Alternative splice variants of alpha 7 beta 1 integrin selectively recognize different laminin isoforms

GFRα1 Promotes Axon Regeneration after Peripheral Nerve Injury by Functioning as a Ligand

The neurotrophic factor, Glial cell line derived neurotrophi factor (GDNF), exerts a variety of biological effects through binding to its receptors, GDNF family receptor alpha-1 (GFRα1), and RET. However, the existence of cells expressing GFRα1 but not RET raises the possibility that GFRα1 can function independently from RET. Here, it is shown that GFRα1 released from repair Schwann cells (RSCs) functions as a ligand in a GDNF-RET-independent manner to promote axon regeneration after peripheral nerve injury (PNI). Local administration of GFRα1 into injured nerve promoted axon regeneration, even more when combined with GDNF blockade. GFRα1 bound to a receptor complex consisting of NCAM and integrin α7β1 of dorsal root ganglion neurons in a GDNF-RET independent manner. This is further confirmed by the Ret Y1062F knock-in mice, which cannot transmit most of GDNF-RET signaling. Finally, local administration of GFRα1 into injured sciatic nerve promoted functional recovery. These findings reveal a novel role of GFRα1 as a ligand, the molecular mechanism supporting axon regeneration by RSCs, and a novel therapy for peripheral nerve repair.

Integrin α7β1 represses intestinal absorptive cell differentiation

Intestinal epithelial cell differentiation is a highly controlled and orderly process occurring in the crypt so that cells migrating out to cover the villi are already fully functional. Absorptive cell precursors, which originate from the stem cell population located in the lower third of the crypt, are subject to several cycles of amplification in the transit amplifying (TA) zone, before reaching the terminal differentiation compartment located in the upper third. There is a large body of evidence that absorptive cell differentiation is halted in the TA zone through various epigenetic, transcriptional and intracellular signalling events or mechanisms allowing the transient expansion of this cell population but how these mechanisms are themself regulated remains obscure. One clue can be found in the epithelial cell-matrix microenvironment located all along the crypt-villus axis. Indeed, a previous study from our group revealed that α5-subunit containing laminins such as lamimin-511 and 512 inhibit early stages of differentiation in Caco-2/15 cells. Among potential receptors for laminin 511/512 is the integrin α7β1, which has previously been reported to be expressed in the human intestinal crypts and in early stages of Caco-2/15 cell differentiation. In this study, the effects of knocking down ITGA7 in Caco-2/15 cells were studied using shRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 strategies. Abolition of the α7 integrin subunit resulted in a significant increase in the level of differentiation and polarization markers as well as the morphological features of intestinal cells. Activities of focal adhesion kinase and Src kinase were both reduced in α7-knockdown cells while the three major intestinal pro-differentiation factors CDX2, HNFα1 and HNF4α were overexpressed. Two epigenetic events associated with intestinal differentiation, the reduction of tri-methylated lysine 27 on histone H3 and the increase of acetylation of histone H4 were also observed in α7-knockdown cells. On the other hand, the ablation of α7 had no effect on cell proliferation. In conclusion, these data indicate that integrin α7β1 acts as a major repressor of absorptive cell terminal differentiation in the Caco-2/15 cell model and suggest that the laminin-α7β1 integrin interaction occurring in the transit amplifying zone of the adult intestine is involved in the transient halting of absorptive cell terminal differentiation.

The emergence of the stem cell niche

Stem cell niches are composed of dynamic microenvironments that support stem cells over a lifetime. The emerging niche is distinct from the adult because its main role is to support the progenitors that build organ systems in development. Emerging niches mature through distinct stages to form the adult niche and enable proper stem cell support. As a model of emerging niches, this review highlights how differences in the skeletal muscle microenvironment influence emerging versus satellite cell (SC) niche formation in skeletal muscle, which is among the most regenerative tissue systems. We contrast how stem cell niches regulate intrinsic properties between progenitor and stem cells throughout development to adulthood. We describe new applications for generating emerging niches from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) using developmental principles and highlight potential applications for regeneration and therapeutics.

Integrin α7 Mutations Are Associated With Adult-Onset Cardiac Dysfunction in Humans and Mice

Background Integrin α7β1 is a major laminin receptor in skeletal and cardiac muscle. In skeletal muscle, integrin α7β1 plays an important role during muscle development and has been described as an important modifier of skeletal muscle diseases. The integrin α7β1 is also highly expressed in the heart, but its precise role in cardiac function is unknown. Mutations in the integrin α7 gene (ITGA7) have been reported in children with congenital myopathy. Methods and Results In this study, we described skeletal and cardiac muscle pathology in Itga7-/- mice and 5 patients from 2 unrelated families with ITGA7 mutations. Proband in family 1 presented a homozygous c.806_818del [p.S269fs] variant, and proband in family 2 was identified with 2 intron variants in the ITGA7 gene. The complete absence of the integrin α7 protein in muscle supports the ITGA7 mutations are pathogenic. We performed electrocardiography, echocardiography, or cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, and histological biopsy analyses in patients with ITGA7 deficiency and Itga7-/- mice. The patients exhibited cardiac dysrhythmia and dysfunction from the third decade of life and late-onset respiratory insufficiency, but with relatively mild limb muscle involvement. Mice demonstrated corresponding abnormalities in cardiac conduction and contraction as well as diaphragm muscle fibrosis. Conclusions Our data suggest that loss of integrin α7 causes a novel form of adult-onset cardiac dysfunction indicating a critical role for the integrin α7β1 in normal cardiac function and highlights the need for long-term cardiac monitoring in patients with ITGA7-related congenital myopathy.

Extracellular matrix: Brick and mortar in the skeletal muscle stem cell niche

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is an interconnected macromolecular scaffold occupying the space between cells. Amongst other functions, the ECM provides structural support to tissues and serves as a microenvironmental niche that conveys regulatory signals to cells. Cell-matrix adhesions, which link the ECM to the cytoskeleton, are dynamic multi-protein complexes containing surface receptors and intracellular effectors that control various downstream pathways. In skeletal muscle, the most abundant tissue of the body, each individual muscle fiber and its associated muscle stem cells (MuSCs) are surrounded by a layer of ECM referred to as the basal lamina. The core scaffold of the basal lamina consists of self-assembling polymeric laminins and a network of collagens that tether proteoglycans, which provide lateral crosslinking, establish collateral associations with cell surface receptors, and serve as a sink and reservoir for growth factors. Skeletal muscle also contains the fibrillar collagenous interstitial ECM that plays an important role in determining tissue elasticity, connects the basal laminae to each other, and contains matrix secreting mesenchymal fibroblast-like cell types and blood vessels. During skeletal muscle regeneration fibroblast-like cell populations expand and contribute to the transitional fibronectin-rich regenerative matrix that instructs angiogenesis and MuSC function. Here, we provide a comprehensive overview of the role of the skeletal muscle ECM in health and disease and outline its role in orchestrating tissue regeneration and MuSC function.

