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Raeeszadeh-Sarmazdeh M, Boder ET. Yeast Surface Display: New Opportunities for a Time-Tested Protein Engineering System. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2491:3-25. [PMID: 35482182 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2285-8_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Yeast surface display has proven to be a powerful tool for the discovery of antibodies and other novel binding proteins and for engineering the affinity and selectivity of existing proteins for their targets. In the decades since the first demonstrations of the approach, the range of yeast display applications has greatly expanded to include many different protein targets and has grown to encompass methods for rapid protein characterization. Here, we briefly summarize the development of yeast display methodologies and highlight several selected examples of recent applications to timely and challenging protein engineering and characterization problems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric T Boder
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA.
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2
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Cluet D, Vergier B, Levy NP, Dehau L, Thurman A, Amri I, Spichty M. Titration of apparent in-cellula affinities of protein-protein interactions. Chembiochem 2021; 23:e202100640. [PMID: 34932835 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202100640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A genetic assay permits simultaneous quantification of two interacting proteins and their bound fraction at the single-cell level using flow cytometry. Apparent in-cellula affinities of protein-protein interactions can be extracted from the acquired data through a titration-like analysis. The applicability of this approach is demonstrated on a diverse set of interactions with proteins from different families and organisms and with in-vitro dissociation constants ranging from picomolar to micromolar.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Cluet
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Blandine Vergier
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Nicolas-Pierre Levy
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Lucie Dehau
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Alexandre Thurman
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Ikram Amri
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Modélisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364, Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Martin Spichty
- Laboratoire d'Innovation Moléculaire et Applications, Université de Strasbourg -, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Haute-Alsace, 3 bis rue Alfred Werner, 68057, Mulhouse Cedex, France
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3
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Luo B, Jin MM, Li X, Makunga NP, Hu X. Yeast Surface Display for In Vitro Biosynthetic Pathway Reconstruction. ACS Synth Biol 2021; 10:2938-2946. [PMID: 34724381 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.1c00175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The enzymes immobilized through yeast surface display (YSD) can be used in in vitro metabolic pathway reconstruction as alternatives to the enzymes isolated or purified through conventional biochemistry methods. They can be easily prepared by growing and collecting yeast cells harboring display constructs. This may provide an economical method for enriching certain enzymes for biochemistry characterization and application. Herein, we took the advantage of one-pot cascade reactions catalyzed by YSD-immobilized enzymes in the mevalonate pathway to produce geraniol in vitro. YSD-immobilized enzymes of 10 cascade reactions for geraniol production, together with optimization of catalytic components, cofactor regeneration, and byproduct removal, achieved a final yield of 7.55 mg L-1 after seven cycles. This study demonstrated that it is feasible to reconstitute a complex multi-enzymatic system for the chemical biosynthesis in vitro by exploiting YSD-immobilized cascade enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biaobiao Luo
- Laboratory of Natural Medicine and Molecular Engineering, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Provincial Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plants, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Moonsoo M. Jin
- Department of Radiology and Surgery, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York 10065, United States
| | - Xiaohua Li
- Laboratory of Natural Medicine and Molecular Engineering, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Provincial Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plants, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Nokwanda P. Makunga
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7600, South Africa
| | - Xuebo Hu
- Laboratory of Natural Medicine and Molecular Engineering, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation, Wuhan 430070, China
- Hubei Provincial Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plants, Wuhan 430070, China
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Bacon K, Blain A, Bowen J, Burroughs M, McArthur N, Menegatti S, Rao BM. Quantitative Yeast-Yeast Two Hybrid for the Discovery and Binding Affinity Estimation of Protein-Protein Interactions. ACS Synth Biol 2021; 10:505-514. [PMID: 33587591 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Quantifying the binding affinity of protein-protein interactions is important for elucidating connections within biochemical signaling pathways, as well as characterization of binding proteins isolated from combinatorial libraries. We describe a quantitative yeast-yeast two-hybrid (qYY2H) system that not only enables the discovery of specific protein-protein interactions but also efficient, quantitative estimation of their binding affinities (KD). In qYY2H, the bait and prey proteins are expressed as yeast cell surface fusions using yeast surface display. We developed a semiempirical framework for estimating the KD of monovalent bait-prey interactions, using measurements of bait-prey yeast-yeast binding, which is mediated by multivalent interactions between yeast-displayed bait and prey. Using qYY2H, we identified interaction partners of SMAD3 and the tandem WW domains of YAP from a cDNA library and characterized their binding affinities. Finally, we showed that qYY2H could also quantitatively evaluate binding interactions mediated by post-translational modifications on the bait protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn Bacon
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Abigail Blain
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - John Bowen
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Matthew Burroughs
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Nikki McArthur
