is involved in replication checkpoint activation from this strand. Our results contribute to the understanding of mechanisms of cellular response to replication stress, which are necessary to preserve genome stability.

Human DNA polymerase ε is phosphorylated at serine-1940 after DNA damage and interacts with the iron-sulfur complex chaperones CIAO1 and MMS19

We describe a dynamic phosphorylation on serine-1940 of the catalytic subunit of human Pol ε, POLE1, following DNA damage. We also describe novel interactions between POLE1 and the iron-sulfur cluster assembly complex CIA proteins CIAO1 and MMS19. We show that serine-1940 is essential for the interaction between POLE1 and MMS19, but not POLE1 and CIAO1. No defect in either proliferation or survival was identified when POLE1 serine-1940 was mutated to alanine in human cells, even following treatment with DNA damaging agents. We conclude that serine-1940 phosphorylation and the interaction between serine-1940 and MMS19 are not essential functions in the C terminal domain of the catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase ε.

Crystal Structure of the Human Pol α B Subunit in Complex with the C-terminal Domain of the Catalytic Subunit

In eukaryotic DNA replication, short RNA-DNA hybrid primers synthesized by primase-DNA polymerase α (Prim-Pol α) are needed to start DNA replication by the replicative DNA polymerases, Pol δ and Pol ϵ. The C terminus of the Pol α catalytic subunit (p180C) in complex with the B subunit (p70) regulates the RNA priming and DNA polymerizing activities of Prim-Pol α. It tethers Pol α and primase, facilitating RNA primer handover from primase to Pol α. To understand these regulatory mechanisms and to reveal the details of human Pol α organization, we determined the crystal structure of p70 in complex with p180C. The structured portion of p70 includes a phosphodiesterase (PDE) domain and an oligonucleotide/oligosaccharide binding (OB) domain. The N-terminal domain and the linker connecting it to the PDE domain are disordered in the reported crystal structure. The p180C adopts an elongated asymmetric saddle shape, with a three-helix bundle in the middle and zinc-binding modules (Zn1 and Zn2) on each side. The extensive p180C-p70 interactions involve 20 hydrogen bonds and a number of hydrophobic interactions resulting in an extended buried surface of 4080 Å(2). Importantly, in the structure of the p180C-p70 complex with full-length p70, the residues from the N-terminal to the OB domain contribute to interactions with p180C. The comparative structural analysis revealed both the conserved features and the differences between the human and yeast Pol α complexes.

Fidelity consequences of the impaired interaction between DNA polymerase epsilon and the GINS complex

DNA polymerase epsilon interacts with the CMG (Cdc45-MCM-GINS) complex by Dpb2p, the non-catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase epsilon. It is postulated that CMG is responsible for targeting of Pol ɛ to the leading strand. We isolated a mutator dpb2-100 allele which encodes the mutant form of Dpb2p. We showed previously that Dpb2-100p has impaired interactions with Pol2p, the catalytic subunit of Pol ɛ. Here, we present that Dpb2-100p has strongly impaired interaction with the Psf1 and Psf3 subunits of the GINS complex. Our in vitro results suggest that while dpb2-100 does not alter Pol ɛ's biochemical properties including catalytic efficiency, processivity or proofreading activity - it moderately decreases the fidelity of DNA synthesis. As the in vitro results did not explain the strong in vivo mutator effect of the dpb2-100 allele we analyzed the mutation spectrum in vivo. The analysis of the mutation rates in the dpb2-100 mutant indicated an increased participation of the error-prone DNA polymerase zeta in replication. However, even in the absence of Pol ζ activity the presence of the dpb2-100 allele was mutagenic, indicating that a significant part of mutagenesis is Pol ζ-independent. A strong synergistic mutator effect observed for transversions in the triple mutant dpb2-100 pol2-4 rev3Δ as compared to pol2-4 rev3Δ and dpb2-100 rev3Δ suggests that in the presence of the dpb2-100 allele the number of replication errors is enhanced. We hypothesize that in the dpb2-100 strain, where the interaction between Pol ɛ and GINS is weakened, the access of Pol δ to the leading strand may be increased. The increased participation of Pol δ on the leading strand in the dpb2-100 mutant may explain the synergistic mutator effect observed in the dpb2-100 pol3-5DV double mutant.

Checkpoint-independent scaling of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae DNA replication program

Background

In budding yeast, perturbations that prolong S phase lead to a proportionate delay in the activation times of most origins. The DNA replication checkpoint was implicated in this scaling phenotype, as an intact checkpoint was shown to be required for the delayed activation of late origins in response to hydroxyurea treatment. In support of that, scaling is lost in cells deleted of mrc1, a mediator of the replication checkpoint signal. Mrc1p, however, also plays a role in normal replication.

Results

To examine whether the replication checkpoint is required for scaling the replication profile with S phase duration we measured the genome-wide replication profile of different MRC1 alleles that separate its checkpoint function from its role in normal replication, and further analyzed the replication profiles of S phase mutants that are checkpoint deficient. We found that the checkpoint is not required for scaling; rather the unique replication phenotype of mrc1 deleted cells is attributed to the role of Mrc1 in normal replication. This is further supported by the replication profiles of tof1Δ which functions together with Mrc1p in normal replication, and by the distinct replication profiles of specific POL2 alleles which differ in their interaction with Mrc1p.