Muscle stem cell polarity requires QKI-mediated alternative splicing of Integrin Alpha-7 (Itga7)

The RNA-binding protein Quaking (QKI) is a post-transcriptional regulator of genes encoding polarity proteins in muscle stem cells. Loss of QKI in MuSCs results in reduced myogenic progenitors and a striking muscle regeneration defect.

Muscle stem cells (MuSCs) have the ability to carry out the specialized function of cell polarization, which is required for the production of one repopulating cell and one myogenic progenitor cell with muscle regeneration capabilities. The mechanisms which regulate proteins involved in establishing MuSC polarity such as Dmd and Itga7 are currently not well understood. Herein, we define the RNA-binding protein Quaking (QKI) as a major regulator alternative splicing of key MuSC polarity factors including Dmd, Itga7, Mark2, and Numb. We generate a conditional QKI knockout mouse, and for the first time it is shown in vivo that deficiency of QKI in MuSCs results in reduced asymmetric cell divisions, leading to a loss of the myogenic progenitor cell population and striking muscle regeneration defects. Transcriptomic analysis of QKI-deficient MuSCs identifies QKI as a regulator of the splicing events which give rise to the mutually exclusive Itga7-X1 and -X2 isoforms. We observe increased X1 expression in QKI-deficient MuSCs and recapitulate this splicing event using antisense oligonucleotide directed against a quaking binding site within the Itga7 mRNA. Interestingly, recreating this single splicing event is detrimental to the polarization of Itga7 and Dmd proteins, and leads to a drastic reduction of the myogenic progenitor population, highlighting the significance of QKI-mediated alternative splicing of Itga7 in maintaining MuSC polarity. Altogether, these findings define a novel role for QKI as a post-transcriptional regulator of MuSC polarity.

Structural mechanism of laminin recognition by integrin

Recognition of laminin by integrin receptors is central to the epithelial cell adhesion to basement membrane, but the structural background of this molecular interaction remained elusive. Here, we report the structures of the prototypic laminin receptor α6β1 integrin alone and in complex with three-chain laminin-511 fragment determined via crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy, respectively. The laminin-integrin interface is made up of several binding sites located on all five subunits, with the laminin γ1 chain C-terminal portion providing focal interaction using two carboxylate anchor points to bridge metal-ion dependent adhesion site of integrin β1 subunit and Asn189 of integrin α6 subunit. Laminin α5 chain also contributes to the affinity and specificity by making electrostatic interactions with large surface on the β-propeller domain of α6, part of which comprises an alternatively spliced X1 region. The propeller sheet corresponding to this region shows unusually high mobility, suggesting its unique role in ligand capture.

Laminin Subunit Alpha-4 and Osteopontin Are Glioblastoma-Selective Secreted Proteins That Are Increased in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Glioblastoma Patients

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive brain tumor in adults. The purpose of the present study was to identify GBM cell-selective secreted proteins by analyzing conditioned media (CM) from GBM, breast, and colon cancer cell lines using sequential window acquisition of all theoretical spectra-mass spectrometry (SWATH-MS) and targeted proteomics. We identified 2371 proteins in the CM from GBM and the other cancer cell lines. Among the proteins identified, 15 showed significantly higher expression in the CM from GBM cell lines than in those from other cancer cell lines. These GBM-selective secreted proteins were further quantified in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with GBM. Laminin subunit alpha-4 (LAMA4) and osteopontin (OPN) had increased expression levels in the CSF from GBM patients compared to those from non-brain tumor patients. In addition, the areas under the curves in a receiver operating characteristic analysis of LAMA4 and OPN were greater than 0.9, allowing for discrimination of GBM patients from non-brain tumor patients. The CSF levels of LAMA4 and OPN were also significantly correlated with the GBM tumor volume. These results suggest that LAMA4 and OPN are secreted from GBM cells into the CSF and appear to be candidates as diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets for GBM.

Laminin and Integrin in LAMA2-Related Congenital Muscular Dystrophy: From Disease to Therapeutics

Laminin-α2-related congenital muscular dystrophy (LAMA2-CMD) is a devastating neuromuscular disease caused by mutations in the LAMA2 gene. These mutations result in the complete absence or truncated expression of the laminin-α2 chain. The α2-chain is a major component of the laminin-211 and laminin-221 isoforms, the predominant laminin isoforms in healthy adult skeletal muscle. Mutations in this chain result in progressive skeletal muscle degeneration as early as neonatally. Laminin-211/221 is a ligand for muscle cell receptors integrin-α7β1 and α-dystroglycan. LAMA2 mutations are correlated with integrin-α7β1 disruption in skeletal muscle. In this review, we will summarize laminin-211/221 interactions with integrin-α7β1 in LAMA2-CMD muscle. Additionally, we will summarize recent developments using upregulation of laminin-111 in the sarcolemma of laminin-α2-deficient muscle. We will discuss potential mechanisms of action by which laminin-111 is able to prevent myopathy. These published studies demonstrate that laminin-111 is a disease modifier of LAMA2-CMD through different methods of delivery. Together, these studies show the potential for laminin-111 therapy as a novel paradigm for the treatment of LAMA2-CMD.

Targeting MicroRNA-143 Leads to Inhibition of Glioblastoma Tumor Progression

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive of all brain tumors, with a median survival of only 14 months after initial diagnosis. Novel therapeutic approaches are an unmet need for GBM treatment. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Several dysregulated miRNAs have been identified in all cancer types including GBM. In this study, we aimed to uncover the role of miR-143 in GBM cell lines, patient samples, and mouse models. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR of RNA extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples showed that the relative expression of miR-143 was higher in GBM patients compared to control individuals. Transient transfection of GBM cells with a miR-143 oligonucleotide inhibitor (miR-143-inh) resulted in reduced cell proliferation, increased apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest. SLC30A8, a glucose metabolism-related protein, was identified as a direct target of miR-143 in GBM cells. Moreover, multiple injections of GBM tumor-bearing mice with a miR-143-inh-liposomal formulation significantly reduced tumor growth compared to control mice. The reduced in vitro cell growth and in vivo tumor growth following miRNA-143 inhibition suggests that miR-143 is a potential therapeutic target for GBM therapy.

