1
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Cigalotto L, Martinvalet D. Granzymes in health and diseases: the good, the bad and the ugly. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1371743. [PMID: 38646541 PMCID: PMC11026543 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1371743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Granzymes are a family of serine proteases, composed of five human members: GA, B, H, M and K. They were first discovered in the 1980s within cytotoxic granules released during NK cell- and T cell-mediated killing. Through their various proteolytic activities, granzymes can trigger different pathways within cells, all of which ultimately lead to the same result, cell death. Over the years, the initial consideration of granzymes as mere cytotoxic mediators has changed due to surprising findings demonstrating their expression in cells other than immune effectors as well as new intracellular and extracellular activities. Additional roles have been identified in the extracellular milieu, following granzyme escape from the immunological synapse or their release by specific cell types. Outside the cell, granzyme activities mediate extracellular matrix alteration via the degradation of matrix proteins or surface receptors. In certain contexts, these processes are essential for tissue homeostasis; in others, excessive matrix degradation and extensive cell death contribute to the onset of chronic diseases, inflammation, and autoimmunity. Here, we provide an overview of both the physiological and pathological roles of granzymes, highlighting their utility while also recognizing how their unregulated presence can trigger the development and/or worsening of diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lavinia Cigalotto
- Laboratory of Reactive Oxygen Species and Cytotoxic Immunity, Department Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute Of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova, Italy
| | - Denis Martinvalet
- Laboratory of Reactive Oxygen Species and Cytotoxic Immunity, Department Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Veneto Institute Of Molecular Medicine (VIMM), Padova, Italy
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2
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van Smaalen TC, Beurskens DMH, Kox JJHFM, Polonia R, Vos R, Duimel H, van de Wetering WJ, López-Iglesias C, Reutelingsperger CP, Ernest van Heurn LW, Peutz-Kootstra CJ, Nicolaes GAF. Extracellular histone release by renal cells after warm and cold ischemic kidney injury: Studies in an ex-vivo porcine kidney perfusion model. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279944. [PMID: 36662718 PMCID: PMC9858092 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular histones are cytotoxic molecules involved in experimental acute kidney injury. In patients receiving a renal transplant from donors after circulatory death, who suffer from additional warm ischemia, worse graft outcome is associated with higher machine perfusate extracellular histone H3 concentrations. We now investigated temperature-dependent extracellular histone release in an ex vivo porcine renal perfusion model, and subsequently studied histone release in the absence and presence of non-anticoagulant heparin. Seven pairs of ischemically damaged porcine kidneys were machine perfused at 4°C (cold ischemia) or 28°C (warm ischemia). Perfusate histone H3 concentration was higher after warm as compared to cold ischemia (median (IQR) = 0.48 (0.20-0.83) μg/mL vs. 0.02 (0.00-0.06) μg/mL; p = .045, respectively). Employing immune-electron microscopy (EM), histone containing cytoplasmic protrusions of tubular and endothelial cells were found after warm ischemic injury. Furthermore, abundant histone localization was detected in debris surrounding severely damaged glomerular cells, in a "buck shot" pattern. In vitro, histones were cytotoxic to endothelial and kidney epithelial cells in a temperature-dependent manner. In a separate ex vivo experiment, addition of heparin did not change the total histone H3 levels observed in the perfusate but revealed a continuous increase in the level of a lower molecular weight histone H3 variant. Our findings show that ischemically damaged kidneys release more extracellular histones in warm ischemia, which by EM was due to histone release by renal cells. Blocking of histone-mediated damage during transplantation may be beneficial in prevention of renal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim C. van Smaalen
- Department of Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Danielle M. H. Beurskens
- Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jasper J. H. F. M. Kox
- Department of Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Rasheendra Polonia
- Department of Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Rein Vos
- Department of Methodology and Statistics, School for Public Health and Primary Care (CAPHRI), Faculty of Health, Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Hans Duimel
- Microscopy CORE Lab, Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, FHML, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Willine J. van de Wetering
- Microscopy CORE Lab, Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, FHML, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Carmen López-Iglesias
- Microscopy CORE Lab, Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute, FHML, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Chris P. Reutelingsperger
- Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - L. W. Ernest van Heurn
- Department of Surgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Carine J. Peutz-Kootstra
- Department of Pathology, Maastricht University Medical Center, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Gerry A. F. Nicolaes
- Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
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3
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Richardson KC, Jung K, Pardo J, Turner CT, Granville DJ. Noncytotoxic Roles of Granzymes in Health and Disease. Physiology (Bethesda) 2022; 37:323-348. [PMID: 35820180 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00011.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Granzymes are serine proteases previously believed to play exclusive and somewhat redundant roles in lymphocyte-mediated target cell death. However, recent studies have challenged this paradigm. Distinct substrate profiles and functions have since emerged for each granzyme while their dysregulated proteolytic activities have been linked to diverse pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katlyn C Richardson
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), British Columbia Professional Firefighters' Wound Healing Laboratory, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Karen Jung
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), British Columbia Professional Firefighters' Wound Healing Laboratory, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Julian Pardo
- Fundación Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon (CIBA), Zaragoza, Spain.,Department of Microbiology, Radiology, Pediatrics and Public Health, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain.,CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Christopher T Turner
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - David J Granville
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries (ICORD), British Columbia Professional Firefighters' Wound Healing Laboratory, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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4
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McKenzie B, Khazen R, Valitutti S. Greek Fire, Poison Arrows, and Scorpion Bombs: How Tumor Cells Defend Against the Siege Weapons of Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes. Front Immunol 2022; 13:894306. [PMID: 35592329 PMCID: PMC9110820 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.894306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) are the main cellular effectors of the adaptive immune response against cancer cells, which in turn have evolved sophisticated cellular defense mechanisms to withstand CTL attack. Herein we provide a critical review of the pertinent literature on early and late attack/defense events taking place at the CTL/target cell lytic synapse. We examine the earliest steps of CTL-mediated cytotoxicity (“the poison arrows”) elicited within seconds of CTL/target cell encounter, which face commensurately rapid synaptic repair mechanisms on the tumor cell side, providing the first formidable barrier to CTL attack. We examine how breach of this first defensive barrier unleashes the inextinguishable “Greek fire” in the form of granzymes whose broad cytotoxic potential is linked to activation of cell death executioners, injury of vital organelles, and destruction of intracellular homeostasis. Herein tumor cells deploy slower but no less sophisticated defensive mechanisms in the form of enhanced autophagy, increased reparative capacity, and dysregulation of cell death pathways. We discuss how the newly discovered supra-molecular attack particles (SMAPs, the “scorpion bombs”), seek to overcome the robust defensive mechanisms that confer tumor cell resistance. Finally, we discuss the implications of the aforementioned attack/defense mechanisms on the induction of regulated cell death (RCD), and how different contemporary RCD modalities (including apoptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis) may have profound implications for immunotherapy. Thus, we propose that understanding and targeting multiple steps of the attack/defense process will be instrumental to enhance the efficacy of CTL anti-tumor activity and meet the outstanding challenges in clinical immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brienne McKenzie
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1037, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Toulouse (CRCT), Université de Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Roxana Khazen
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1037, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Toulouse (CRCT), Université de Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Salvatore Valitutti
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1037, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de Toulouse (CRCT), Université de Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France.,Department of Pathology, Institut Universitaire du Cancer-Oncopole de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
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5
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Rasi V, Hameed OA, Matthey P, Bera S, Grandgenett DP, Salentinig S, Walch M, Hoft DF. Improved Purification of Human Granzyme A/B and Granulysin Using a Mammalian Expression System. Front Immunol 2022; 13:830290. [PMID: 35300343 PMCID: PMC8921980 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.830290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes release proteins contained within the cytoplasmic cytolytic granules after recognition of infected or tumor target cells. These cytotoxic granular proteins (namely granzymes, granulysin, and perforin) are key immunological mediators within human cellular immunity. The availability of highly purified cytotoxic proteins has been fundamental for understanding their function in immunity and mechanistic involvement in sepsis and autoimmunity. Methods for recovery of native cytotoxic proteins can be problematic leading to: 1) the co-purification of additional proteins, confounding interpretation of function, and 2) low yields of highly purified proteins. Recombinant protein expression of individual cytolytic components can overcome these challenges. The use of mammalian expression systems is preferred for optimal post-translational modifications and avoidance of endotoxin contamination. Some of these proteins have been proposed for host directed human therapies (e.g. - granzyme A), or treatment of systemic infections or tumors as in granulysin. We report here a novel expression system using HEK293T cells for cost-effective purification of high yields of human granzymes (granzyme A and granzyme B) and granulysin with enhanced biological activity than previous reports. The resulting proteins are free of native contaminants, fold correctly, and remain enzymatically active. Importantly, these improvements have also led to the first purification of biologically active recombinant human granulysin in high yields from a mammalian system. This method can be used as a template for purification of many other secreted cellular proteins and may lead to advances for human medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerio Rasi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