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Stefano Menegatti
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
- Golden LEAF Biomanufacturing Training and Education Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Balaji M. Rao
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
- Golden LEAF Biomanufacturing Training and Education Center, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
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5
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Cluet D, Amri I, Vergier B, Léault J, Audibert A, Grosjean C, Calabrési D, Spichty M. A Quantitative Tri-fluorescent Yeast Two-hybrid System: From Flow Cytometry to In cellula Affinities. Mol Cell Proteomics 2020; 19:701-715. [PMID: 32015065 PMCID: PMC7124468 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.tir119.001692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a technological advancement for the estimation of the affinities of Protein-Protein Interactions (PPIs) in living cells. A novel set of vectors is introduced that enables a quantitative yeast two-hybrid system based on fluorescent fusion proteins. The vectors allow simultaneous quantification of the reaction partners (Bait and Prey) and the reporter at the single-cell level by flow cytometry. We validate the applicability of this system on a small but diverse set of PPIs (eleven protein families from six organisms) with different affinities; the dissociation constants range from 117 pm to 17 μm After only two hours of reaction, expression of the reporter can be detected even for the weakest PPI. Through a simple gating analysis, it is possible to select only cells with identical expression levels of the reaction partners. As a result of this standardization of expression levels, the mean reporter levels directly reflect the affinities of the studied PPIs. With a set of PPIs with known affinities, it is straightforward to construct an affinity ladder that permits rapid classification of PPIs with thus far unknown affinities. Conventional software can be used for this analysis. To permit automated analysis, we provide a graphical user interface for the Python-based FlowCytometryTools package.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Cluet
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modé lisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supé rieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Ikram Amri
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modé lisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supé rieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Blandine Vergier
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modé lisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supé rieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Jérémie Léault
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modé lisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supé rieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Astrid Audibert
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modé lisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supé rieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Clémence Grosjean
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modé lisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supé rieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Dylan Calabrési
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modé lisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supé rieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Martin Spichty
- Laboratoire de Biologie et Modé lisation de la Cellule, Ecole Normale Supé rieure de Lyon, CNRS, Université Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France.
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Zhang Q, Hu S, Wang K, Cui M, Li X, Wang M, Hu X. Engineering a yeast double-molecule carrier for drug screening. ARTIFICIAL CELLS NANOMEDICINE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2018; 46:386-396. [PMID: 29611428 DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2018.1457539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
With the advantages of unicellular eukaryotic structure and easy manipulation, yeast becomes a popular tool for biochemical, genetic and medicinal studies. In order to construct an efficient anti-inflammatory drug screening platform, we engineered yeast as a double-molecule carrier, of which an inserted domain (I domain) of lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 was displayed on yeast surface and a green fluorescent protein (GFP) was expressed inside cytosol. The I domain specifically targeted a surface marker of mammalian cells, intercellular adhesion molecule 1, whose number is correlated with the level of cellular inflammation. Examination of GFP intensity enables swift quantification of the yeast-mammalian cell binding and thus it reflects inflammatory potency, herein the inflammatory index, of a chemical imposed to cells. The inflammatory potency of a total of 1340 chemicals was indexed. Among them, 1 inflammation-inducing and 1 inflammation-reducing compounds were verified both in vitro and in vivo. Our method demonstrated a swift, facile and high-throughput screening platform at the protein level for inflammation and related diseases drug discovery without using sophisticated instruments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiyun Zhang
- a Laboratory of Drug Discovery and Molecular Engineering, Department of Medicinal Plants, College of Plant Science and Technology , Huazhong Agricultural University (HZAU) , Wuhan , China.,b National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center (Hubei) for Medicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation , Wuhan , China.,c Hubei Provincial Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plants , Wuhan , China
| | - Sheng Hu
- d Hubei Cancer Hospital , Wuhan , China
| | - Ke Wang
- e State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology , HZAU , Wuhan , China.,f College of Veterinary Medicine , HZAU , Wuhan , China
| | - Min Cui
- e State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology , HZAU , Wuhan , China.,f College of Veterinary Medicine , HZAU , Wuhan , China
| | - Xiaohua Li
- a Laboratory of Drug Discovery and Molecular Engineering, Department of Medicinal Plants, College of Plant Science and Technology , Huazhong Agricultural University (HZAU) , Wuhan , China.,b National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center (Hubei) for Medicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation , Wuhan , China.,c Hubei Provincial Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plants , Wuhan , China
| | - Mo Wang
- a Laboratory of Drug Discovery and Molecular Engineering, Department of Medicinal Plants, College of Plant Science and Technology , Huazhong Agricultural University (HZAU) , Wuhan , China.,b National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center (Hubei) for Medicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation , Wuhan , China.,c Hubei Provincial Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plants , Wuhan , China