Linker proteins restore basement membrane and correct LAMA2-related muscular dystrophy in mice

LAMA2-related muscular dystrophy (LAMA2 MD or MDC1A) is the most frequent form of early-onset, fatal congenital muscular dystrophies. It is caused by mutations in LAMA2, the gene encoding laminin-α2, the long arm of the heterotrimeric (α2, β1, and γ1) basement membrane protein laminin-211 (Lm-211). We establish that despite compensatory expression of laminin-α4, giving rise to Lm-411 (α4, β1, and γ1), muscle basement membrane is labile in LAMA2 MD biopsies. Consistent with this deficit, recombinant Lm-411 polymerized and bound to cultured myotubes only weakly. Polymerization and cell binding of Lm-411 were enhanced by addition of two specifically designed linker proteins. One, called αLNNd, consists of the N-terminal part of laminin-α1 and the laminin-binding site of nidogen-1. The second, called mini-agrin (mag), contains binding sites for laminins and α-dystroglycan. Transgenic expression of mag and αLNNd in a mouse model for LAMA2 MD fully restored basement membrane stability, recovered muscle force and size, increased overall body weight, and extended life span more than five times to a maximum survival beyond 2 years. These findings provide a mechanistic understanding of LAMA2 MD and establish a strong basis for a potential treatment.

The involvement of the laminin-integrin α7β1 signaling pathway in mechanical ventilation-induced pulmonary fibrosis

Introduction

The central objective of the study was to determine the possibility and potential mechanism by which the laminin-integrin α7β1 signaling pathway acts on mechanical ventilation (MV)-induced pulmonary fibrosis in a rat model.

Methods

Fibrosis rat models were established via the mechanical injury method. Ninety rats were recruited and divided into the normal, low tidal volume (LVT), huge VT (HVT), Arg-Gly-Asp-Ser (RGDS), LVT + RGDS and HVT + RGDS groups. On day 0, 3, and 7 after model establishment, the pulmonary hydroxyproline content was measured using alkaline hydrolysis and the pulmonary index was also calculated. All rats in each group were executed on day 0, 3 and 7. The histopathological changes detected in the left pulmonary tissues were observed using hematoxylin-eosin (HE) and Masson staining methods.

Discussion

The mRNA and protein expressions of Wnt-5A, β-catenin, E-cadherin and Collagen I in the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway were detected using both reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) and western blotting methods. Immunohistochemistry was employed to detect the fibronectin (FN) expression in the pulmonary tissues on the 7th day. All indexes in the RGDS and LVT + RGDS groups indicated no explicit differences compared with the normal group. In the LVT, HVT, HVT + RGDS groups, the respective weights of the rats and the expression of E-cadherin on the 7th day exhibited decreases, however the pulmonary index, hydroxyproline, pulmonary alveolar inflammation, pulmonary fibrosis, FN expression, and protein expressions of Wnt-5A, β-catenin, and Collagen I all displayed increased levels (all P<0.05). The index changes detected in the HVT group were the most blatant results observed in the study. The rat pulmonary index on the 7th day, hydroxyproline (HYP), pulmonary alveolar inflammation, pulmonary fibrosis, FN expression, and protein expressions of Wnt-5A, β-catenin, and type I-collagen were all down-regulated, in contrast the expression of E-cadherin was up-regulated in the LVT + RGDS and HVT + RGDS groups in comparison with the LVT and HVT groups, respectively (all P<0.05).

Conclusions

The findings of the study suggested that RGDS could act to block the laminin-integrin α7β1-signaling pathway, ultimately contributing to the inhibition of the progression of MV-induced pulmonary fibrosis.

The role of laminins in the organization and function of neuromuscular junctions

The synapse between motor neurons and skeletal muscle is known as the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Proper alignment of presynaptic and post-synaptic structures of motor neurons and muscle fibers, respectively, is essential for efficient motor control of skeletal muscles. The synaptic cleft between these two cells is filled with basal lamina. Laminins are heterotrimer extracellular matrix molecules that are key members of the basal lamina. Laminin α4, α5, and β2 chains specifically localize to NMJs, and these laminin isoforms play a critical role in maintenance of NMJs and organization of synaptic vesicle release sites known as active zones. These individual laminin chains exert their role in organizing NMJs by binding to their receptors including integrins, dystroglycan, and voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs). Disruption of these laminins or the laminin-receptor interaction occurs in neuromuscular diseases including Pierson syndrome and Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS). Interventions to maintain proper level of laminins and their receptor interactions may be insightful in treating neuromuscular diseases and aging related degeneration of NMJs.

The alternative splicing program of differentiated smooth muscle cells involves concerted non-productive splicing of post-transcriptional regulators

Alternative splicing (AS) is a key component of gene expression programs that drive cellular differentiation. Smooth muscle cells (SMCs) are important in the function of a number of physiological systems; however, investigation of SMC AS has been restricted to a handful of events. We profiled transcriptome changes in mouse de-differentiating SMCs and observed changes in hundreds of AS events. Exons included in differentiated cells were characterized by particularly weak splice sites and by upstream binding sites for Polypyrimidine Tract Binding protein (PTBP1). Consistent with this, knockdown experiments showed that that PTBP1 represses many smooth muscle specific exons. We also observed coordinated splicing changes predicted to downregulate the expression of core components of U1 and U2 snRNPs, splicing regulators and other post-transcriptional factors in differentiated cells. The levels of cognate proteins were lower or similar in differentiated compared to undifferentiated cells. However, levels of snRNAs did not follow the expression of splicing proteins, and in the case of U1 snRNP we saw reciprocal changes in the levels of U1 snRNA and U1 snRNP proteins. Our results suggest that the AS program in differentiated SMCs is orchestrated by the combined influence of auxiliary RNA binding proteins, such as PTBP1, along with altered activity and stoichiometry of the core splicing machinery.

Differentiation-related glycan epitopes identify discrete domains of the muscle glycocalyx

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is enriched with glycoproteins modified with N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residues, and four nominally GalNAc-specific plant lectins have historically been used to identify the NMJ and the utrophin-glycoprotein complex. However, little is known about the specific glycan epitopes on skeletal muscle that are bound by these lectins, the glycoproteins that bear these epitopes or how creation of these glycan epitopes is regulated. Here, we profile changes in cell surface glycosylation during muscle cell differentiation and identify distinct differences in the binding preferences of GalNAc-specific lectins, Wisteria floribunda agglutinin (WFA), Vicia villosa agglutinin (VVA), soybean agglutinin (SBA) and Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA). While we find that all four GalNAc binding lectins specifically label the NMJ, each of the four lectins binds distinct sets of muscle glycoproteins; furthermore, none of the major adhesion complexes are required for binding of any of the four GalNAc-specific lectins. Analysis of glycosylation-related transcripts identified target glycosyltransferases and glycosidases that could potentially create GalNAc-containing epitopes; reducing expression of these transcripts by siRNA highlighted differences in lectin binding specificities. In addition, we found that complex N-glycans are required for binding of WFA and SBA to murine C2C12 myotubes and for WFA binding to wild-type skeletal muscle, but not for binding of VVA or DBA. These results demonstrate that muscle cell surface glycosylation is finely regulated during muscle differentiation in a domain- and acceptor-substrate-specific manner, suggesting that temporal- and site-specific glycosylation are important for skeletal muscle cell function.