| | - Owais Abdul Hameed
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland,Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Patricia Matthey
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Sibes Bera
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
| | - Duane P. Grandgenett
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States
| | - Stefan Salentinig
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Michael Walch
- Anatomy Unit, Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland,*Correspondence: Daniel F. Hoft, ; Michael Walch,
| | - Daniel F. Hoft
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States,Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Allergy and Immunology, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO, United States,*Correspondence: Daniel F. Hoft, ; Michael Walch,
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6
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Kim SY, Barnes MA, Sureshchandra S, Menicucci AR, Patel JJ, Messaoudi I, Nair MG. CX3CR1-Expressing Myeloid Cells Regulate Host-Helminth Interaction and Lung Inflammation. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2022; 6:e2101078. [PMID: 35119218 PMCID: PMC8934291 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202101078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Many helminth life cycles, including hookworm, involve a mandatory lung phase, where myeloid and granulocyte subsets interact with the helminth and respond to infection-induced lung injury. To evaluate these innate subsets in Nippostrongylus brasiliensis infection, reporter mice for myeloid cells (CX3CR1GFP ) and granulocytes (PGRPdsRED ) are employed. Nippostrongylus infection induces lung infiltration of reporter cells, including CX3CR1+ myeloid cells and PGRP+ eosinophils. Strikingly, CX3CR1GFP/GFP mice, which are deficient in CX3CR1, are protected from Nippostrongylus infection with reduced weight loss, lung leukocyte infiltration, and worm burden compared to CX3CR1+/+ mice. This protective effect is specific for CX3CR1 as CCR2-deficient mice do not exhibit reduced worm burdens. Nippostrongylus co-culture with lung Ly6C+ monocytes or CD11c+ cells demonstrates that CX3CR1GFP/GFP monocytes secrete more pro-inflammatory cytokines and actively bind the parasites causing reduced motility. RNA sequencing of Ly6C+ or CD11c+ cells shows Nippostrongylus-induced gene expression changes, particularly in monocytes, associated with inflammation, chemotaxis, and extracellular matrix remodeling pathways. Analysis reveals cytotoxic and adhesion molecules as potential effectors against the parasite, such as Gzma and Gzmb, which are elevated in CX3CR1GFP/GFP monocytes. These studies validate a dual innate cell reporter for lung helminth infection and demonstrate that CX3CR1 impairs monocyte-helminth interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Andrea R. Menicucci
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
| | - Jay J. Patel
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, California 92697-3900, United States
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7
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Lavergne M, Hernández-Castañeda MA, Mantel PY, Martinvalet D, Walch M. Oxidative and Non-Oxidative Antimicrobial Activities of the Granzymes. Front Immunol 2021; 12:750512. [PMID: 34707614 PMCID: PMC8542974 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.750512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell-mediated cytotoxicity is an essential immune defense mechanism to fight against viral, bacterial or parasitic infections. Upon recognition of an infected target cell, killer lymphocytes form an immunological synapse to release the content of their cytotoxic granules. Cytotoxic granules of humans contain two membrane-disrupting proteins, perforin and granulysin, as well as a homologous family of five death-inducing serine proteases, the granzymes. The granzymes, after delivery into infected host cells by the membrane disrupting proteins, may contribute to the clearance of microbial pathogens through different mechanisms. The granzymes can induce host cell apoptosis, which deprives intracellular pathogens of their protective niche, therefore limiting their replication. However, many obligate intracellular pathogens have evolved mechanisms to inhibit programed cells death. To overcome these limitations, the granzymes can exert non-cytolytic antimicrobial activities by directly degrading microbial substrates or hijacked host proteins crucial for the replication or survival of the pathogens. The granzymes may also attack factors that mediate microbial virulence, therefore directly affecting their pathogenicity. Many mechanisms applied by the granzymes to eliminate infected cells and microbial pathogens rely on the induction of reactive oxygen species. These reactive oxygen species may be directly cytotoxic or enhance death programs triggered by the granzymes. Here, in the light of the latest advances, we review the antimicrobial activities of the granzymes in regards to their cytolytic and non-cytolytic activities to inhibit pathogen replication and invasion. We also discuss how reactive oxygen species contribute to the various antimicrobial mechanisms exerted by the granzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilyne Lavergne
- Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Anatomy Unit, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Maria Andrea Hernández-Castañeda
- Division Infectious Disease and International Medicine, Department of Medicine, Center for Immunology, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Pierre-Yves Mantel
- Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Anatomy Unit, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Denis Martinvalet
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, Padova, Italy.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padova, Italy
| | - Michael Walch
- Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Anatomy Unit, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
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8
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de Jong LC, Crnko S, ten Broeke T, Bovenschen N. Noncytotoxic functions of killer cell granzymes in viral infections. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009818. [PMID: 34529743 PMCID: PMC8445437 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes produce granules armed with a set of 5 serine proteases (granzymes (Gzms)), which, together with the pore-forming protein (perforin), serve as a major defense against viral infections in humans. This granule-exocytosis pathway subsumes a well-established mechanism in which target cell death is induced upon perforin-mediated entry of Gzms and subsequent activation of various (apoptosis) pathways. In the past decade, however, a growing body of evidence demonstrated that Gzms also inhibit viral replication and potential reactivation in cell death–independent manners. For example, Gzms can induce proteolysis of viral or host cell proteins necessary for the viral entry, release, or intracellular trafficking, as well as augment pro-inflammatory antiviral cytokine response. In this review, we summarize current evidence for the noncytotoxic mechanisms and roles by which killer cells can use Gzms to combat viral infections, and we discuss the potential thereof for the development of novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne C. de Jong
- Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Sandra Crnko
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Toine ten Broeke
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Niels Bovenschen
- Department of Pathology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Center for Translational Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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9
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Martínez Cuesta L, Pérez SE. Perforin and granzymes in neurological infections: From humans to cattle. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 75:101610. [PMID: 33453589 DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2021.101610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Perforin and granzymes are essential components of the cytotoxic granules present in cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. These proteins play a crucial role in a variety of conditions, including viral infections, tumor immune surveillance, and tissue rejection. Besides their beneficial effect in most of these situations, perforin and granzymes have also been associated with tissue damage and immune diseases. Moreover, it has been reported that perforin and granzymes released during viral infections could contribute to the pathogenesis of diseases. In this review, we summarize the information available on human perforin and granzymes and their relationship with neurological infections and immune disorders. Furthermore, we compare this information with that available for bovine and present data on perforin and granzymes expression in cattle infected with bovine alphaherpesvirus types1 and -5. To our knowledge, this is the first review analyzing the impact of perforin and granzymes on neurological infections caused by bovine herpesviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Martínez Cuesta
- Virology, SAMP Department, Centro de Investigación Veterinaria de Tandil (CIVETAN), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Pinto 399, Tandil, PC7000, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sandra Elizabeth Pérez
- Virology, SAMP Department, Centro de Investigación Veterinaria de Tandil (CIVETAN), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Pinto 399, Tandil, PC7000, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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10
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Coordinated In Vitro Release of Granulysin, Perforin and IFN-γ in TB and HIV/TB Co-Infection Associated with Clinical Outcomes before and after Anti-TB Treatment. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9080655. [PMID: 32823923 PMCID: PMC7459825 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9080655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Granule-associated killing molecules released from cytotoxic T lymphocytes participate as a crucial step in immunity against tuberculosis (TB), but the role of coordinated production remains controversial. Coordinated release of effector molecules in vitro after stimulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of active TB or HIV/TB coinfection patients with PPD, purified protein derivative of tuberculin and avirulent Mtb, H37Ra, an attenuated strain were investigated in association with clinical outcomes. Perforin, granzyme-B, granulysin and IFN-γ were measured using ELISA. Before anti-TB treatment, PBMCs of TB stimulated with PPD or H37Ra released higher perforin, granzyme-B, and granulysin levels than in HIV/TB and released significantly higher IFN-γ (p = 0.045, p = 0.022). Granulysin positively correlated with perforin in TB (p = 0.042, r = 0.385), HIV/TB coinfection (p = 0.003, r = 0.941) after PPD stimulation, and after H37Ra stimulation in TB (p = 0.005, r = 0.549), but negatively correlated with granzyme B in TB (p = 0.042, r = −0.386), HIV/TB coinfection (p = 0.042, r = 0.754) were noted. After anti-TB treatment, increased levels of perforin, granulysin and IFN-γ in TB or HIV/TB upon PPD or H37Ra stimulation, and decreased granzyme-B levels after PPD (p = 0.003) or H37Ra (p = 0.028) stimulation in TB were observed. These results suggest that granulysin may act synergistic with perforin and IFN-γ in TB, indicating its crucial function in host immunity to tuberculosis. Future studies with larger numbers of patients ought to be conducted in the future.