Conclusions

We suggest that the slow fork progression in mrc1 deleted cells reduces the likelihood of passive replication leading to the activation of origins that remain mostly dormant in wild-type cells.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12915-014-0079-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The C-terminal domain of the DNA polymerase catalytic subunit regulates the primase and polymerase activities of the human DNA polymerase α-primase complex

The initiation of DNA synthesis during replication of the human genome is accomplished primarily by the DNA polymerase α-primase complex, which makes the RNA-DNA primers accessible to processive DNA pols. The structural information needed to understand the mechanism of regulation of this complex biochemical reaction is incomplete. The presence of two enzymes in one complex poses the question of how these two enzymes cooperate during priming of DNA synthesis. Yeast two-hybrid and direct pulldown assays revealed that the N-terminal domain of the large subunit of primase (p58N) directly interacts with the C-terminal domain of the catalytic subunit of polα (p180C). We found that a complex of the C-terminal domain of the catalytic subunit of polα with the second subunit (p180C-p70) stimulated primase activity, whereas the whole catalytically active heterodimer of polα (p180ΔN-p70) inhibited RNA synthesis by primase. Conversely, the polα catalytic domain without the C-terminal part (p180ΔN-core) possessed a much higher propensity to extend the RNA primer than the two-subunit polα (p180ΔN-p70), suggesting that p180C and/or p70 are involved in the negative regulation of DNA pol activity. We conclude that the interaction between p180C, p70, and p58 regulates the proper primase and polymerase function. The composition of the template DNA is another important factor determining the activity of the complex. We have found that polα activity strongly depends on the sequence of the template and that homopyrimidine runs create a strong barrier for DNA synthesis by polα.

DNA polymerase ε and its roles in genome stability

DNA Polymerase Epsilon (Pol ε) is one of three DNA Polymerases (along with Pol δ and Pol α) required for nuclear DNA replication in eukaryotes. Pol ε is comprised of four subunits, the largest of which is encoded by the POLE gene and contains the catalytic polymerase and exonuclease activities. The 3'-5' exonuclease proofreading activity is able to correct DNA synthesis errors and helps protect against genome instability. Recent cancer genome sequencing efforts have shown that 3% of colorectal and 7% of endometrial cancers contain mutations within the exonuclease domain of POLE and are associated with significantly elevated levels of single nucleotide substitutions (15-500 per Mb) and microsatellite stability. POLE mutations have also been found in other tumor types, though at lower frequency, suggesting roles in tumorigenesis more broadly in different tissue types. In addition to its proofreading activity, Pol ε contributes to genome stability through multiple mechanisms that are discussed in this review.

Human Pol ζ purified with accessory subunits is active in translesion DNA synthesis and complements Pol η in cisplatin bypass

DNA polymerase ζ (Pol ζ) is a eukaryotic B-family DNA polymerase that specializes in translesion synthesis and is essential for normal embryogenesis. At a minimum, Pol ζ consists of a catalytic subunit Rev3 and an accessory subunit Rev7. Mammalian Rev3 contains >3,000 residues and is twice as large as the yeast homolog. To date, no vertebrate Pol ζ has been purified for biochemical characterization. Here we report purification of a series of human Rev3 deletion constructs expressed in HEK293 cells and identification of a minimally catalytically active human Pol ζ variant. With a tagged form of an active Pol ζ variant, we isolated two additional accessory subunits of human Pol ζ, PolD2 and PolD3. The purified four-subunit Pol ζ4 (Rev3-Rev7-PolD2-PolD3) is much more efficient and more processive at bypassing a 1,2-intrastrand d(GpG)-cisplatin cross-link than the two-subunit Pol ζ2 (Rev3-Rev7). We show that complete bypass of cisplatin lesions requires Pol η to insert dCTP opposite the 3' guanine and Pol ζ4 to extend the primers.

DNA replication and homologous recombination factors: acting together to maintain genome stability

Genome duplication requires the coordinated action of multiple proteins to ensure a fast replication with high fidelity. These factors form a complex called the Replisome, which is assembled onto the DNA duplex to promote its unwinding and to catalyze the polymerization of two new strands. Key constituents of the Replisome are the Cdc45-Mcm2-7-GINS helicase and the And1-Claspin-Tipin-Tim1 complex, which coordinate DNA unwinding with polymerase alpha-, delta-, and epsilon- dependent DNA polymerization. These factors encounter numerous obstacles, such as endogenous DNA lesions leading to template breakage and complex structures arising from intrinsic features of specific DNA sequences. To overcome these roadblocks, homologous recombination DNA repair factors, such as Rad51 and the Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex, are required to ensure complete and faithful replication. Consistent with this notion, many of the genes involved in this process result in lethal phenotypes when inactivated in organisms with complex and large genomes. Here, we summarize the architectural and functional properties of the Replisome and propose a unified view of DNA replication and repair processes.

Modulation of mutagenesis in eukaryotes by DNA replication fork dynamics and quality of nucleotide pools

The rate of mutations in eukaryotes depends on a plethora of factors and is not immediately derived from the fidelity of DNA polymerases (Pols). Replication of chromosomes containing the anti-parallel strands of duplex DNA occurs through the copying of leading and lagging strand templates by a trio of Pols α, δ and ϵ, with the assistance of Pol ζ and Y-family Pols at difficult DNA template structures or sites of DNA damage. The parameters of the synthesis at a given location are dictated by the quality and quantity of nucleotides in the pools, replication fork architecture, transcription status, regulation of Pol switches, and structure of chromatin. The result of these transactions is a subject of survey and editing by DNA repair.