Impaired primary mouse myotube formation on crosslinked type I collagen films is enhanced by laminin and entactin

In skeletal muscle, the stem cell niche is important for controlling the quiescent, proliferation and differentiation states of satellite cells, which are key for skeletal muscle regeneration after wounding. It has been shown that type I collagen, often used as 3D-scaffolds for regenerative medicine purposes, impairs myoblast differentiation. This is most likely due to the absence of specific extracellular matrix proteins providing attachment sites for myoblasts and/or myotubes. In this study we investigated the differentiation capacity of primary murine myoblasts on type I collagen films either untreated or modified with elastin, laminin, type IV collagen, laminin/entactin complex, combinations thereof, and Matrigel as a positive control. Additionally, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ROCK signaling might also be involved. To measure ROS levels with live-cell microscopy, fibronectin-coated glass coverslips were additionally coated with type I collagen and Matrigel onto which myoblasts were differentiated. On type I collagen-coated coverslips, myotube formation was impaired while ROS levels were increased. However, anti-oxidant treatment did not enhance myotube formation. ROCK inhibition, which generally improve cellular attachment to uncoated surfaces or type I collagen, enhanced myoblast attachment to type I collagen-coated coverslips and -films, but slightly enhanced myotube formation. Only modification of type I collagen films by Matrigel and a combination of laminin/entactin significantly improved myotube formation. Our results indicate that type I collagen scaffolds can be modified by satellite cell niche factors of which specifically laminin and entactin enhanced myotube formation. This offers a promising approach for regenerative medicine purposes to heal skeletal muscle wounds.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

In this manuscript we show for the first time that impaired myotube formation on type I collagen scaffolds can be completely restored by modification with laminin and entactin, two extracellular proteins from the satellite cell niche. This offers a promising approach for regenerative medicine approaches to heal skeletal muscle wounds.

Deletion of integrin α7 subunit does not aggravate the phenotype of laminin α2 chain-deficient mice

Laminin-211 is a major constituent of the skeletal muscle basement membrane, exerting its biological functions by binding to cell surface receptors integrin α7β1 and dystroglycan (the latter is part of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex). The importance of these molecules for normal muscle function is underscored by the fact that their respective deficiency leads to different forms of muscular dystrophy with different severity in humans and animal models. We recently demonstrated that laminin α2 chain and members of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex have overlapping but non-redundant roles despite being part of the same adhesion complex. To analyse whether laminin-211 and integrin α7 subunit have non-redundant functions we generated mice deficient in laminin α2 chain and integrin α7 subunit (dy^3K/itga7). We show that lack of both molecules did not exacerbate the severe phenotype of laminin α2-chain deficient animals. They displayed the same weight, survival and dystrophic pattern of muscle biopsy, with similar degree of inflammation and fibrosis. These data suggest that laminin-211 and integrin α7β1 have intersecting roles in skeletal muscle.

Molecular Basis of Laminin-Integrin Interactions

Laminins are composed of three polypeptide chains, designated as α, β, and γ. The C-terminal region of laminin heterotrimers, containing coiled-coil regions, short tails, and laminin globular (LG) domains, is necessary and sufficient for binding to integrins, which are the major laminin receptor class. Laminin recognition by integrins critically requires the α chain LG domains and a glutamic acid residue of the γ chain at the third position from the C-terminus. Furthermore, the C-terminal region of the β chain contains a short amino acid sequence that modulates laminin affinity for integrins. Thus, all three of the laminin chains act cooperatively to facilitate integrin binding. Mammals possess 5 α (α1-5), 3 β (β1-3), and 3 γ (γ1-3) chains, combinations of which give rise to 16 distinct laminin isoforms. Each isoform is expressed in a tissue-specific and developmental stage-specific manner, exerting its functions through binding of integrins. In this review, we detail the current knowledge surrounding the molecular basis and physiological relevance of specific interactions between laminins and integrins, and describe the mechanisms underlying laminin action through integrins.

Quantitative proteomic analysis reveals metabolic alterations, calcium dysregulation, and increased expression of extracellular matrix proteins in laminin α2 chain-deficient muscle

Congenital muscular dystrophy with laminin α2 chain deficiency (MDC1A) is one of the most severe forms of muscular disease and is characterized by severe muscle weakness and delayed motor milestones. The genetic basis of MDC1A is well known, yet the secondary mechanisms ultimately leading to muscle degeneration and subsequent connective tissue infiltration are not fully understood. In order to obtain new insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying MDC1A, we performed a comparative proteomic analysis of affected muscles (diaphragm and gastrocnemius) from laminin α2 chain-deficient dy(3K)/dy(3K) mice, using multidimensional protein identification technology combined with tandem mass tags. Out of the approximately 700 identified proteins, 113 and 101 proteins, respectively, were differentially expressed in the diseased gastrocnemius and diaphragm muscles compared with normal muscles. A large portion of these proteins are involved in different metabolic processes, bind calcium, or are expressed in the extracellular matrix. Our findings suggest that metabolic alterations and calcium dysregulation could be novel mechanisms that underlie MDC1A and might be targets that should be explored for therapy. Also, detailed knowledge of the composition of fibrotic tissue, rich in extracellular matrix proteins, in laminin α2 chain-deficient muscle might help in the design of future anti-fibrotic treatments. All MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD000978 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD000978).

Bortezomib partially improves laminin α2 chain-deficient muscular dystrophy

Congenital muscular dystrophy, caused by mutations in LAMA2 (the gene encoding laminin α2 chain), is a severe and incapacitating disease for which no therapy is yet available. We have recently demonstrated that proteasome activity is increased in laminin α2 chain-deficient muscle and that treatment with the nonpharmaceutical proteasome inhibitor MG-132 reduces muscle pathology in laminin α2 chain-deficient dy(3K)/dy(3K) mice. Here, we explore the use of the selective and therapeutic proteasome inhibitor bortezomib (currently used for treatment of relapsed multiple myeloma and mantle cell lymphoma) in dy(3K)/dy(3K) mice and in congenital muscular dystrophy type 1A muscle cells. Outcome measures included quantitative muscle morphology, gene and miRNA expression analyses, proteasome activity, motor activity, and survival. Bortezomib improved several histological hallmarks of disease, partially normalized miRNA expression (miR-1 and miR-133a), and enhanced body weight, locomotion, and survival of dy(3K)/dy(3K) mice. In addition, bortezomib reduced proteasome activity in congenital muscular dystrophy type 1A myoblasts and myotubes. These findings provide evidence that the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib partially reduces laminin α2 chain-deficient muscular dystrophy. Investigation of the clinical efficacy of bortezomib administration in congenital muscular dystrophy type 1A clinical trials may be warranted.