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Sordo-Bahamonde C, Lorenzo-Herrero S, Payer ÁR, Gonzalez S, López-Soto A. Mechanisms of Apoptosis Resistance to NK Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity in Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21103726. [PMID: 32466293 PMCID: PMC7279491 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are major contributors to immunosurveillance and control of tumor development by inducing apoptosis of malignant cells. Among the main mechanisms involved in NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity, the death receptor pathway and the release of granules containing perforin/granzymes stand out due to their efficacy in eliminating tumor cells. However, accumulated evidence suggest a profound immune suppression in the context of tumor progression affecting effector cells, such as NK cells, leading to decreased cytotoxicity. This diminished capability, together with the development of resistance to apoptosis by cancer cells, favor the loss of immunogenicity and promote immunosuppression, thus partially inducing NK cell-mediated killing resistance. Altered expression patterns of pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins along with genetic background comprise the main mechanisms of resistance to NK cell-related apoptosis. Herein, we summarize the main effector cytotoxic mechanisms against tumor cells, as well as the major resistance strategies acquired by tumor cells that hamper the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic pathways related to NK cell-mediated killing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Sordo-Bahamonde
- Department of Functional Biology, Immunology, University of Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Spain; (S.L.-H.); (S.G.)
- Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, IUOPA, 33006 Oviedo, Spain;
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
- Correspondence: (C.S.-B.); (A.L.-S.)
| | - Seila Lorenzo-Herrero
- Department of Functional Biology, Immunology, University of Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Spain; (S.L.-H.); (S.G.)
- Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, IUOPA, 33006 Oviedo, Spain;
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
| | - Ángel R. Payer
- Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, IUOPA, 33006 Oviedo, Spain;
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
- Department of Hematology, Hospital Universitario Central de Asturias (HUCA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
| | - Segundo Gonzalez
- Department of Functional Biology, Immunology, University of Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Spain; (S.L.-H.); (S.G.)
- Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, IUOPA, 33006 Oviedo, Spain;
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
| | - Alejandro López-Soto
- Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, IUOPA, 33006 Oviedo, Spain;
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), 33011 Oviedo, Spain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Spain
- Correspondence: (C.S.-B.); (A.L.-S.)
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12
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Kołt S, Janiszewski T, Kaiserman D, Modrzycka S, Snipas SJ, Salvesen G, Dra G M, Bird PI, Kasperkiewicz P. Detection of Active Granzyme A in NK92 Cells with Fluorescent Activity-Based Probe. J Med Chem 2020; 63:3359-3369. [PMID: 32142286 PMCID: PMC7590976 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b02042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
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Cytotoxic
T-lymphocytes (CTLs) and natural killer cells (NKs) kill
compromised cells to defend against tumor and viral infections. Both
effector cell types use multiple strategies to induce target cell
death including Fas/CD95 activation and the release of perforin and
a group of lymphocyte granule serine proteases called granzymes. Granzymes
have relatively broad and overlapping substrate specificities and
may hydrolyze a wide range of peptidic epitopes; it is therefore challenging
to identify their natural and synthetic substrates and to distinguish
their localization and functions. Here, we present a specific and
potent substrate, an inhibitor, and an activity-based probe of Granzyme
A (GrA) that can be used to follow functional GrA in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Kołt
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Tomasz Janiszewski
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Dion Kaiserman
- Monash University, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 23 Innovation Walk, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Sylwia Modrzycka
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Scott J Snipas
- NCI-designated Cancer Center, Sanford-Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Guy Salvesen
- NCI-designated Cancer Center, Sanford-Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Marcin Dra G
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland.,NCI-designated Cancer Center, Sanford-Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Phillip I Bird
- Monash University, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 23 Innovation Walk, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Paulina Kasperkiewicz
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 29, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
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13
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Hu X, Zhong Y, Lambers TT, Jiang W. Anti-inflammatory activity of extensively hydrolyzed casein is mediated by granzyme B. Inflamm Res 2019; 68:715-722. [PMID: 31168680 DOI: 10.1007/s00011-019-01254-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Nutritional factors such as extensively hydrolyzed casein (eHC) have been proposed to exert anti-inflammatory activity and affect clinical outcomes such as tolerance development in cow's milk allergy. Granzyme B (GrB) induces apoptosis in target cells and also controls the inflammatory response. Whether eHC could affect the activity of granzyme B and play a role in GrB-mediated inflammatory responses in vitro was unknown. METHODS The activity of GrB was measured using the substrate Ac-IEPD-pNA. Inflammatory responses were induced with GrB in HCT-8 and THP-1 cells, and pro-inflammatory cytokines were determined at the transcriptional and protein level. RESULTS GrB could induce the expression of IL-1β in HCT-8 cells, and IL-8 and MCP-1 in THP-1 cells, respectively. Interestingly, GrB acted synergistically on LPS-induced inflammation in HCT-8 cells and eHC reduced pro-inflammatory responses in both GrB and LPS-mediated inflammation. Further analyses revealed that eHC could inhibit the biological activities and cytotoxic activities of GrB and then could reduce GrB-mediated inflammatory response. CONCLUSION The results from the current study suggest that anti-inflammatory activity of extensively hydrolyzed casein is, to a certain extent, mediated through modulation of granzyme B activity and responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefei Hu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China
| | - Yan Zhong
- Global Discovery Department, Mead Johnson Pediatric Nutrition Institute, Middenkampweg 2, 6545 CJ, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Tim T Lambers
- Global Discovery Department, Mead Johnson Pediatric Nutrition Institute, Middenkampweg 2, 6545 CJ, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Wenzheng Jiang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200241, China.