Initiation of chromosomal DNA replication in eukaryotic cells; contribution of yeast genetics to the elucidation

Chromosomal DNA replication is a fundamental process in the transmission of genetic information through generations. While the molecular mechanism of DNA replication has been studied for a long time, knowledge regarding this process in eukaryotic cells has advanced rapidly in the past 20 years. Yeast genetics contributed profoundly to this rapid advancement. Reverse genetics and genetic screenings identified all genes encoding replication proteins in budding yeast. Moreover, the genetic interactions that were used in screenings and analyses provided an insight into the molecular mechanism of chromosomal DNA replication. Further studies showed that complicated but sophisticated mechanisms govern chromosomal DNA replication. The retrospective view of the genetic approaches used to elucidate DNA replication in eukaryotes, together with current knowledge, tell us the reasons why some of the genetic screenings are successful, and also provide ideas for future directions.

DNA polymerase ε

DNA polymerase ε (Pol ε) is one of three replicative DNA polymerases in eukaryotic cells. Pol ε is a multi-subunit DNA polymerase with many functions. For example, recent studies in yeast have suggested that Pol ε is essential during the initiation of DNA replication and also participates during leading strand synthesis. In this chapter, we will discuss the structure of Pol ε, the individual subunits and their function.

The Pol α-primase complex

Initiation of DNA synthesis in eukaryotic replication depends on the Pol α-primase complex, a multi-protein complex endowed with polymerase and primase activity. The Pol α-primase complex assembles the RNA-DNA primers required by the processive Pol δ and Pol ε for bulk DNA synthesis on the lagging and leading strand, respectively. During primer synthesis, the primase subunits synthesise de novo an oligomer of 7-12 ribonucleotides in length, which undergoes limited extension with deoxyribonucleotides by Pol α. Despite its central importance to DNA replication, little is known about the mechanism of primer synthesis by the Pol α-primase complex, which comprises the steps of initiation, 'counting' and hand-off of the RNA primer by the primase to Pol α, followed by primer extension with dNTPs and completion of the RNA-DNA hybrid primer. Recent biochemical and structural work has started to provide some insight into the molecular basis of initiation of DNA synthesis. Important advances include the structural characterisation of the evolutionarily related archaeal primase, the elucidation of the mechanism of interaction between Pol α and its B subunit and the observation that the regulatory subunit of the primase contains an iron-sulfur cluster domain that is essential for primer synthesis.

Repeat expansion in the budding yeast ribosomal DNA can occur independently of the canonical homologous recombination machinery

Major eukaryotic genomic elements, including the ribosomal DNA (rDNA), are composed of repeated sequences with well-defined copy numbers that must be maintained by regulated recombination. Although mechanisms that instigate rDNA recombination have been identified, none are directional and they therefore cannot explain precise repeat number control. Here, we show that yeast lacking histone chaperone Asf1 undergo reproducible rDNA repeat expansions. These expansions do not require the replication fork blocking protein Fob1 and are therefore independent of known rDNA expansion mechanisms. We propose the existence of a regulated rDNA repeat gain pathway that becomes constitutively active in asf1Δ mutants. Cells lacking ASF1 accumulate rDNA repeats with high fidelity in a processive manner across multiple cell divisions. The mechanism of repeat gain is dependent on highly repetitive sequence but, surprisingly, is independent of the homologous recombination proteins Rad52, Rad51 and Rad59. The expansion mechanism is compromised by mutations that decrease the processivity of DNA replication, which leads to progressive loss of rDNA repeats. Our data suggest that a novel mode of break-induced replication occurs in repetitive DNA that is dependent on high homology but does not require the canonical homologous recombination machinery.

Sensing of replication stress and Mec1 activation act through two independent pathways involving the 9-1-1 complex and DNA polymerase ε

Following DNA damage or replication stress, budding yeast cells activate the Rad53 checkpoint kinase, promoting genome stability in these challenging conditions. The DNA damage and replication checkpoint pathways are partially overlapping, sharing several factors, but are also differentiated at various levels. The upstream kinase Mec1 is required to activate both signaling cascades together with the 9-1-1 PCNA-like complex and the Dpb11 (hTopBP1) protein. After DNA damage, Dpb11 is also needed to recruit the adaptor protein Rad9 (h53BP1). Here we analyzed the mechanisms leading to Mec1 activation in vivo after DNA damage and replication stress. We found that a ddc1Δdpb11-1 double mutant strain displays a synthetic defect in Rad53 and H2A phosphorylation and is extremely sensitive to hydroxyurea (HU), indicating that Dpb11 and the 9-1-1 complex independently promote Mec1 activation. A similar phenotype is observed when both the 9-1-1 complex and the Dpb4 non-essential subunit of DNA polymerase ε (Polε) are contemporarily absent, indicating that checkpoint activation in response to replication stress is achieved through two independent pathways, requiring the 9-1-1 complex and Polε.