Loss of dystrophin and β-sarcoglycan significantly exacerbates the phenotype of laminin α2 chain-deficient animals

The adhesion molecule laminin α2 chain interacts with the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex, contributes to normal muscle function, and protects skeletal muscles from damage. Complete loss of the laminin α2 chain in mice results in a severe muscular dystrophy phenotype and death at approximately 3 weeks of age. However, it is not clear if the remaining members of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex further protect laminin α2 chain-deficient skeletal muscle fibers from degeneration. Hence, we generated mice deficient in laminin α2 chain and dystrophin (dy(3K)/mdx) and mice devoid of laminin α2 chain and β-sarcoglycan (dy(3K)/Sgcb). Severe muscular dystrophy and a lack of nourishment inevitably led to massive muscle wasting and death in double-knockout animals. The dy(3K)/Sgcb mice were generally more severely affected than dy(3K)/mdx mice. However, both double-knockout strains displayed exacerbated muscle degeneration, inflammation, fibrosis, and reduced life span (5 to 13 days) compared with single-knockout animals. However, neither extraocular nor cardiac muscle was affected in double-knockout animals. Our results suggest that, although laminin α2 chain, dystrophin, and β-sarcoglycan are all part of the same adhesion complex, they have complementary, but nonredundant, roles in maintaining sarcolemmal integrity and protecting skeletal muscle fibers from damage. Moreover, the double-knockout mice could potentially serve as models in which to study extremely aggressive muscle-wasting conditions.

Laminin isoforms in endothelial and perivascular basement membranes

Laminins, one of the major functional components of basement membranes, are found underlying endothelium, and encasing pericytes and smooth muscle cells in the vessel wall. Depending on the type of blood vessel (capillary, venule, postcapillary venule, vein or artery) and their maturation state, both the endothelial and mural cell phenotype vary, with associated changes in laminin isoform expression. Laminins containing the α4 and α5 chains are the major isoforms found in the vessel wall, with the added contribution of laminin α2 in larger vessels. We here summarize current data on the precise localization of these laminin isoforms and their receptors in the different layers of the vessel wall, and their potential contribution to vascular homeostasis.

Defects in glycosylation impair satellite stem cell function and niche composition in the muscles of the dystrophic Large(myd) mouse

The dystrophin-associated glycoprotein complex (DGC) is found at the muscle fiber sarcolemma and forms an essential structural link between the basal lamina and internal cytoskeleton. In a set of muscular dystrophies known as the dystroglycanopathies, hypoglycosylation of the DGC component α-dystroglycan results in reduced binding to basal lamina components, a loss in structural stability, and repeated cycles of muscle fiber degeneration and regeneration. The satellite cells are the key stem cells responsible for muscle repair and reside between the basal lamina and sarcolemma. In this study, we aimed to determine whether pathological changes associated with the dystroglycanopathies affect satellite cell function. In the Large(myd) mouse dystroglycanopathy model, satellite cells are present in significantly greater numbers but display reduced proliferation on their native muscle fibers in vitro, compared with wild type. However, when removed from their fiber, proliferation in culture is restored to that of wild type. Immunohistochemical analysis of Large(myd) muscle reveals alterations to the basal lamina and interstitium, including marked disorganization of laminin, upregulation of fibronectin and collagens. Proliferation and differentiation of wild-type satellite cells is impaired when cultured on substrates such as collagen and fibronectin, compared with laminins. When engrafted into irradiated tibialis anterior muscles of mdx-nude mice, wild-type satellite cells expanded on laminin contribute significantly more to muscle regeneration than those expanded on fibronectin. These results suggest that defects in α-dystroglycan glycosylation are associated with an alteration in the satellite cell niche, and that regenerative potential in the dystroglycanopathies may be perturbed.

Integrin α7β1 is a redox-regulated target of hydrogen peroxide in vascular smooth muscle cell adhesion

Upon adhesion to laminin-111, aortic smooth muscle cells initially form membrane protrusions with an average diameter of 2.9μm. We identified these protrusions also as subcellular areas of increased redox potential and protein oxidation by detecting cysteine sulfenic acid groups with dimedone. Hence, we termed these areas oxidative hot spots. They are spatially and temporally transient during an early stage of adhesion and depend on the activity of the H(2)O(2)-generating NADPH oxidase 4. Presumably located on cellular protrusions, integrin α7β1 mediates adhesion and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells to laminins of their surrounding basement membrane. Using protein chemistry and mass spectrometry, two specific oxidation sites within the integrin α7 subunit were identified: one located in its genu region and another within its calf 2 domain. Upon H(2)O(2) treatment, two cysteine residues are oxidized thereby unlocking a disulfide bridge. The genu region is a hinge, around which the integrin domains pivot between a bent/inactive and an upright/active conformation. Also, cysteine oxidation within the calf 2 domain permits conformational changes related to integrin activation. H(2)O(2) treatment of α7β1 integrin in concentrations of up to 100μM increases integrin binding activity to laminin-111, suggesting a physiological redox regulation of α7β1 integrin.

Cell-matrix interactions in muscle disease

The extracellular matrix (ECM) provides a solid scaffold and signals to cells through ECM receptors. The cell-matrix interactions are crucial for normal biological processes and when disrupted they may lead to pathological processes. In particular, the biological importance of ECM-cell membrane-cytoskeleton interactions in skeletal muscle is accentuated by the number of inherited muscle diseases caused by mutations in proteins conferring these interactions. In this review we introduce laminins, collagens, dystroglycan, integrins, dystrophin and sarcoglycans. Mutations in corresponding genes cause various forms of muscular dystrophy. The muscle disorders are presented as well as advances toward the development of treatment.