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14
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Prager I, Watzl C. Mechanisms of natural killer cell-mediated cellular cytotoxicity. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 105:1319-1329. [PMID: 31107565 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.mr0718-269r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 285] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular cytotoxicity, the ability to kill other cells, is an important effector mechanism of the immune system to combat viral infections and cancer. Cytotoxic T cells and natural killer (NK) cells are the major mediators of this activity. Here, we summarize the cytotoxic mechanisms of NK cells. NK cells can kill virally infected of transformed cells via the directed release of lytic granules or by inducing death receptor-mediated apoptosis via the expression of Fas ligand or TRAIL. The biogenesis of perforin and granzymes, the major components of lytic granules, is a highly regulated process to prevent damage during the synthesis of these cytotoxic molecules. Additionally, NK cells have developed several strategies to protect themselves from the cytotoxic activity of granular content upon degranulation. While granule-mediated apoptosis is a fast process, death receptor-mediated cytotoxicity requires more time. Current data suggest that these 2 cytotoxic mechanisms are regulated during the serial killing activity of NK cells. As many modern approaches of cancer immunotherapy rely on cellular cytotoxicity for their effectiveness, unraveling these pathways will be important to further progress these therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Prager
- Department for Immunology, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo), Dortmund, Germany
| | - Carsten Watzl
- Department for Immunology, Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors at TU Dortmund (IfADo), Dortmund, Germany
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15
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Azad GK, Swagatika S, Kumawat M, Kumawat R, Tomar RS. Modifying Chromatin by Histone Tail Clipping. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:3051-3067. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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16
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Bhat J, Sosna J, Fritsch J, Quabius ES, Schütze S, Zeissig S, Ammerpohl O, Adam D, Kabelitz D. Expression of non-secreted IL-4 is associated with HDAC inhibitor-induced cell death, histone acetylation and c-Jun regulation in human gamma/delta T-cells. Oncotarget 2018; 7:64743-64756. [PMID: 27556516 PMCID: PMC5323112 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Previously, the expression of a non-secreted IL-4 variant (IL-4δ13) has been described in association with apoptosis and age-dependent Th2 T-cell polarization. Signaling pathways involved in this process have so far not been studied. Here we report the induction of IL-4δ13 expression in human γδ T-cells upon treatment with a sublethal dose of histone deacetylase (HDACi) inhibitor valproic acid (VPA). Induction of IL-4δ13 was associated with increased cytoplasmic IL-4Rα and decreased IL-4 expression, while mRNA for mature IL-4 was concomitantly down-regulated. Importantly, only the simultaneous combination of apoptosis and necroptosis inhibitors prevented IL-4δ13 expression and completely abrogated VPA-induced global histone H3K9 acetylation mark. Further, our work reveals a novel involvement of transcription factor c-Jun in the signaling network of IL-4, HDAC1, caspase-3 and mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL). This study provides novel insights into the effects of epigenetic modulator VPA on human γδ T-cell differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaydeep Bhat
- Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Justyna Sosna
- Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany.,Current address: Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Jürgen Fritsch
- Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Elgar Susanne Quabius
- Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Stefan Schütze
- Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Sebastian Zeissig
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany.,Current address: Department of Medicine I, University Medical Center Dresden, Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany.,Current address: Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden (CRTD), Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Ole Ammerpohl
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein Kiel, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Dieter Adam
- Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Dieter Kabelitz
- Institute of Immunology, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
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17
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Lee PY, Park BC, Chi SW, Bae KH, Kim S, Cho S, Kang S, Kim JH, Park SG. Histone H4 is cleaved by granzyme A during staurosporine-induced cell death in B-lymphoid Raji cells. BMB Rep 2017; 49:560-565. [PMID: 27439606 PMCID: PMC5227298 DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2016.49.10.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) was first identified as a cytotoxic T lymphocyte protease protein with limited tissue expression. A number of cellular proteins are known to be cleaved by GzmA, and its function is to induce apoptosis. Histones H1, H2B, and H3 were identified as GzmA substrates during apoptotic cell death. Here, we demonstrated that histone H4 was cleaved by GzmA during staurosporine-induced cell death; however, in the presence of caspase inhibitors, staurosporine-treated Raji cells underwent necroptosis instead of apoptosis. Furthermore, histone H4 cleavage was blocked by the GzmA inhibitor nafamostat mesylate and by GzmA knockdown using siRNA. These results suggest that histone H4 is a novel substrate for GzmA in staurosporine-induced cells. [BMB Reports 2016; 49(10): 560-565]
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Affiliation(s)
- Phil Young Lee
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141; Division of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Byoung Chul Park
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Seung Wook Chi
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Kwang-Hee Bae
- Metabolic Regulation Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Sunhong Kim
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Sayeon Cho
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 06974, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Seongman Kang
- Division of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Korea
| | - Jeong-Hoon Kim
- Personalized Genomic Medicine Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
| | - Sung Goo Park
- Disease Target Structure Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience & Biotechnology (KRIBB), Daejeon 34141, Korea
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18
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Matsuura Y, Yabu T, Shiba H, Moritomo T, Nakanishi T. Purification and characterization of a fish granzymeA involved in cell-mediated immunity. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 60:33-40. [PMID: 26872543 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Granzymes are serine proteases involved in the induction of cell death against non-self cells. The enzymes differ in their primary substrate specificity and have one of four hydrolysis activities: tryptase, Asp-ase, Met-ase and chymase. Although granzyme genes have been isolated from several fishes, evidence for their involvement in cytotoxicity has not yet been reported. In the present study, we attempted to purify and characterize a fish granzyme involved in cytotoxicity using ginbuna crucian carp. The cytotoxicity of leukocytes was significantly inhibited by the serine protease inhibitor ''3, 4-dichloroisocoumarin''. In addition, we found that granzymeA-like activity (hydrolysis of Z-GPR-MCA) was inhibited by the same inhibitor and significantly enhanced by allo-antigen stimulation in vivo. Proteins from leukocyte extracts were subjected to two steps of chromatographic purification using benzamidine-Sepharose and SP-Sepharose. The molecular weight of the purified enzyme was estimated to be 26,900 Da by SDS-PAGE analysis. The purified enzyme displayed a Km of 220 μM, a Kcat of 21.7 sec(-1) and a Kcat/Km of 98,796 sec(-1) M(-1) with an optimal pH of 9.5 for the Z-GPR-MCA substrate. The protease was totally inhibited by serine protease inhibitors and showed granzymeA-like substrate specificity. Therefore, we conclude that the purified enzyme belongs to the mammalian granzymeA (EC 3.4.21.78) and appears to be involved in cytotoxicity in fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuta Matsuura
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Takeshi Yabu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Hajime Shiba
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Tadaaki Moritomo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan
| | - Teruyuki Nakanishi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Nihon University, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0880, Japan.
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19
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Huang PY, Mactier S, Armacki N, Giles Best O, Belov L, Kaufman KL, Pascovici D, Mulligan SP, Christopherson RI. Protein profiles distinguish stable and progressive chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma 2015; 57:1033-43. [DOI: 10.3109/10428194.2015.1094692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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20
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Zhou P, Wu E, Alam HB, Li Y. Histone cleavage as a mechanism for epigenetic regulation: current insights and perspectives. Curr Mol Med 2015; 14:1164-72. [PMID: 25323999 DOI: 10.2174/1566524014666141015155630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2014] [Revised: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Discovered over a century ago, histones constitute one of the oldest families of proteins and have been remarkably conserved throughout eukaryotic evolution. However, only for the past 30 years have histones demonstrated that their influence extends far beyond packaging DNA. To create the various chromatin structures that are necessary for DNA function in higher eukaryotes, histones undergo posttranslational modifications. While many such modifications are well documented, others, such as histone tail cleavage are less understood. Recent studies have discovered several proteases that cleave histones and have suggested roles for clipped histones in stem cell differentiation and aging in addition to infection and inflammation; the underlying mechanisms, however, are uncertain. One histone class in particular, histone H3, has received outstanding interest due to its numerous N-terminal modification sites and prevalence in regulating homeostatic processes. Here, with special consideration of H3, we will discuss the novel findings regarding histone proteolytic cleavage as well as their significance in the studies of immunology and epigenetics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Y Li
- University of Michigan Medical School, Section of General Surgery, University of Michigan Hospital, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.