Stable interactions between DNA polymerase δ catalytic and structural subunits are essential for efficient DNA repair

Eukaryotic DNA polymerase δ (Pol δ) activity is crucial for chromosome replication and DNA repair and thus, plays an essential role in genome stability. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pol δ is a heterotrimeric complex composed of the catalytic subunit Pol3, the structural B subunit Pol31, and Pol32, an additional auxiliary subunit. Pol3 interacts with Pol31 thanks to its C-terminal domain (CTD) and this interaction is of functional importance both in DNA replication and DNA repair. Interestingly, deletion of the last four C-terminal Pol3 residues, LSKW, in the pol3-ct mutant does not affect DNA replication but leads to defects in homologous recombination and in break-induced replication (BIR) repair pathways. The defect associated with pol3-ct could result from a defective interaction between Pol δ and a protein involved in recombination. However, we show that the LSKW motif is required for the interaction between Pol3 C-terminal end and Pol31. This loss of interaction is relevant in vivo since we found that pol3-ct confers HU sensitivity on its own and synthetic lethality with a POL32 deletion. Moreover, pol3-ct shows genetic interactions, both suppression and synthetic lethality, with POL31 mutant alleles. Structural analyses indicate that the B subunit of Pol δ displays a major conserved region at its surface and that pol31 alleles interacting with pol3-ct, correspond to substitutions of Pol31 amino acids that are situated in this particular region. Superimposition of our Pol31 model on the 3D architecture of the phylogenetically related DNA polymerase α (Pol α) suggests that Pol3 CTD interacts with the conserved region of Pol31, thus providing a molecular basis to understand the defects associated with pol3-ct. Taken together, our data highlight a stringent dependence on Pol δ complex stability in DNA repair.

One-hit wonders of genomic instability

Recent data show that cells from many cancers exhibit massive chromosome instability. The traditional view is that the gradual accumulation of mutations in genes involved in transcriptional regulation and cell cycle controls results in tumor development. This, however, does not exclude the possibility that some mutations could be more potent than others in destabilizing the genome by targeting both chromosomal integrity and corresponding checkpoint mechanisms simultaneously. Three such examples of "single-hit" lesions potentially leading to heritable genome destabilization are discussed. They include: failure to release sister chromatid cohesion due to the incomplete proteolytic cleavage of cohesin; massive merotelic kinetochore misattachments upon condensin depletion; and chromosome under-replication. In all three cases, cells fail to detect potential chromosomal bridges before anaphase entry, indicating that there is a basic cell cycle requirement to maintain a degree of sister chromatid bridging that is not recognizable as chromosomal damage.

Alterations in DNA replication and histone levels promote histone gene amplification in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Gene amplification, a process that increases the copy number of a gene or a genomic region to two or more, is utilized by many organisms in response to environmental stress or decreased levels of a gene product. Our previous studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae identified the amplification of a histone H2A-H2B gene pair, HTA2-HTB2, in response to the deletion of the other H2A-H2B gene pair, HTA1-HTB1. This amplification arises from a recombination event between two flanking Ty1 elements to form a new, stable circular chromosome and occurs at a frequency higher than has been observed for other Ty1-Ty1 recombination events. To understand the regulation of this amplification event, we screened the S. cerevisiae nonessential deletion set for mutations that alter the amplification frequency. Among the deletions that increase HTA2-HTB2 amplification frequency, we identified those that either decrease DNA replication fork progression (rrm3Delta, dpb3Delta, dpb4Delta, and clb5Delta) or that reduce histone H3-H4 levels (hht2-hhf2Delta). These two classes are related because reduced histone H3-H4 levels increase replication fork pauses, and impaired replication forks cause a reduction in histone levels. Consistent with our mutant screen, we found that the introduction of DNA replication stress by hydroxyurea induces the HTA2-HTB2 amplification event. Taken together, our results suggest that either reduced histone levels or slowed replication forks stimulate the HTA2-HTB2 amplification event, contributing to the restoration of normal chromatin structure.

Essential global role of CDC14 in DNA synthesis revealed by chromosome underreplication unrecognized by checkpoints in cdc14 mutants

The CDC14 family of multifunctional evolutionarily conserved phosphatases includes major regulators of mitosis in eukaryotes and of DNA damage response in humans. The CDC14 function is also crucial for accurate chromosome segregation, which is exemplified by its absolute requirement in yeast for the anaphase segregation of nucleolar organizers; however the nature of this essential pathway is not understood. Upon investigation of the rDNA nondisjunction phenomenon, it was found that cdc14 mutants fail to complete replication of this locus. Moreover, other late-replicating genomic regions (10% of the genome) are also underreplicated in cdc14 mutants undergoing anaphase. This selective genome-wide replication defect is due to dosage insufficiency of replication factors in the nucleus, which stems from two defects, both contingent on the reduced CDC14 function in the preceding mitosis. First, a constitutive nuclear import defect results in a drastic dosage decrease for those replication proteins that are regulated by nuclear transport. Particularly, essential RPA subunits display both lower mRNA and protein levels, as well as abnormal cytoplasmic localization. Second, the reduced transcription of MBF and SBF-controlled genes in G1 leads to the reduction in protein levels of many proteins involved in DNA replication. The failure to complete replication of late replicons is the primary reason for chromosome nondisjunction upon CDC14 dysfunction. As the genome-wide slow-down of DNA replication does not trigger checkpoints [Lengronne A, Schwob E (2002) Mol Cell 9:1067-1078], CDC14 mutations pose an overwhelming challenge to genome stability, both generating chromosome damage and undermining the checkpoint control mechanisms.

DNA polymerases at the eukaryotic fork-20 years later

Function of the eukaryotic genome depends on efficient and accurate replication of anti-parallel DNA strands. Eukaryotic DNA polymerases have different properties adapted to perform a wide spectrum of DNA transactions. Here we focus on major players in the bulk replication, DNA polymerases of the B-family. We review the organization of the replication fork in eukaryotes in a historical perspective, analyze contemporary models and propose a new integrative model of the fork.