Laminin-α1 LG4-5 domain binding to dystroglycan mediates muscle cell survival, growth, and the AP-1 and NF-κB transcription factors but also has adverse effects

In our previous studies, we showed laminin binds α-dystroglycan in the dystrophin glycoprotein complex and initiates cell signaling pathways. Here, differentiated C2C12 myocytes serve as a model of skeletal muscle. C2C12 cells have a biphasic response to the laminin-α(1) laminin globular (LG) 4-5 domains (1E3) dependent on the concentration used; at low concentrations of 1E3 (<1 μg/ml), myoblast proliferation is increased while higher concentrations (>1 μg/ml) cause apoptosis in myoblasts and differentiated myotubes. This alters the activation of the transcription factors activator protein-1 (AP-1) and NF-κB via laminin-dystrophin glycoprotein complex (DGC)-src-grb2-sos1-Rac1-Pak1-c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)p46 and laminin-DGC-Gβγ-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathways, respectively. A specific antibody against Ser(63) phosphorylated c-jun completely blocks or supershifts the AP-1-DNA binding resulting from laminin binding but only partially blocks or supershifts the AP-1-DNA binding resulting from 1E3. This suggests that AP-1 contains phosphorylated c-jun in the presence of hololaminin but contains a different composition in the presence of 1E3. Nuclear NF-κB was only upregulated by a low concentration of 1E3 and is then diminished by a higher concentration; it also has a biphasic response. Nuclear localization of NF-κB is affected by PI3K/Akt signaling, and DGC associated PI3K activity also shows a biphasic response to 1E3. Furthermore, our data suggest that activation of c-jun N-terminal kinase participates in the cell survival pathway and suggest that NF-κB is involved in both survival and cell death. A model is presented which incorporates these observations.

Transgenic expression of Laminin α1 chain does not prevent muscle disease in the mdx mouse model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe neuromuscular disorder, and one of the most frequently encountered, but one for which there is as yet no treatment. Laminin-111 protein therapy was recently shown to be a promising approach to prevent muscle disease in the mdx mouse model of DMD. The present study demonstrated that transgenic expression of laminin α1 chain in mdx animals, resulting in laminin-111 heterotrimer formation in mdx muscle, does not improve the dystrophic phenotype. The mdx mice overexpressing laminin-111 (mdxLMα1) display features of mdx littermates: dystrophic pattern of muscle biopsy, elevated creatine kinase levels, reduced muscle strength, and decreased sarcolemmal integrity. Increased expression of integrin α7 is not beneficial for mdxLMα1 muscle, and components of the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex are not restored at the sarcolemma on laminin-111 overexpression. In summary, further studies are needed to verify the functionality of laminin-111 protein therapy in DMD and to describe the molecular events resulting from this approach.

Transgenic overexpression of the α7 integrin reduces muscle pathology and improves viability in the dy(W) mouse model of merosin-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy type 1A

Merosin-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy 1A (MDC1A) is a devastating neuromuscular disease that results in children being confined to a wheelchair, requiring ventilator assistance to breathe and premature death. MDC1A is caused by mutations in the LAMA2 gene, which results in the partial or complete loss of laminin-211 and laminin-221, the major laminin isoforms found in the basal lamina of skeletal muscle. MDC1A patients exhibit reduced α7β1 integrin; however, it is unclear how the secondary loss of α7β1 integrin contributes to MDC1A disease progression. To investigate whether restoring α7 integrin expression can alleviate the myopathic phenotype observed in MDC1A, we produced transgenic mice that overexpressed the α7 integrin in the skeletal muscle of the dy(W⁻/⁻) mouse model of MDC1A. Enhanced expression of the α7 integrin restored sarcolemmal localization of the α7β1 integrin to laminin-α2-deficient myofibers, changed the composition of the muscle extracellular matrix, reduced muscle pathology, maintained muscle strength and function and improved the life expectancy of dy(W⁻/⁻) mice. Taken together, these results indicate that enhanced expression of α7 integrin prevents muscle disease progression through augmentation and/or stabilization of the existing extracellular matrix in laminin-α2-deficient mice, and strategies that increase α7 integrin in muscle might provide an innovative approach for the treatment of MDC1A.

Skeletal muscle laminin and MDC1A: pathogenesis and treatment strategies

Laminin-211 is a cell-adhesion molecule that is strongly expressed in the basement membrane of skeletal muscle. By binding to the cell surface receptors dystroglycan and integrin α7β1, laminin-211 is believed to protect the muscle fiber from damage under the constant stress of contractions, and to influence signal transmission events. The importance of laminin-211 in skeletal muscle is evident from merosin-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy type 1A (MDC1A), in which absence of the α2 chain of laminin-211 leads to skeletal muscle dysfunction. MDC1A is the commonest form of congenital muscular dystrophy in the European population. Severe hypotonia, progressive muscle weakness and wasting, joint contractures and consequent impeded motion characterize this incurable disorder, which causes great difficulty in daily life and often leads to premature death. Mice with laminin α2 chain deficiency have analogous phenotypes, and are reliable models for studies of disease mechanisms and potential therapeutic approaches. In this review, we introduce laminin-211 and describe its structure, expression pattern in developing and adult muscle and its receptor interactions. We will also discuss the molecular pathogenesis of MDC1A and advances toward the development of treatment.

Cross-talk between the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis and membrane integrins to regulate cell physiology

The biology of cross-talk between activated growth factor receptors and cell-surface integrins is an area which has attracted much interest in recent years (Schwartz and Ginsberg, 2002). This review discusses the relationship between the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis and cell-surface integrin receptors in the regulation of various aspects of cell physiology. Key to these interactions are signals transmitted between integrins and the IGF-I receptor (IGF-IR) when either or both are bound to their cognate ligands and we will review the current state of knowledge in this area. The IGF axis comprises many molecular components and we will also discuss the potential role of these species in cross-talk with the integrin receptor. With respect to integrin ligands, we will mainly focus on the well-characterized interactions of the two extracellular matrix (ECM) glycoproteins fibronectin (FN) and vitronectin (VN) with cell-surface ligands, and, how this affects activity through the IGF axis. However, we will also highlight the importance of other integrin activation mechanisms and their impact on IGF activity.

Distinct roles for laminin globular domains in laminin alpha1 chain mediated rescue of murine laminin alpha2 chain deficiency

Background

Laminin α2 chain mutations cause congenital muscular dystrophy with dysmyelination neuropathy (MDC1A). Previously, we demonstrated that laminin α1 chain ameliorates the disease in mice. Dystroglycan and integrins are major laminin receptors. Unlike laminin α2 chain, α1 chain binds the receptors by separate domains; laminin globular (LG) domains 4 and LG1-3, respectively. Thus, the laminin α1 chain is an excellent tool to distinguish between the roles of dystroglycan and integrins in the neuromuscular system.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here, we provide insights into the functions of laminin α1LG domains and the division of their roles in MDC1A pathogenesis and rescue. Overexpression of laminin α1 chain that lacks the dystroglycan binding LG4-5 domains in α2 chain deficient mice resulted in prolonged lifespan and improved health. Importantly, diaphragm and heart muscles were corrected, whereas limb muscles were dystrophic, indicating that different muscles have different requirements for LG4-5 domains. Furthermore, the regenerative capacity of the skeletal muscle did not depend on laminin α1LG4-5. However, this domain was crucial for preventing apoptosis in limb muscles, essential for myelination in peripheral nerve and important for basement membrane assembly.