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21
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Azad GK, Tomar RS. Proteolytic clipping of histone tails: the emerging role of histone proteases in regulation of various biological processes. Mol Biol Rep 2015; 41:2717-30. [PMID: 24469733 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-014-3181-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Chromatin is a dynamic DNA scaffold structure that responds to a variety of external and internal stimuli to regulate the fundamental biological processes. Majority of the cases chromatin dynamicity is exhibited through chemical modifications and physical changes between DNA and histones. These modifications are reversible and complex signaling pathways involving chromatin-modifying enzymes regulate the fluidity of chromatin. Fluidity of chromatin can also be impacted through irreversible change, proteolytic processing of histones which is a poorly understood phenomenon. In recent studies, histone proteolysis has been implicated as a regulatory process involved in the permanent removal of epigenetic marks from histones. Activities responsible for clipping of histone tails and their significance in various biological processes have been observed in several organisms. Here, we have reviewed the properties of some of the known histone proteases, analyzed their significance in biological processes and have provided future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gajendra Kumar Azad
- Laboratory of Chromatin Biology, Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal, 462023, India
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22
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Dhaenens M, Glibert P, Meert P, Vossaert L, Deforce D. Histone proteolysis: a proposal for categorization into 'clipping' and 'degradation'. Bioessays 2014; 37:70-9. [PMID: 25350939 PMCID: PMC4305269 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201400118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
We propose for the first time to divide histone proteolysis into "histone degradation" and the epigenetically connoted "histone clipping". Our initial observation is that these two different classes are very hard to distinguish both experimentally and biologically, because they can both be mediated by the same enzymes. Since the first report decades ago, proteolysis has been found in a broad spectrum of eukaryotic organisms. However, the authors often not clearly distinguish or determine whether degradation or clipping was studied. Given the importance of histone modifications in epigenetic regulation we further elaborate on the different ways in which histone proteolysis could play a role in epigenetics. Finally, unanticipated histone proteolysis has probably left a mark on many studies of histones in the past. In conclusion, we emphasize the significance of reviving the study of histone proteolysis both from a biological and an experimental perspective. Also watch the Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maarten Dhaenens
- Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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23
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Thomas MP, Whangbo J, McCrossan G, Deutsch AJ, Martinod K, Walch M, Lieberman J. Leukocyte protease binding to nucleic acids promotes nuclear localization and cleavage of nucleic acid binding proteins. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 192:5390-7. [PMID: 24771851 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1303296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Killer lymphocyte granzyme (Gzm) serine proteases induce apoptosis of pathogen-infected cells and tumor cells. Many known Gzm substrates are nucleic acid binding proteins, and the Gzms accumulate in the target cell nucleus by an unknown mechanism. In this study, we show that human Gzms bind to DNA and RNA with nanomolar affinity. Gzms cleave their substrates most efficiently when both are bound to nucleic acids. RNase treatment of cell lysates reduces Gzm cleavage of RNA binding protein targets, whereas adding RNA to recombinant RNA binding protein substrates increases in vitro cleavage. Binding to nucleic acids also influences Gzm trafficking within target cells. Preincubation with competitor DNA and DNase treatment both reduce Gzm nuclear localization. The Gzms are closely related to neutrophil proteases, including neutrophil elastase (NE) and cathepsin G. During neutrophil activation, NE translocates to the nucleus to initiate DNA extrusion into neutrophil extracellular traps, which bind NE and cathepsin G. These myeloid cell proteases, but not digestive serine proteases, also bind DNA strongly and localize to nuclei and neutrophil extracellular traps in a DNA-dependent manner. Thus, high-affinity nucleic acid binding is a conserved and functionally important property specific to leukocyte serine proteases. Furthermore, nucleic acid binding provides an elegant and simple mechanism to confer specificity of these proteases for cleavage of nucleic acid binding protein substrates that play essential roles in cellular gene expression and cell proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marshall P Thomas
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115;Division of Hematology-Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215; andDepartment of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Jennifer Whangbo
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115;Division of Hematology-Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215; andDepartment of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Geoffrey McCrossan
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115;Division of Hematology-Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215; andDepartment of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Aaron J Deutsch
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115;Division of Hematology-Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215; andDepartment of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Kimberly Martinod
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115;Division of Hematology-Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215; andDepartment of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Michael Walch
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115;Division of Hematology-Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215; andDepartment of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Judy Lieberman
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115;Division of Hematology-Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA 02215; andDepartment of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
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24
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Krzewski K, Coligan JE. Human NK cell lytic granules and regulation of their exocytosis. Front Immunol 2012; 3:335. [PMID: 23162553 PMCID: PMC3494098 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 10/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells form a subset of lymphocytes that play a key role in immuno-surveillance and host defense against cancer and viral infections. They recognize stressed cells through a variety of germline-encoded activating cell surface receptors and utilize their cytotoxic ability to eliminate abnormal cells. Killing of target cells is a complex, multi-stage process that concludes in the directed secretion of lytic granules, containing perforin and granzymes, at the immunological synapse. Upon delivery to a target cell, perforin mediates generation of pores in membranes of target cells, allowing granzymes to access target cell cytoplasm and induce apoptosis. Therefore, lytic granules of NK cells are indispensable for normal NK cell cytolytic function. Indeed, defects in lytic granule secretion lead or are related to serious and often fatal diseases, such as familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL) type 2–5 or Griscelli syndrome type 2. A number of reports highlight the role of several proteins involved in lytic granule release and NK cell-mediated killing of tumor cells. This review focuses on lytic granules of human NK cells and the advancements in understanding the mechanisms controlling their exocytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konrad Krzewski
- Receptor Cell Biology Section, Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health Rockville, MD, USA
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25
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Olsson B, Jernås M, Wadenvik H. Increased plasma levels of granzymes in adult patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia. Thromb Haemost 2012; 107:1182-4. [PMID: 22476618 DOI: 10.1160/th12-01-0012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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26
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Saffarzadeh M, Juenemann C, Queisser MA, Lochnit G, Barreto G, Galuska SP, Lohmeyer J, Preissner KT. Neutrophil extracellular traps directly induce epithelial and endothelial cell death: a predominant role of histones. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32366. [PMID: 22389696 PMCID: PMC3289648 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 916] [Impact Index Per Article: 76.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils play an important role in innate immunity by defending the host organism against invading microorganisms. Antimicrobial activity of neutrophils is mediated by release of antimicrobial peptides, phagocytosis as well as formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NET). These structures are composed of DNA, histones and granular proteins such as neutrophil elastase and myeloperoxidase. This study focused on the influence of NET on the host cell functions, particularly on human alveolar epithelial cells as the major cells responsible for gas exchange in the lung. Upon direct interaction with epithelial and endothelial cells, NET induced cytotoxic effects in a dose-dependent manner, and digestion of DNA in NET did not change NET-mediated cytotoxicity. Pre-incubation of NET with antibodies against histones, with polysialic acid or with myeloperoxidase inhibitor but not with elastase inhibitor reduced NET-mediated cytotoxicity, suggesting that histones and myeloperoxidase are responsible for NET-mediated cytotoxicity. Although activated protein C (APC) did decrease the histone-induced cytotoxicity in a purified system, it did not change NET-induced cytotoxicity, indicating that histone-dependent cytotoxicity of NET is protected against APC degradation. Moreover, in LPS-induced acute lung injury mouse model, NET formation was documented in the lung tissue as well as in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. These data reveal the important role of protein components in NET, particularly histones, which may lead to host cell cytotoxicity and may be involved in lung tissue destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Saffarzadeh
- School of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Christiane Juenemann
- School of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Markus A. Queisser
- School of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
- Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Guenter Lochnit
- School of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Guillermo Barreto
- Max-Planck-Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Sebastian P. Galuska
- School of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Juergen Lohmeyer
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Klaus T. Preissner
- School of Medicine, Institute of Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Granzymes (Grs) were discovered just over a quarter century ago. They are produced by cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells and are released upon interaction with target cells. Intensive biochemical, genetic, and biological studies have been performed in order to study their roles in immunity and inflammation. This review summarizes research on the family of Grs.
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Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) is the most abundant serine protease in killer cell cytotoxic granules. GzmA activates a novel programed cell death pathway that begins in the mitochondrion, where cleavage of NDUFS3 in electron transport complex I disrupts mitochondrial metabolism and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS drives the endoplasmic reticulum-associated SET complex into the nucleus, where it activates single-stranded DNA damage. GzmA also targets other important nuclear proteins for degradation, including histones, the lamins that maintain the nuclear envelope, and several key DNA damage repair proteins (Ku70, PARP-1). Cells that are resistant to the caspases or GzmB by overexpressing bcl-2 family anti-apoptotic proteins or caspase or GzmB protease inhibitors are sensitive to GzmA. By activating multiple cell death pathways, killer cells provide better protection against a variety of intracellular pathogens and tumors. GzmA also has proinflammatory activity; it activates pro-interleukin-1beta and may also have other proinflammatory effects that remain to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy Lieberman
- Immune Disease Institute and Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
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Anthony DA, Andrews DM, Watt SV, Trapani JA, Smyth MJ. Functional dissection of the granzyme family: cell death and inflammation. Immunol Rev 2010; 235:73-92. [DOI: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2010.00907.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Roth GA, Lubsczyk BA, Pilz J, Faybik P, Hetz H, Krenn CG. Nucleosome serum levels in acute hepatic failure and MARS treatment. Transplant Proc 2010; 41:4207-10. [PMID: 20005370 DOI: 10.1016/j.transproceed.2009.08.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2009] [Accepted: 08/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Serum nucleosomes have been suggested to be markers for cell death and apoptosis. Increased hepatocyte apoptosis can be demonstrated in acute liver failure (ALF) as well as acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF). We investigated the relevance of nucleosomes in the setting of acute hepatic failure. Further, we studied the effects of the molecular adsorbent recirculating system (MARS) on this marker of cell death. We measured serum nucleosome concentrations with ELISA in 12 patients with ACLF and 7 patients suffering from ALF, with 14 patients experiencing stable chronic hepatic failure (CHF) as controls. In a subset of 8 ACLF and ALF patients treated with MARS, nucleosomes were determined immediately before and after the first MARS session. Baseline nucleosome serum concentrations were significantly increased in ACLF and ALF patients as compared with CHF patients (P = .0161 and P = .0037, respectively). There was no significant difference between the ALF and ACLF groups. Moreover, serum nucleosome levels did not change significantly during MARS treatment in ALF and ACLF patients. Serum nucleosome levels therefore may be useful to discern acute from chronic hepatic failure or to monitor the course and the severity of the disease. Our results, however, warrant further larger clinical studies regarding the clearance of nucleosome in artificial liver-assist devices and to assess their role in acute hepatic failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Roth
- Department of Anesthesiology, General Intensive Care and Pain Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, Vienna 1090, Austria.