3D architecture of DNA Pol alpha reveals the functional core of multi-subunit replicative polymerases

Eukaryotic DNA replication requires the coordinated activity of the multi-subunit DNA polymerases: Pol alpha, Pol delta and Pol epsilon. The conserved catalytic and regulatory B subunits associate in a constitutive heterodimer that represents the functional core of all three replicative polymerases. Here, we combine X-ray crystallography and electron microscopy (EM) to describe subunit interaction and 3D architecture of heterodimeric yeast Pol alpha. The crystal structure of the C-terminal domain (CTD) of the catalytic subunit bound to the B subunit illustrates a conserved mechanism of accessory factor recruitment by replicative polymerases. The EM reconstructions of Pol alpha reveal a bilobal shape with separate catalytic and regulatory modules. Docking of the B-CTD complex in the EM reconstruction shows that the B subunit is tethered to the polymerase domain through a structured but flexible linker. Our combined findings provide a structural template for the common functional architecture of the three major replicative DNA polymerases.

Evolution of DNA polymerases: an inactivated polymerase-exonuclease module in Pol epsilon and a chimeric origin of eukaryotic polymerases from two classes of archaeal ancestors

Background

Evolution of DNA polymerases, the key enzymes of DNA replication and repair, is central to any reconstruction of the history of cellular life. However, the details of the evolutionary relationships between DNA polymerases of archaea and eukaryotes remain unresolved.

Results

We performed a comparative analysis of archaeal, eukaryotic, and bacterial B-family DNA polymerases, which are the main replicative polymerases in archaea and eukaryotes, combined with an analysis of domain architectures. Surprisingly, we found that eukaryotic Polymerase ε consists of two tandem exonuclease-polymerase modules, the active N-terminal module and a C-terminal module in which both enzymatic domains are inactivated. The two modules are only distantly related to each other, an observation that suggests the possibility that Pol ε evolved as a result of insertion and subsequent inactivation of a distinct polymerase, possibly, of bacterial descent, upstream of the C-terminal Zn-fingers, rather than by tandem duplication. The presence of an inactivated exonuclease-polymerase module in Pol ε parallels a similar inactivation of both enzymatic domains in a distinct family of archaeal B-family polymerases. The results of phylogenetic analysis indicate that eukaryotic B-family polymerases, most likely, originate from two distantly related archaeal B-family polymerases, one form giving rise to Pol ε, and the other one to the common ancestor of Pol α, Pol δ, and Pol ζ. The C-terminal Zn-fingers that are present in all eukaryotic B-family polymerases, unexpectedly, are homologous to the Zn-finger of archaeal D-family DNA polymerases that are otherwise unrelated to the B family. The Zn-finger of Polε shows a markedly greater similarity to the counterpart in archaeal PolD than the Zn-fingers of other eukaryotic B-family polymerases.

Conclusion

Evolution of eukaryotic DNA polymerases seems to have involved previously unnoticed complex events. We hypothesize that the archaeal ancestor of eukaryotes encoded three DNA polymerases, namely, two distinct B-family polymerases and a D-family polymerase all of which contributed to the evolution of the eukaryotic replication machinery. The Zn-finger might have been acquired from PolD by the B-family form that gave rise to Pol ε prior to or in the course of eukaryogenesis, and subsequently, was captured by the ancestor of the other B-family eukaryotic polymerases. The inactivated polymerase-exonuclease module of Pol ε might have evolved by fusion with a distinct polymerase, rather than by duplication of the active module of Pol ε, and is likely to play an important role in the assembly of eukaryotic replication and repair complexes.

Reviewers

This article was reviewed by Patrick Forterre, Arcady Mushegian, and Chris Ponting. For the full reviews, please go to the Reviewers' Reports section.

Mrc1 and DNA polymerase epsilon function together in linking DNA replication and the S phase checkpoint

Yeast Mrc1, ortholog of metazoan Claspin, is both a central component of normal DNA replication forks and a mediator of the S phase checkpoint. We report that Mrc1 interacts with Pol2, the catalytic subunit of DNA polymerase epsilon, essential for leading-strand DNA replication and for the checkpoint. In unperturbed cells, Mrc1 interacts independently with both the N-terminal and C-terminal halves of Pol2 (Pol2N and Pol2C). Strikingly, phosphorylation of Mrc1 during the S phase checkpoint abolishes Pol2N binding, but not Pol2C interaction. Mrc1 is required to stabilize Pol2 at replication forks stalled in HU. The bimodal Mrc1/Pol2 interaction may be an additional step in regulating the S phase checkpoint response to DNA damage on the leading strand. We propose that Mrc1, which also interacts with the MCMs, may modulate coupling of polymerization and unwinding at the replication fork.

RNA transcription analysis and completion of the genome sequence of yellow head nidovirus

Yellow head virus (YHV) is a pathogen of the black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) and, with gill-associated virus (GAV), is one of two known invertebrate nidoviruses. We describe sequences of the large replicase gene (ORF1a) and 5′- and 3′-terminal UTRs, completing the 26,662 nt sequence of the YHV genome. ORF1a (12,219 nt) encodes a ∼462,662 Da polypeptide containing a putative 3C-like protease and a putative papain-like protease with the canonical C/H catalytic dyad and α + β fold. The read-through pp1ab polyprotein contains putative uridylate-specific endoribonuclease and ribose-2′-O-methyl transferase domains, and an exonuclease domain incorporating unusual dual Zn²⁺-binding fingers. Upstream of ORF1a, the 71 nt 5′-UTR shares 82.4% identity with the 68 nt 5′-UTR of GAV. The 677 nt 3′-terminal region contains a single 60 nt ORF, commencing 298 nt downstream of ORF3, that is identical to N-terminal coding region of the 249 nt GAV ORF4. Northern blots using RNA from YHV-infected shrimp and probes directed at ORF1a, ORF1b, ORF2 and ORF3 identified a nested set of 3′-coterminal RNAs comprising the full-length genomic RNA and two sub-genomic (sg) mRNAs. Intergenic sequences upstream of ORF2 and ORF3 share high identity with GAV, particularly in the conserved domains predicted to mediate sgmRNA transcription.