| | - Xuebo Hu
- a Laboratory of Drug Discovery and Molecular Engineering, Department of Medicinal Plants, College of Plant Science and Technology , Huazhong Agricultural University (HZAU) , Wuhan , China.,b National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center (Hubei) for Medicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation , Wuhan , China.,c Hubei Provincial Engineering Research Center for Medicinal Plants , Wuhan , China
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7
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Moosavi B, Mousavi B, Yang WC, Yang GF. Yeast-based assays for detecting protein-protein/drug interactions and their inhibitors. Eur J Cell Biol 2017. [PMID: 28645461 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejcb.2017.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding cellular processes at molecular levels in health and disease requires the knowledge of protein-protein interactions (PPIs). In line with this, identification of PPIs at genome-wide scale is highly valuable to understand how different cellular pathways are interconnected, and it eventually facilitates designing effective drugs against certain PPIs. Furthermore, investigating PPIs at a small laboratory scale for deciphering certain biochemical pathways has been demanded for years. In this regard, yeast two hybrid system (Y2HS) has proven an extremely useful tool to discover novel PPIs, while Y2HS derivatives and novel yeast-based assays are contributing significantly to identification of protein-drug/inhibitor interaction at both large- and small-scale set-ups. These methods have been evolving over time to provide more accurate, reproducible and quantitative results. Here we briefly describe different yeast-based assays for identification of various protein-protein/drug/inhibitor interactions and their specific applications, advantages, shortcomings, and improvements. The broad range of yeast-based assays facilitates application of the most suitable method(s) for each specific need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Behrooz Moosavi
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, PR China.
| | - Bibimaryam Mousavi
- Laboratory of Organometallics, Catalysis and Ordered Materials, State Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Materials Synthesis and Processing, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430070, PR China
| | - Wen-Chao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, PR China
| | - Guang-Fu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, PR China.
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8
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Wu L, Wang X, Zhang J, Luan T, Bouveret E, Yan X. Flow Cytometric Single-Cell Analysis for Quantitative in Vivo Detection of Protein–Protein Interactions via Relative Reporter Protein Expression Measurement. Anal Chem 2017; 89:2782-2789. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b03603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lina Wu
- The MOE Key Laboratory
of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory
for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, Collaborative Innovation
Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of
Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xu Wang
- The MOE Key Laboratory
of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory
for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, Collaborative Innovation
Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of
Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianqiang Zhang
- The MOE Key Laboratory
of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory
for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, Collaborative Innovation
Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of
Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tian Luan
- The MOE Key Laboratory
of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory
for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, Collaborative Innovation
Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of
Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, People’s Republic of China
| | - Emmanuelle Bouveret
- Laboratory of
Macromolecular System Engineering, Institute of Microbiology
of the Mediterranean, Aix-Marseille Université and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Marseille 13402, France
| | - Xiaomei Yan
- The MOE Key Laboratory
of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation, The Key Laboratory
for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province, Collaborative Innovation
Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of
Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, People’s Republic of China
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Engineering of Immunoglobulin Fc Heterodimers Using Yeast Surface-Displayed Combinatorial Fc Library Screening. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145349. [PMID: 26675656 PMCID: PMC4682967 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunoglobulin Fc heterodimers, which are useful scaffolds for the generation of bispecific antibodies, have been mostly generated through structure-based rational design methods that introduce asymmetric mutations into the CH3 homodimeric interface to favor heterodimeric Fc formation. Here, we report an approach to generate heterodimeric Fc variants through directed evolution combined with yeast surface display. We developed a combinatorial heterodimeric Fc library display system by mating two haploid yeast cell lines, one haploid cell line displayed an Fc chain library (displayed FcCH3A) with mutations in one CH3 domain (CH3A) on the yeast cell surface, and the other cell line secreted an Fc chain library (secreted FcCH3B) with mutations in the other CH3 domain (CH3B). In the mated cells, secreted FcCH3B is displayed on the cell surface through heterodimerization with the displayed FcCH3A, the detection of which enabled us to screen the library for heterodimeric Fc variants. We constructed combinatorial heterodimeric Fc libraries with simultaneous mutations in the homodimer-favoring electrostatic interaction pairs K370-E357/S364 or D399-K392/K409 at the CH3 domain interface. High-throughput screening of the libraries using flow cytometry yielded heterodimeric Fc variants with heterodimer-favoring CH3 domain interface mutation pairs, some of them showed high heterodimerization yields (~80-90%) with previously unidentified CH3 domain interface mutation pairs, such as hydrogen bonds and cation-π interactions. Our study provides a new approach for engineering Fc heterodimers that could be used to engineer other heterodimeric protein-protein interactions through directed evolution combined with yeast surface display.