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Natural-killer cell-derived cytolytic molecules in HIV-associated pulmonary tuberculosis-role of exogenous interleukins. J Clin Immunol 2010; 30:393-401. [PMID: 20229057 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-010-9380-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2009] [Accepted: 02/09/2010] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The ability of NK cells to produce cytolytic molecules is impaired during HIV infection. The objective of the present study is to investigate whether impairment in production of innate cytokines in HIV-infected individuals is responsible for the defective NK cytolytic response. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study included 30 subjects each of normal healthy subjects, pulmonary tuberculosis patients, HIV-infected individuals, and patients with HIV and TB co-infection. Intracellular staining method was adopted to enumerate the NK cells positive for cytolytic molecules. Highest stimulation of cytolytic molecules was seen with IL-15 + IL-12 combination. RESULTS Stimulation with IL-15 + IL-12 showed an increased expression of perforin in NHS and HIV groups. Granzyme A was stimulated only in HIV, even with IL-15 + IL-12. Among the cytolytic molecules, maximal stimulation with IL-15 + IL-12 was seen for Granyme A and Granzyme B. Both the HIV and HIV-TB groups showed an increased response with IL-15 + IL-12 for granulysin. CONCLUSION Supplementing IL-15 + IL-12 in vitro increased the number of NK cells that are expressing cytolytic molecules in HIV-infected individuals but in HIV-TB, the critical cytolytic molecule, perforin is not apparent perhaps due to the influence of TB on HIV.
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32
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Zhou F. Expression of Multiple Granzymes by Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte Implies that They Activate Diverse Apoptotic Pathways in Target Cells. Int Rev Immunol 2010; 29:38-55. [DOI: 10.3109/08830180903247889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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The cytotoxic T lymphocyte protease granzyme A cleaves and inactivates poly(adenosine 5'-diphosphate-ribose) polymerase-1. Blood 2009; 114:1205-16. [PMID: 19506301 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2008-12-195768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) in killer cells induces caspase-independent programmed cell death. In this study, we show that GzmA cleaves the DNA damage sensor poly(adenosine 5'-diphosphate-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) after Lys(498) in its automodification domain, separating the DNA binding domain from the catalytic domain, which interferes with repair of GzmA-induced DNA damage and enhances susceptibility to GzmA-mediated death. Overexpressing K498A PARP-1 reduces GzmA-mediated death and drives dying cells to necrosis rather than apoptosis. Conversely, inhibiting or genetically disrupting PARP-1 enhances cell vulnerability. The N-terminal GzmA cleavage fragment of PARP-1 acts as a PARP-1 dominant negative, binding to DNA and blocking DNA repair. Disrupting PARP-1, which is also a caspase target, is therefore required for efficient apoptosis by both caspase-independent and caspase-dependent pathways.
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34
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The biology of cytotoxic cell granule exocytosis pathway: granzymes have evolved to induce cell death and inflammation. Microbes Infect 2009; 11:452-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2009.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2009] [Accepted: 02/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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35
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Abstract
The cytotoxic granzyme B (GrB)/perforin pathway has been traditionally viewed as a primary mechanism that is used by cytotoxic lymphocytes to eliminate allogeneic, virally infected and/or transformed cells. Although originally proposed to have intracellular and extracellular functions, upon the discovery that perforin, in combination with GrB, could induce apoptosis, other potential functions for this protease were, for the most part, disregarded. As there are 5 granzymes in humans and 11 granzymes in mice, many studies used perforin knockout mice as an initial screen to evaluate the role of granzymes in disease. However, in recent years, emerging clinical and biochemical evidence has shown that the latter approach may have overlooked a critical perforin-independent, pathogenic role for these proteases in disease. This review focuses on GrB, the most characterized of the granzyme family, in disease. Long known to be a pro-apoptotic protease expressed by cytotoxic lymphocytes and natural killer cells, it is now accepted that GrB can be expressed in other cell types of immune and nonimmune origin. To the latter, an emerging immune-independent role for GrB has been forwarded due to recent discoveries that GrB may be expressed in nonimmune cells such as smooth muscle cells, keratinocytes, and chondrocytes in certain disease states. Given that GrB retains its activity in the blood, can cleave extracellular matrix, and its levels are often elevated in chronic inflammatory diseases, this protease may be an important contributor to certain pathologies. The implications of sustained elevations of intracellular and extracellular GrB in chronic vascular, dermatological, and neurological diseases, among others, are developing. This review examines, for the first time, the multiple roles of GrB in disease pathogenesis.
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36
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Metkar SS, Menaa C, Pardo J, Wang B, Wallich R, Freudenberg M, Kim S, Raja SM, Shi L, Simon MM, Froelich CJ. Human and mouse granzyme A induce a proinflammatory cytokine response. Immunity 2008; 29:720-33. [PMID: 18951048 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2008.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2007] [Revised: 04/11/2008] [Accepted: 08/12/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) is considered a major proapoptotic protease. We have discovered that GzmA-induced cell death involves rapid membrane damage that depends on the synergy between micromolar concentrations of GzmA and sublytic perforin (PFN). Ironically, GzmA and GzmB, independent of their catalytic activity, both mediated this swift necrosis. Even without PFN, lower concentrations of human GzmA stimulated monocytic cells to secrete proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1beta [IL-1beta], TNFalpha, and IL-6) that were blocked by a caspase-1 inhibitor. Moreover, murine GzmA and GzmA(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) induce IL-1beta from primary mouse macrophages, and GzmA(-/-) mice resist lipopolysaccharide-induced toxicity. Thus, the granule secretory pathway plays an unexpected role in inflammation, with GzmA acting as an endogenous modulator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil S Metkar
- Department of Medicine, NorthShore University HealthSystem Research Institute, Evanston, IL 60201, USA
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37
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Chowdhury D, Lieberman J. Death by a thousand cuts: granzyme pathways of programmed cell death. Annu Rev Immunol 2008; 26:389-420. [PMID: 18304003 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.26.021607.090404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 451] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The granzymes are cell death-inducing enzymes, stored in the cytotoxic granules of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, that are released during granule exocytosis when a specific virus-infected or transformed target cell is marked for elimination. Recent work suggests that this homologous family of serine esterases can activate at least three distinct pathways of cell death. This redundancy likely evolved to provide protection against pathogens and tumors with diverse strategies for evading cell death. This review discusses what is known about granzyme-mediated pathways of cell death as well as recent studies that implicate granzymes in immune regulation and extracellular proteolytic functions in inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Chowdhury
- Dana Farber Cancer Institute and Department of Radiation Oncology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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38
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Sheets SM, Robles-Price AG, McKenzie RME, Casiano CA, Fletcher HM. Gingipain-dependent interactions with the host are important for survival of Porphyromonas gingivalis. FRONTIERS IN BIOSCIENCE : A JOURNAL AND VIRTUAL LIBRARY 2008; 13:3215-38. [PMID: 18508429 PMCID: PMC3403687 DOI: 10.2741/2922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major periodontal pathogen, must acquire nutrients from host derived substrates, overcome oxidative stress and subvert the immune system. These activities can be coordinated via the gingipains which represent the most significant virulence factor produced by this organism. In the context of our contribution to this field, we will review the current understanding of gingipain biogenesis, glycosylation, and regulation, as well as discuss their role in oxidative stress resistance and apoptosis. We can postulate a model, in which gingipains may be part of the mechanism for P. gingivalis virulence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun M. Sheets
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California
| | - Antonette G. Robles-Price
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California
| | - Rachelle M. E. McKenzie
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California
| | - Carlos A. Casiano
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California
- The Center for Health Disparities and Molecular Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California
| | - Hansel M. Fletcher
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, California
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39
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O'Connell AR, Stenson-Cox C. A more serine way to die: defining the characteristics of serine protease-mediated cell death cascades. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2007; 1773:1491-9. [PMID: 17888529 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2007.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2007] [Revised: 07/11/2007] [Accepted: 08/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The morphological features observed by Kerr, Wylie and Currie in 1972 define apoptosis, necrosis and autophagy. An appreciable number of alternative systems do not fall neatly under these categories, warranting a review of alternative proteolytic machinery and its contribution to cell death. This review aims to pinpoint key molecular features of serine protease-mediated pro-apoptotic signalling. The profile created will contribute to a standard set of biochemical criteria that can serve in differentiating within cell death subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R O'Connell