Division of labor at the eukaryotic replication fork

DNA polymerase delta (Pol delta) and DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol epsilon) are both required for efficient replication of the nuclear genome, yet the division of labor between these enzymes has remained unclear for many years. Here we investigate the contribution of Pol delta to replication of the leading and lagging strand templates in Saccharomyces cerevisiae using a mutant Pol delta allele (pol3-L612M) whose error rate is higher for one mismatch (e.g., T x dGTP) than for its complement (A x dCTP). We find that strand-specific mutation rates strongly depend on the orientation of a reporter gene relative to an adjacent replication origin, in a manner implying that >90% of Pol delta replication is performed using the lagging strand template. When combined with recent evidence implicating Pol epsilon in leading strand replication, these data support a model of the replication fork wherein the leading and lagging strand templates are primarily copied by Pol epsilon and Pol delta, respectively.

Dpb2p, a noncatalytic subunit of DNA polymerase epsilon, contributes to the fidelity of DNA replication in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Most replicases are multi-subunit complexes. DNA polymerase epsilon from Saccharomyces cerevisiae is composed of four subunits: Pol2p, Dpb2p, Dpb3p, and Dpb4p. Pol2p and Dpb2p are essential. To investigate a possible role for the Dpb2p subunit in maintaining the fidelity of DNA replication, we isolated temperature-sensitive mutants in the DPB2 gene. Several of the newly isolated dpb2 alleles are strong mutators, exhibiting mutation rates equivalent to pol2 mutants defective in the 3' --> 5' proofreading exonuclease (pol2-4) or to mutants defective in mismatch repair (msh6). The dpb2 pol2-4 and dpb2 msh6 double mutants show a synergistic increase in mutation rate, indicating that the mutations arising in the dpb2 mutants are due to DNA replication errors normally corrected by mismatch repair. The dpb2 mutations decrease the affinity of Dpb2p for the Pol2p subunit as measured by two-hybrid analysis, providing a possible mechanistic explanation for the loss of high-fidelity synthesis. Our results show that DNA polymerase subunits other than those housing the DNA polymerase and 3' --> 5' exonuclease are essential in controlling the level of spontaneous mutagenesis and genetic stability in yeast cells.

Mitotic Cdc6 stabilizes anaphase-promoting complex substrates by a partially Cdc28-independent mechanism, and this stabilization is suppressed by deletion of Cdc55

Ectopic expression of Cdc6p results in mitotic delay, and this has been attributed to Cdc6p-mediated inhibition of Cdc28 protein kinase and failure to activate the anaphase-promoting complex (APC). Here we show that endogenous Cdc6p delays a specific subset of mitotic events and that Cdc28 inhibition is not sufficient to account for it. The depletion of Cdc6p in G(2)/M cells reveals that Cdc6p is rate limiting for the degradation of the APC/Cdc20 substrates Pds1p and Clb2p. Conversely, the premature expression of Cdc6p delays the degradation of APC/Cdc20 substrates. Abolishing Cdc6p/Cdc28p interaction does not eliminate the Cdc6-dependent delay of these anaphase events. To identify additional Cdc6-mediated, APC-inhibitory mechanisms, we looked for mutants that reversed the mitotic delay. The deletion of SWE1, RAD24, MAD2, or BUB2 had no effect. However, disrupting CDC55, a PP2A regulatory subunit, suppressed the Cdc6p-dependent delay of Pds1 and Clb2 destruction. A specific role for CDC55 was supported by demonstrating that the lethality of Cdc6 ectopic expression in a cdc16-264 mutant is suppressed by the deletion of CDC55, that endogenous Cdc6p coimmunoprecipitates with the Cdc55 and Tpd3 subunits of PP2A, that Cdc6p/Cdc55p/Tpd3 interaction occurs only during mitosis, and that Cdc6 affects PP2A-Cdc55 activity during anaphase. This demonstrates that the levels and timing of accumulation of Cdc6p in mitosis are appropriate for mediating the modulation of APC/Cdc20.

Roles of DNA Polymerases in Replication, Repair, and Recombination in Eukaryotes

The functioning of the eukaryotic genome depends on efficient and accurate DNA replication and repair. The process of replication is complicated by the ongoing decomposition of DNA and damage of the genome by endogenous and exogenous factors. DNA damage can alter base coding potential resulting in mutations, or block DNA replication, which can lead to double-strand breaks (DSB) and to subsequent chromosome loss. Replication is coordinated with DNA repair systems that operate in cells to remove or tolerate DNA lesions. DNA polymerases can serve as sensors in the cell cycle checkpoint pathways that delay cell division until damaged DNA is repaired and replication is completed. Eukaryotic DNA template-dependent DNA polymerases have different properties adapted to perform an amazingly wide spectrum of DNA transactions. In this review, we discuss the structure, the mechanism, and the evolutionary relationships of DNA polymerases and their possible functions in the replication of intact and damaged chromosomes, DNA damage repair, and recombination.