Conclusions/Significance

These results show that laminin α1LG domains and consequently their receptors have disparate functions in the neuromuscular system. Understanding these interactions could contribute to design and optimization of future medical treatment for MDC1A patients.

Transgenic overexpression of laminin alpha1 chain in laminin alpha2 chain-deficient mice rescues the disease throughout the lifespan

Several approaches to treat laminin alpha2 chain-deficient congenital muscular dystrophy (MDC1A) in mouse models have been undertaken. Most have shown promising results in young animals. However, older animals have only been characterized to some extent. Herein we analyze the lifespan of laminin alpha2 chain-deficient mice with transgenic overexpression of laminin alpha1 chain. Further outcome measures included internalized myonuclei, heart fibrosis, grip strength, and serum creatine kinase activity. We show that laminin alpha2-chain-deficient animals that overexpress laminin alpha1 chain survive to up to 1.5-2 years of age. Furthermore, they displayed improved skeletal and heart muscle morphology, near-normal muscle strength, and normalized creatine kinase levels. Such an improvement of the dystrophic phenotype that persists to old age has not been previously demonstrated in mice. Our findings hold promise with regard to the efficient treatment of MDC1A patients in the future.

Laminin-121--recombinant expression and interactions with integrins

Laminin-121, previously referred as to laminin-3, was expressed recombinantly in human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells by triple transfection of full-length cDNAs encoding mouse laminin α1, β2 and γ1 chains. The recombinant laminin-121 was purified using Heparin-Sepharose followed by molecular sieve chromatography and shown to be correctly folded by electron microscopy and circular dichroism (CD). The CD spectra of recombinant laminin-121 were very similar to those of laminin-111 isolated from Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm tumor (EHS-laminin) but its T(m) value was smaller than EHS-laminin and recombinant lamnin-111 suggesting that the replacement of the β chain reduced the stability of the coiled-coil structure of laminin-121. Its binding to integrins was compared with EHS-laminin, laminin-3A32 purified from murine epidermal cell line and recombinantly expressed laminins-111, -211 and -221. Laminin-121 showed the highest affinity to α6β1 and α7β1 integrins and furthermore, laminin-121 most effectively supported neurite outgrowth. Together, this suggests that the β2 laminins have higher affinity for integrins than the β1 laminins.

I-Z-I complexes in congenital myopathy

A 3-month-old boy with hypotonia at birth succumbed to a congenital myopathy. The major finding in his muscle biopsy corresponded to I-Z-I complexes described previously in embryonic skeletal muscle. A few previous myopathy cases have described findings suggestive of I-Z-I-like complexes. A mutation affecting mononuclear myoblasts or early myotubes was suspected, although an acquired lesion could not be ruled out. The findings may also have been altered by secondary events in this unusual case.

Integrins

Integrins are cell adhesion receptors that are evolutionary old and that play important roles during developmental and pathological processes. The integrin family is composed of 24 αβ heterodimeric members that mediate the attachment of cells to the extracellular matrix (ECM) but that also take part in specialized cell-cell interactions. Only a subset of integrins (8 out of 24) recognizes the RGD sequence in the native ligands. In some ECM molecules, such as collagen and certain laminin isoforms, the RGD sequences are exposed upon denaturation or proteolytic cleavage, allowing cells to bind these ligands by using RGD-binding receptors. Proteolytic cleavage of ECM proteins might also generate fragments with novel biological activity such as endostatin, tumstatin, and endorepellin. Nine integrin chains contain an αI domain, including the collagen-binding integrins α1β1, α2β1, α10β1, and α11β1. The collagen-binding integrins recognize the triple-helical GFOGER sequence in the major collagens, but their ability to recognize these sequences in vivo is dependent on the fibrillar status and accessibility of the interactive domains in the fibrillar collagens. The current review summarizes some basic facts about the integrin family including a historical perspective, their structure, and their ligand-binding properties.

Laminin-111 protein therapy prevents muscle disease in the mdx mouse model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a devastating neuromuscular disease caused by mutations in the gene encoding dystrophin. Loss of dystrophin results in reduced sarcolemmal integrity and increased susceptibility to muscle damage. The alpha(7)beta(1)-integrin is a laminin-binding protein up-regulated in the skeletal muscle of DMD patients and in the mdx mouse model. Transgenic overexpression of the alpha(7)-integrin alleviates muscle disease in dystrophic mice, making this gene a target for pharmacological intervention. Studies suggest laminin may regulate alpha(7)-integrin expression. To test this hypothesis, mouse and human myoblasts were treated with laminin and assayed for alpha(7)-integrin expression. We show that laminin-111 (alpha(1), beta(1), gamma(1)), which is expressed during embryonic development but absent in normal or dystrophic skeletal muscle, increased alpha(7)-integrin expression in mouse and DMD patient myoblasts. Injection of laminin-111 protein into the mdx mouse model of DMD increased expression of alpha(7)-integrin, stabilized the sarcolemma, restored serum creatine kinase to wild-type levels, and protected muscle from exercised-induced damage. These findings demonstrate that laminin-111 is a highly potent therapeutic agent for the mdx mouse model of DMD and represents a paradigm for the systemic delivery of extracellular matrix proteins as therapies for genetic diseases.

Genetically determined proteolytic cleavage modulates alpha7beta1 integrin function

The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex and the alpha7beta1 integrin are trans-sarcolemmal linkage systems that connect and transduce contractile forces between muscle fibers and the extracellular matrix. alpha7beta1 is the major laminin binding integrin in skeletal muscle. Different functional variants of this integrin are generated by alternative splicing and post-translational modifications such as glycosylation and ADP-ribosylation. Here we report a species-specific difference in alpha7 chains that results from an intra-peptide proteolytic cleavage, by a serine protease, at the 603RRQ605 site. Site-directed mutagenesis of RRQ to GRQ prevents this cleavage. This RRQ sequence in the alpha7 integrin chain is highly conserved among vertebrates but it is absent in mice. Protein structure modeling indicates this cleavage site is located in an open region between the beta-propeller and thigh domains of the alpha7 chain. Compared with the non-cleavable alpha7 chain, the cleaved form enhances cell adhesion and spreading on laminin. Cleavage of the alpha7 chain is elevated upon myogenic differentiation, and this cleavage may be mediated by urokinase-type plasminogen activator. These results suggest proteolytic cleavage is a novel mechanism that regulates alpha7 integrin functions in skeletal muscle, and that the generation of such cleavage sites is another evolutionary mechanism for expanding and modifying protein functions.