- National Centre for Biomedical and Engineering Science, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
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40
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Andersson J, Samarina A, Fink J, Rahman S, Grundström S. Impaired expression of perforin and granulysin in CD8+ T cells at the site of infection in human chronic pulmonary tuberculosis. Infect Immun 2007; 75:5210-22. [PMID: 17664265 PMCID: PMC2168267 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00624-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Protective immunity in tuberculosis is dependent on the coordinated release of cytolytic effector molecules from effector T cells and the subsequent granule-associated killing of infected target cells. In this study, we investigated the expression of cytolytic (perforin and granzyme A) and antimicrobial (granulysin) molecules at the single-cell level in cryopreserved lung tissue from patients with chronic, progressive tuberculosis disease. Quantification of protein-expressing cells was performed by in situ imaging, while mRNA levels in the infected tissue were analyzed by real-time PCR. Persistent inflammation, including excessive expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in CD68+ macrophages and significant infiltration of CD3+, CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, was evident in tuberculosis lesions in all patients. However, despite the accumulation of CD3+ T cells, perforin- and granulysin-expressing CD3+ T cells were detected at two- to threefold-lower ratios in the tuberculosis lesions than in distal lung parenchyma and uninfected control lungs, respectively. This was evident at both the protein and mRNA levels. Moreover, perforin- and granulysin-expressing CD8+ T cells were scarce in individual granulomas within the tuberculosis lesions. In contrast, significant up-regulation of granzyme A-expressing CD3+ T cells was evident in the lesions from all patients. Confocal microscopy revealed coexpression of perforin and granulysin, primarily in CD8+ T cells; however, this expression was lower in the tuberculosis lesions. These findings suggest that symptomatic, chronic tuberculosis disease is associated with insufficient up-regulation of perforin and granulysin coexpression in CD8+ T cells at the local site of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Andersson
- Center for Infectious Medicine, F59, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden
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41
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Roth GA, Ankersmit HJ, Brown VB, Papapanou PN, Schmidt AM, Lalla E. Porphyromonas gingivalis infection and cell death in human aortic endothelial cells. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2007; 272:106-13. [PMID: 17459112 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00736.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Porphyromonas gingivalis is a periodontal pathogen that promotes a proatherogenic response in endothelial cells. Cell death responses of human aortic endothelial cells to P. gingivalis at various multiplicities of infection (MOI) were investigated by assessment of cell detachment, histone-associated DNA fragmentation, lactate dehydrogenase release and ADP:ATP ratio. Porphyromonas gingivalis at MOI 1:10-1:100 did not have a cytotoxic effect, but induced apoptotic cell death at MOI 1:500 and 1:1000. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 production was significantly enhanced by P. gingivalis at MOI 1:100. At higher MOI, at least in vitro, P. gingivalis mediates endothelial apoptosis, thereby potentially amplifying proatherogenic mechanisms in the perturbed vasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg A Roth
- Division of Surgical Science, College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
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42
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Li Q, Morimoto K, Nakadai A, Qu T, Matsushima H, Katsumata M, Shimizu T, Inagaki H, Hirata Y, Hirata K, Kawada T, Lu Y, Nakayama K, Krensky AM. Healthy lifestyles are associated with higher levels of perforin, granulysin and granzymes A/B-expressing cells in peripheral blood lymphocytes. Prev Med 2007; 44:117-23. [PMID: 17030356 DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2006.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2006] [Revised: 08/22/2006] [Accepted: 08/22/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE It is well documented that natural killer (NK) cells provide host defense against tumors and viruses. We previously showed that lifestyle affects human NK and LAK activities. In order to explore the underlying mechanism, we investigated the effect of lifestyle on intracellular perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B in peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBL). METHODS 114 healthy male subjects, aged 20-59 years, from a large company in Osaka, Japan were selected with informed consent. The subjects were divided into groups reporting good, moderate, and poor lifestyles according to their responses on a questionnaire regarding eight health practices (cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, sleeping hours, working hours, physical exercise, eating breakfast, balanced nutrition, and mental stress). Peripheral blood was taken, and numbers of NK, T, perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells in PBL were measured by flow cytometry. RESULTS Subjects with good or moderate lifestyle showed significantly higher numbers of NK, and perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells and a significantly lower number of T cells in PBL than subjects with poor lifestyle. Among the eight health practices, cigarette smoking, physical exercise, eating breakfast, and balanced nutrition significantly affect the numbers of NK, T cells, perforin, granulysin, and/or granzymes A/B-expressing cells, and alcohol consumption significantly affects the number of granzyme A-expressing cells. On the other hand, mental stress, sleeping, and working hours had no effect on those parameters. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, these findings indicate that poor lifestyle significantly decreases the numbers of NK, perforin, granulysin, and granzymes A/B-expressing cells in PBL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Li
- Department of Hygiene and Public Health, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8602, Japan.
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43
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Bredemeyer AJ, Carrigan PE, Fehniger TA, Smith DF, Ley TJ. Hop cleavage and function in granzyme B-induced apoptosis. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:37130-41. [PMID: 17005566 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m607969200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Granzyme B (GzmB) is a cytotoxic protease found in the granules of natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes. GzmB cleaves multiple intracellular protein substrates, leading to caspase activation, DNA fragmentation, cytoskeletal instability, and rapid induction of target cell apoptosis. However, no known individual substrate is required for GzmB to induce apoptosis. GzmB is therefore thought to initiate multiple cell death pathways simultaneously to ensure the death of target cells. We previously identified Hop (Hsp70/Hsp90-organizing protein) as a GzmB substrate in a proteomic survey (Bredemeyer, A. J., Lewis, R. M., Malone, J. P., Davis, A. E., Gross, J., Townsend, R. R., and Ley, T. J. (2004) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101, 11785-11790). Hop is a co-chaperone for Hsp70 and Hsp90, which have been implicated in the negative regulation of apoptosis. We therefore hypothesized that Hop may have an anti-apoptotic function that is abolished upon cleavage, lowering the threshold for GzmB-induced apoptosis. Here, we show that Hop was cleaved directly by GzmB in vitro and in cells undergoing GzmB-induced apoptosis. Expression of the two cleavage fragments of Hop did not induce cell death. Although cleavage of Hop by GzmB destroyed Hop function in vitro, both cells overexpressing GzmB-resistant Hop and cells with a 90-95% reduction in Hop levels exhibited unaltered susceptibility to GzmB-induced death. We conclude that Hop per se does not set the threshold for susceptibility to GzmB-induced apoptosis. Although it is possible that Hop may be cleaved by GzmB as an "innocent bystander" during the induction of apoptosis, it may also act to facilitate apoptosis in concert with other GzmB substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Bredemeyer
- Division of Oncology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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44
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Li Q, Nakadai A, Matsushima H, Miyazaki Y, Krensky AM, Kawada T, Morimoto K. Phytoncides (wood essential oils) induce human natural killer cell activity. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2006; 28:319-33. [PMID: 16873099 DOI: 10.1080/08923970600809439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
To explore the effect of forest bathing on the human immune system, we investigated the effect of phytoncides (wood essential oils) on natural killer (NK) activity and the expression of perforin, granzyme A and granulysin in human NK cells. We used NK-92MI cell, an interleukin-2 independent human NK cell line derived from the NK-92 cell, in the present study. NK-92MI cells express the CD56 surface marker, perforin, granzyme A, and granulysin by flow cytometry and are highly cytotoxic to K562 cells in chromium release assay. Phytoncides significantly increase cytolytic activity of NK-92MI cells in a dose-dependent manner and significantly increase the expression of perforin, granzyme A, and granulysin in the NK-92MI cells. Phytoncides also partially, but significantly, restore the decreased human NK activity and the decreased perforin, granzyme A, and granulysin expression in NK-92MI cells induced by dimethyl 2,2-dichlorovinyl phosphate (DDVP), an organophosphorus pesticide. Pretreatment with phytoncides partially prevents DDVP-induced inhibition of NK activity. Taken together, these data indicate that phytoncides significantly enhance human NK activity and this effect is at least partially mediated by induction of intracellular perforin, granzyme A, and granulysin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Li
- Department of Hygiene and Public Health, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan.