Identification and functional analysis of TopBP1 and its homologs

The multiple BRCT-domain protein TopBP1 and its yeast homologs have been implicated in many aspects of DNA metabolism, but their molecular functions remain elusive. In this review, we first summarise how the yeast homologs were identified and characterised. We next review the data available from metazoan systems and finally draw parallels with the yeast models. TopBP1 plays important functions in the initiation of DNA replication in all organisms and participates in checkpoint responses both within S phase and following DNA damage. In metazoan systems there is accumulating evidence for additional roles in transcriptional regulation that have not been reported in yeast. Overall, TopBP1 appears to play a key role in integrating different aspects of DNA metabolism, but the mechanistic basis for this remains to be fully explained.

Genetic analysis of two Arabidopsis DNA polymerase epsilon subunits during early embryogenesis

Accurate DNA replication is one of the most important events in the life of a cell. To perform this task, the cell utilizes several DNA polymerase complexes. We investigated the role of DNA polymerase epsilon during gametophyte and seed development using forward and reverse genetic approaches. In Arabidopsis, the catalytic subunit of this complex is encoded by two genes, AtPOL2a and AtPOL2b, whereas the second largest regulatory subunit AtDPB2 is present as a unique complete copy. Disruption of AtPOL2a or AtDPB2 resulted in a sporophytic embryo-defective phenotype, whilst mutations in AtPOL2b produced no visible effects. Loss of AtDPB2 function resulted in a severe reduction in nuclear divisions, both in the embryo and in the endosperm. Mutations in AtPOL2a allowed several rounds of mitosis to proceed, often with aberrant planes of division. Moreover, AtDPB2 was not expressed during development of the female gametophyte, which requires three post-meiotic nuclear divisions. Since a consensus binding site for E2F transcription factors was identified in the promoter region of both genes, the promoter-reporter fusion technique was used to show that luciferase activity was increased at specific phases of the cell cycle in synchronized tobacco BY-2 cells. Our results support the idea that fertilization may utilize the mechanisms of cell cycle transcriptional regulation of genes to reactivate the divisions of the oosphere and central cell.

Proteomic and genomic characterization of chromatin complexes at a boundary

We have dissected specialized assemblies on the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome that help define and preserve the boundaries that separate silent and active chromatin. These assemblies contain characteristic stretches of DNA that flank particular regions of silent chromatin, as well as five distinctively modified histones and a set of protein complexes. The complexes consist of at least 15 chromatin-associated proteins, including DNA pol ɛ, the Isw2-Itc1 and Top2 chromatin remodeling proteins, the Sas3-Spt16 chromatin modifying complex, and Yta7, a bromodomain-containing AAA ATPase. We show that these complexes are important for the faithful maintenance of an established boundary, as disruption of the complexes results in specific, anomalous alterations of the silent and active epigenetic states.

Modulation of DNA synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae nuclear extract by DNA polymerases and the origin recognition complex

We have analyzed the modulation of DNA synthesis on a supercoiled plasmid DNA template by DNA polymerases (pol), minichromosome maintenance protein complex (Mcm), topoisomerases, and the origin recognition complex (ORC) using an in vitro assay system. Antisera specific against the four-subunit pol alpha, the catalytic subunit of pol delta, and the Mcm467 complex each inhibited DNA synthesis. However, DNA synthesis in this system appeared to be independent of polepsilon. Consequently, DNA synthesis in the in vitro system appeared to depend only on two polymerases, alpha and delta, as well as the Mcm467 DNA helicase. This system requires supercoiled plasmid DNA template and DNA synthesis absolutely required DNA topoisomerase I. In addition, we also report here a novel finding that purified recombinant six subunit ORC significantly stimulated the DNA synthesis on a supercoiled plasmid DNA template containing an autonomously replicating sequence, ARS1.

Identification and cloning of two putative subunits of DNA polymerase epsilon in fission yeast

DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol epsilon) is a multi-subunit enzyme required for the initiation of chromosomal DNA replication. Here, we report the cloning of two fission yeast genes, called dpb3+ and dpb4+ that encode proteins homologous to the two smallest subunits of Pol epsilon. Although Dpb4 is not required for cell viability, Deltadpb4 mutants are synthetically lethal with mutations in four genes required for DNA replication initiation, cdc20+ (encoding DNA Pol epsilon), cut5+ (homologous to DPB11/TopBP1), sna41+ (homologous to CDC45) and cdc21+ (encoding Mcm4, a component of the pre-replicative complex). In contrast to Dpb4, Dpb3 is essential for cell cycle progression. A glutathione S-transferase pull-down assay indicates that Dpb3 physically interacts with both Dpb2 and Dpb4, suggesting that Dpb3 associates with other members of the Pol epsilon complex. Depletion of Dpb3 leads to an accumulation of cells in S phase consistent with Dpb3 having a role in DNA replication. In addition, many of the cells have a bi-nucleate or multinucleate phenotype, indicating that cell separation is also inhibited. Finally, we have examined in vivo localization of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged Dpb3 and Dpb4 and found that both proteins are localized to the nucleus consistent with their proposed role in DNA replication. However, in the absence of Dpb3, GFP-Dpb4 appears to be more dispersed throughout the cell, suggesting that Dpb3 may be important in establishing or maintaining normal localization of Dpb4.

Double-stranded DNA binding properties of Saccharomyces cerevisiae DNA polymerase epsilon and of the Dpb3p-Dpb4p subassembly

BACKGROUND

DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol epsilon) of Saccharomyces cerevisiae participates in many aspects of DNA replication, as well as in DNA repair. In order to clarify molecular mechanisms employed in the multiple tasks of Pol epsilon, we have been characterizing the interaction between Pol epsilon and DNA.