Laminin-111 restores regenerative capacity in a mouse model for alpha7 integrin congenital myopathy

Mutations in the alpha7 integrin gene cause congenital myopathy characterized by delayed developmental milestones and impaired mobility. Previous studies in dystrophic mice suggest the alpha7beta1 integrin may be critical for muscle repair. To investigate the role that alpha7beta1 integrin plays in muscle regeneration, cardiotoxin was used to induce damage in the tibialis anterior muscle of alpha7 integrin-null mice. Unlike wild-type muscle, which responded rapidly to repair damaged myofibers, alpha7 integrin-deficient muscle exhibited defective regeneration. Analysis of Pax7 and MyoD expression revealed a profound delay in satellite cell activation after cardiotoxin treatment in alpha7 integrin-null animals when compared with wild type. We have recently demonstrated that the muscle of alpha7 integrin-null mice exhibits reduced laminin-alpha2 expression. To test the hypothesis that loss of laminin contributes to the defective muscle regeneration phenotype observed in alpha7 integrin-null mice, mouse laminin-111 (alpha1, beta1, gamma1) protein was injected into the tibialis anterior muscle 3 days before cardiotoxin-induced injury. The injected laminin-111 protein infiltrated the entire muscle and restored myogenic repair and muscle regeneration in alpha7 integrin-null muscle to wild-type levels. Our data demonstrate a critical role for a laminin-rich microenvironment in muscle repair and suggest laminin- 111 protein may serve as an unexpected and novel therapeutic agent for patients with congenital myopathies.

Identification of two regulatory binding sites which confer myotube specific expression of the mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase ART1 gene

BACKGROUND

Mono-ADP-ribosyltransferase (ART) 1 belongs to a family of mammalian ectoenzymes that catalyze the transfer of ADP-ribose from NAD+ to a target protein. ART1 is predominantly expressed in skeletal and cardiac muscle. It ADP-ribosylates alpha7-integrin which together with beta1-integrin forms a dimer and binds to laminin, a protein of the extracellular matrix involved in cell adhesion. This posttranslational modification leads to an increased laminin binding affinity.

RESULTS

Using C2C12 and C3H-10T 1/2 cells as models of myogenesis, we found that ART1 expression was restricted to myotube formation. We identified a fragment spanning the gene 1.3 kb upstream of the transcriptional start site as the functional promoter of the ART1 gene. This region contains an E box and an A/T-rich element, two conserved binding sites for transcription factors found in the promoters of most skeletal muscle specific genes. Mutating the DNA consensus sequence of either the E box or the A/T-rich element resulted in a nearly complete loss of ART1 promoter inducibility, indicating a cooperative role of the transcription factors binding to those sites. Gel mobility shift analyses carried out with nuclear extracts from C2C12 and C3H-10T 1/2 cells revealed binding of myogenin to the E box and MEF-2 to the A/T-rich element, the binding being restricted to C2C12 and C3H-10T 1/2 myotubes.

CONCLUSION

Here we describe the molecular mechanism underlying the regulation of the ART1 gene expression in skeletal muscle cells. The differentiation-dependent upregulation of ART1 mRNA is induced by the binding of myogenin to an E box and of MEF-2 to an A/T-rich element in the proximal promoter region of the ART1 gene. Thus the transcriptional regulation involves molecular mechanisms similar to those used to activate muscle-specific genes.

Laminin isoforms containing the gamma3 chain are unable to bind to integrins due to the absence of the glutamic acid residue conserved in the C-terminal regions of the gamma1 and gamma2 chains

Laminins are the major cell adhesive proteins in basement membranes, and consist of three subunits termed alpha, beta, and gamma. Recently, we found that the Glu residue at the third position from the C termini of the gamma1 and gamma2 chains is critically involved in integrin binding by laminins. However, the gamma3 chain lacks this Glu residue, suggesting that laminin isoforms containing the gamma3 chain may be unable to bind to integrins. To address this possibility, we expressed the E8 fragment of laminin-213 and found that it was incapable of binding to integrins. Similarly, the E8 fragment of laminin-113 was expressed and also found to be inactive in binding to integrins, confirming the distinction between the integrin binding activities of gamma3 chain-containing isoforms and those containing the gamma1 or gamma2 chain. To further address the importance of the Glu residue, we swapped the C-terminal four amino acids of the gamma3 chain with the C-terminal nine amino acids of the gamma1 chain, which contain the Glu residue. The resulting chimeric E8 fragment of laminin-213 became fully active in integrin binding, whereas replacement with the nine amino acids of the gamma1 chain after substitution of Gln for the conserved Glu residue failed to restore the integrin binding activity. These results provide both loss-of-function and gain-of-function evidence that laminin isoforms containing the gamma3 chain are unable to bind to integrins due to the absence of the conserved Glu residue, which should play a critical role in integrin binding by laminins.

Modulation of ligand binding by alternative splicing of the alphaPS2 integrin subunit

The Drosophila alphaPS2 integrin subunit is found in two isoforms. alphaPS2C contains 25 residues not found in alphaPS2m8, encoded by the alternative eighth exon. Previously, it was shown that cells expressing alphaPS2C spread more effectively than alphaPS2m8 cells on fragments of the ECM protein Tiggrin, and that alphaPS2C-containing integrins are relatively insensitive to depletion of Ca(2+). Using a ligand mimetic probe for Tiggrin affinity (TWOW-1), we show that the affinity of alphaPS2CbetaPS for this ligand is much higher than that of alphaPS2m8betaPS. However, the two isoforms become more similar in the presence of activating levels of Mn(2+). Modeling indicates that the exon 8-encoded residues replace the third beta strand of the third blade of the alpha subunit beta-propeller structure, and generate an exaggerated loop between this and the fourth strand. alphaPS2 subunits with the extra loop structure but with an m8-like third strand, or subunits with a C-like strand but an m8-like short loop, both fail to show alphaPS2C-like affinity for TWOW-1. Surprisingly, a single C > m8-like change at the third strand-loop transition point is sufficient to make alphaPS2C require Ca(2+) for function, despite the absence of any known cation binding site in this region. These data indicate that alternative splicing in integrin alpha subunit extracellular domains may affect ligand affinity via relatively subtle alterations in integrin conformation. These results may have relevance for vertebrate alpha6 and alpha7, which are alternatively spliced at the same site.