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45
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Chowdhury D, Beresford PJ, Zhu P, Zhang D, Sung JS, Demple B, Perrino FW, Lieberman J. The Exonuclease TREX1 Is in the SET Complex and Acts in Concert with NM23-H1 to Degrade DNA during Granzyme A-Mediated Cell Death. Mol Cell 2006; 23:133-42. [PMID: 16818237 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2006.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2005] [Revised: 04/27/2006] [Accepted: 06/12/2006] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) activates a caspase-independent cell death pathway with morphological features of apoptosis. Single-stranded DNA damage is initiated when the endonuclease NM23-H1 becomes activated to nick DNA after granzyme A cleaves its inhibitor, SET. SET and NM23-H1 reside in an endoplasmic reticulum-associated complex (the SET complex) that translocates to the nucleus in response to superoxide generation by granzyme A. We now find the 3'-to-5' exonuclease TREX1, but not its close homolog TREX2, in the SET complex. TREX1 binds to SET and colocalizes and translocates with the SET complex. NM23-H1 and TREX1 work in concert to degrade DNA. Silencing NM23-H1 or TREX1 inhibits DNA damage and death of cells treated with perforin (PFN) and granzyme A, but not of cells treated with perforin and granzyme B (GzmB). After granzyme A activates NM23-H1 to make single-stranded nicks, TREX1 removes nucleotides from the nicked 3' end to reduce the possibility of repair by rejoining the nicked ends.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipanjan Chowdhury
- CBR Institute for Biomedical Research, Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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46
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Li Q, Nakadai A, Ishizaki M, Morimoto K, Ueda A, Krensky AM, Kawada T. Dimethyl 2,2-dichlorovinyl phosphate (DDVP) markedly decreases the expression of perforin, granzyme A and granulysin in human NK-92CI cell line. Toxicology 2005; 213:107-16. [PMID: 16002202 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2005.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2004] [Revised: 05/20/2005] [Accepted: 05/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK), lymphokine-activated killer (LAK) and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) cells kill target cells by the directed release of cytolytic granules that contain perforin, granzymes and granulysin. We previously have found that dimethyl 2,2-dichlorovinyl phosphate (DDVP), an organophosphorus pesticide significantly inhibited NK, LAK and CTL activities via the inhibition of granzyme activity. To further explore the mechanism of organophosphorus pesticide-induced inhibition of cell-mediated cytolysis, we asked here whether organophosphorus pesticides affect the expression of perforin, granzyme and granulysin in NK cells. We used NK-92CI cell, an interleukin-2 (IL-2) independent human NK cell line. We confirmed that NK-92CI cells express CD56 surface marker, perforin, granzyme A and granulysin by flow cytometry and immunofluorescence microscope, and that it is highly cytotoxic to K562 cells in chromium release assay. We found that DDVP significantly decreases the expression of perforin, granzyme A and granulysin in NK-92CI cells in a dose-dependent manner. Immunocytochemical results showed that DDVP significantly decreases perforin, granzyme A and granulysin positive granules in NK-92CI cell, which may be due to the degranulation. We also found that DDVP have a modest, but a significant inhibitory effect on the transcription of mRNA of perforin, granzyme A and granulysin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Li
- Department of Hygiene and Public Health, Nippon Medical School, 1-1-5 Sendagi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8602, Japan.
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Grujic M, Braga T, Lukinius A, Eloranta ML, Knight SD, Pejler G, Abrink M. Serglycin-deficient cytotoxic T lymphocytes display defective secretory granule maturation and granzyme B storage. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:33411-8. [PMID: 16046402 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m501708200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes eliminate infected and tumor cells mainly by perforin/granzyme-induced apoptosis. Earlier studies suggested that serglycin-proteoglycans form macromolecular complexes with granzymes and perforin in the cytotoxic granule. Serglycin-proteoglycans may also be involved in the delivery of the cytolytic machinery into target cells. We have developed a serglycin-deficient mouse strain, and here we studied the importance of serglycin-proteoglycans for various aspects of cytotoxic T lymphocyte function. 35SO4(2-) radiolabeling of serglycin-deficient cells demonstrated a dramatic reduction of incorporated label as compared with wild type cells, indicating that serglycin is by far the dominating proteoglycan species produced by the cytotoxic T lymphocyte. Moreover, lack of serglycin resulted in impaired ability of cytotoxic T lymphocytes to produce secretory granule of high electron density, although granule of lower electron density were produced both in wild type and serglycin-deficient cells. The serglycin deficiency did not affect the mRNA expression for granzyme A, granzyme B, or perforin. However, the storage of granzyme B, but not granzyme A, Fas ligand, or perforin, was severely defective in serglycin-deficient cells. Serglycin-deficient cells did not display defects in late cytotoxicity toward target cell lines. Taken together, these results point to a key role for serglycin in the storage of granzyme B and for secretory granule maturation but argue against a major role for serglycin in the apoptosis mediated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjana Grujic
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, The Biomedical Center, Box 575, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Martinvalet D, Zhu P, Lieberman J. Granzyme A induces caspase-independent mitochondrial damage, a required first step for apoptosis. Immunity 2005; 22:355-70. [PMID: 15780992 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2005.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2004] [Revised: 01/19/2005] [Accepted: 02/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Granzyme A (GzmA) triggers cell death with apoptotic features by targeting the endoplasmic reticulum-associated SET complex, which contains the GzmA-activated DNase NM23-H1, its inhibitor SET, and Ape1. The SET complex was postulated to translocate to the nucleus in response to oxidative stress and participate in its repair. Because mitochondrial damage is important in apoptosis, we investigated whether GzmA damages mitochondria. GzmA induces a rapid increase in reactive oxygen species and mitochondrial transmembrane potential loss, but does not cleave bid or cause apoptogenic factor release. The mitochondrial effect is direct, does not require cytosol, and is insensitive to bcl-2 and caspase inhibition. SET complex nuclear translocation, which occurs within minutes of peroxide or GzmA treatment, is dependent on superoxide generation since superoxide scavengers block it. Superoxide scavengers also block apoptosis by CTLs expressing GzmA and/or GzmB. Therefore, mitochondrial damage is an essential first step in killer cell granule-mediated pathways of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Martinvalet
- The CBR Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Pardo J, Bosque A, Brehm R, Wallich R, Naval J, Müllbacher A, Anel A, Simon MM. Apoptotic pathways are selectively activated by granzyme A and/or granzyme B in CTL-mediated target cell lysis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 167:457-68. [PMID: 15534000 PMCID: PMC2172484 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200406115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Purified cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) proteases granzyme (gzm)A and gzmB with sublytic dose of perforin (perf) initiate distinct proapoptotic pathways. Their physiological relevance in CTL-mediated target cell apoptosis is elusive. Using ex vivo virus-immune CD8(+) T cells from mice deficient in perf, gzmA and/or gzmB, and the Fas-resistant EL4.F15 tumor target cell, we show that (a) CTL from gzmA(-/-) or gzmB(-/-) mice similarly induced early proapoptotic features, such as phosphatidyl serine (PS) exposure on plasma membrane, Delta Psi(m) loss, and reactive oxygen radical generation, though with distinct kinetics; (b) CTL from gzmA(-/-) but not from gzmB(-/-) mice activate caspase 3 and 9; (c) PS exposure induced by CTL from gzmA(-/-) or gzmB(-/-) mice is prevented, respectively, by caspase inhibitors or by reactive oxygen scavengers without interfering with target cell death; and (d) all gzm-induced apoptotic features analyzed depend critically on perf. Thus, perf is the principal regulator in CTL-mediated and gzm-facilitated intracellular processes. The ability of gzmA and gzmB to induce multiple independent cell death pathways may be the hosts response to circumvent evasion strategies of pathogens and tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julián Pardo
- Departmento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Universidad de Zaragoza, E-50009 Zaragoza, Spain
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Abstract
Granzymes (gzm) are major components of the granules of cytolytic lymphocytes, natural killer and cytotoxic T cells. Their generally accepted mode of action consists of their directed secretion towards a virus-infected or neoplastic target cell and perforin-dependent delivery to the target cell cytosol, where they engage in various actions resulting in target cell apoptosis. Here, based on observations of infection of gzmAxB(-/-) mice with ectromelia virus, mousepox, we propose an additional--and distinct--function for gzmA and B. In this model, gzm constitute one of the first lines of defence of immune cells against virus infection of immune cells themselves. Accordingly, endogenous gzm interfere with viral replication in cytolytic lymphocytes either directly, as a result of their proteolytic activity, leading to destruction of viral proteins, or indirectly, via: (i) processes akin to the caspase cascade when acting as effector molecules in the induction of target cell apoptosis; or (ii) their capacity to induce early inflammatory mediators. We discuss the predictions of the model in the light of available data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Regner
- Molecular Immunology and Immunopathology, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia.
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