RESULTS

Analysis of the four-subunit Pol epsilon complex by gel mobility shift assay revealed that the complex binds not only to single-stranded (ss) DNA but also equally well to double-stranded (ds) DNA. A truncated polypeptide consisting of the N-terminal domain of Pol2p catalytic subunit binds to ssDNA but not to dsDNA, indicating that the Pol2p C-terminal domain and/or the auxiliary subunits are involved in the dsDNA-binding. The dsDNA-binding by Pol epsilon does not require DNA ends or specific DNA sequences. Further analysis by competition experiments indicated that Pol epsilon contains at least two distinct DNA-binding sites, one of which binds exclusively to ssDNA and the other to dsDNA. The dsDNA-binding site, however, is suggested to also bind ssDNA. The DNA polymerase activity of Pol epsilon is inhibited by ssDNA but not by dsDNA. Furthermore, purification of the Pol epsilon auxiliary subunits Dpb3p and Dpb4p revealed that these proteins form a heterodimer and associate with dsDNA.

CONCLUSIONS

Pol epsilon has multiple sites at which it interacts with DNA. One of these sites has a strong affinity for dsDNA, a feature that is not generally associated with DNA polymerases. Involvement of the Dpb3p-Dpb4p complex in the dsDNA-binding of Pol epsilon is inferred.

Characterization of the 3' exonuclease subunit DP1 of Methanococcus jannaschii replicative DNA polymerase D

The B-subunits associated with the replicative DNA polymerases are conserved from Archaea to humans, whereas the corresponding catalytic subunits are not related. The latter belong to the B and D DNA polymerase families in eukaryotes and archaea, respectively. Sequence analysis places the B-subunits within the calcineurin-like phosphoesterase superfamily. Since residues implicated in metal binding and catalysis are well conserved in archaeal family D DNA polymerases, it has been hypothesized that the B-subunit could be responsible for the 3'-5' proofreading exonuclease activity of these enzymes. To test this hypothesis we expressed Methanococcus jannaschii DP1 (MjaDP1), the B-subunit of DNA polymerase D, in Escherichia coli, and demonstrate that MjaDP1 functions alone as a moderately active, thermostable, Mn2+-dependent 3'-5' exonuclease. The putative polymerase subunit DP2 is not required. The nuclease activity is strongly reduced by single amino acid mutations in the phosphoesterase domain indicating the requirement of this domain for the activity. MjaDP1 acts as a unidirectional, non-processive exonuclease preferring mispaired nucleotides and single-stranded DNA, suggesting that MjaDP1 functions as the proofreading exonuclease of archaeal family D DNA polymerase.

A 21-amino acid peptide from the cysteine cluster II of the family D DNA polymerase from Pyrococcus horikoshii stimulates its nuclease activity which is Mre11-like and prefers manganese ion as the cofactor

Family D DNA polymerase (PolD) is a new type of DNA polymerase possessing polymerization and 3'-5' exonuclease activities. Here we report the characterization of the nuclease activity of PolD from Pyrococcus horikoshii. By site-directed mutagenesis, we verified that the putative Mre11-like nuclease domain in the small subunit (DP1), predicted according to computer analysis and structure inference reported previously, is the catalytic domain. We show that D363, H365 and H454 are the essential residues, while D407, N453, H500, H563 and H565 are critical residues for the activity. We provide experimental evidence demonstrating that manganese, rather than magnesium, is the preferable metal ion for the nuclease activity of PolD. We also show that DP1 alone is insufficient to perform full catalysis, which additionally requires the formation of the PolD complex and manganese ion. We found that a 21 amino acid, subunit-interacting peptide of the sequence from cysteine cluster II of the large subunit (DP2) stimulates the exonuclease activity of DP1 and the internal deletion mutants of PolD lacking the 21-aa sequence. This indicates that the putative zinc finger motif of the cysteine cluster II is deeply involved in the nucleolytic catalysis.

Unique error signature of the four-subunit yeast DNA polymerase epsilon

We have purified wild type and exonuclease-deficient four-subunit DNA polymerase epsilon (Pol epsilon) complex from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and analyzed the fidelity of DNA synthesis by the two enzymes. Wild type Pol epsilon synthesizes DNA accurately, generating single-base substitutions and deletions at average error rates of </=2 x 10-5 and </=5 x 10-7, respectively. Pol epsilon lacking 3' --> 5' exonuclease activity is less accurate to a degree suggesting that wild type Pol epsilon proofreads at least 92% of base substitution errors and at least 99% of frameshift errors made by the polymerase. Surprisingly the base substitution fidelity of exonuclease-deficient Pol epsilon is severalfold lower than that of proofreading-deficient forms of other replicative polymerases. Moreover the spectrum of errors shows a feature not seen with other A, B, C, or X family polymerases: a high proportion of transversions resulting from T.dTTP, T.dCTP, and C.dTTP mispairs. This unique error specificity and amino acid sequence alignments suggest that the structure of the polymerase active site of Pol epsilon differs from those of other B family members. We observed both similarities and differences between the spectrum of substitutions generated by proofreading-deficient Pol epsilon in vitro and substitutions occurring in vivo in a yeast strain defective in Pol epsilon proofreading and DNA mismatch repair. We discuss the implications of these findings for the role of Pol epsilon polymerase activity in DNA replication.