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Tian M, von Dahl CC, Liu PP, Friso G, van Wijk KJ, Klessig DF. The combined use of photoaffinity labeling and surface plasmon resonance-based technology identifies multiple salicylic acid-binding proteins. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 72:1027-38. [PMID: 23083132 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.12016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2012] [Revised: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Salicylic acid (SA) is a small phenolic molecule that not only is the active ingredient in the multi-functional drug aspirin, but also serves as a plant hormone that affects diverse processes during growth, development, responses to abiotic stresses and disease resistance. Although a number of SA-binding proteins (SABPs) have been identified, the underlying mechanisms of action of SA remain largely unknown. Efforts to identify additional SA targets, and thereby elucidate the complex SA signaling network in plants, have been hindered by the lack of effective approaches. Here, we report two sensitive approaches that utilize SA analogs in conjunction with either a photoaffinity labeling technique or surface plasmon resonance-based technology to identify and evaluate candidate SABPs from Arabidopsis. Using these approaches, multiple proteins, including the E2 subunit of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase and the glutathione S-transferases GSTF2, GSTF8, GSTF10 and GSTF11, were identified as SABPs. Their association with SA was further substantiated by the ability of SA to inhibit their enzymatic activity. The photoaffinity labeling and surface plasmon resonance-based approaches appear to be more sensitive than the traditional approach for identifying plant SABPs using size-exclusion chromatography with radiolabeled SA, as these proteins exhibited little to no SA-binding activity in such an assay. The development of these approaches therefore complements conventional techniques and helps dissect the SA signaling network in plants, and may also help elucidate the mechanisms through which SA acts as a multi-functional drug in mammalian systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaoying Tian
- Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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11
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Diversity in genetic in vivo methods for protein-protein interaction studies: from the yeast two-hybrid system to the mammalian split-luciferase system. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2012; 76:331-82. [PMID: 22688816 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.05021-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The yeast two-hybrid system pioneered the field of in vivo protein-protein interaction methods and undisputedly gave rise to a palette of ingenious techniques that are constantly pushing further the limits of the original method. Sensitivity and selectivity have improved because of various technical tricks and experimental designs. Here we present an exhaustive overview of the genetic approaches available to study in vivo binary protein interactions, based on two-hybrid and protein fragment complementation assays. These methods have been engineered and employed successfully in microorganisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli, but also in higher eukaryotes. From single binary pairwise interactions to whole-genome interactome mapping, the self-reassembly concept has been employed widely. Innovative studies report the use of proteins such as ubiquitin, dihydrofolate reductase, and adenylate cyclase as reconstituted reporters. Protein fragment complementation assays have extended the possibilities in protein-protein interaction studies, with technologies that enable spatial and temporal analyses of protein complexes. In addition, one-hybrid and three-hybrid systems have broadened the types of interactions that can be studied and the findings that can be obtained. Applications of these technologies are discussed, together with the advantages and limitations of the available assays.
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12
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Hu X, Saha P, Chen X, Kim D, Devarasetty M, Varadarajan R, Jin MM. Cell surface assembly of HIV gp41 six-helix bundles for facile, quantitative measurements of hetero-oligomeric interactions. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:14642-5. [PMID: 22888993 DOI: 10.1021/ja301099s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Helix-helix interactions are fundamental to many biological signals and systems and are found in homo- or heteromultimerization of signaling molecules as well as in the process of virus entry into the host. In HIV, virus-host membrane fusion during infection is mediated by the formation of six-helix bundles (6HBs) from homotrimers of gp41, from which a number of synthetic peptides have been derived as antagonists of virus entry. Using a yeast surface two-hybrid (YS2H) system, a platform designed to detect protein-protein interactions occurring through a secretory pathway, we reconstituted 6HB complexes on the yeast surface, quantitatively measured the equilibrium and kinetic constants of soluble 6HB, and delineated the residues influencing homo-oligomeric and hetero-oligomeric coiled-coil interactions. Hence, we present YS2H as a platform for the facile characterization and design of antagonistic peptides for inhibition of HIV and many other enveloped viruses relying on membrane fusion for infection, as well as cellular signaling events triggered by hetero-oligomeric coiled coils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuebo Hu
- Biomedical Engineering Department, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
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13
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Mattiazzi M, Petrovič U, Križaj I. Yeast as a model eukaryote in toxinology: a functional genomics approach to studying the molecular basis of action of pharmacologically active molecules. Toxicon 2012; 60:558-71. [PMID: 22465496 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proven to be a relevant and convenient model organism for the study of diverse biological phenomena, due to its straightforward genetics, cost-effectiveness and rapid growth, combined with the typical characteristics of a eukaryotic cell. More than 40% of yeast proteins share at least part of their primary amino acid sequence with the corresponding human protein, making yeast a valuable model in biomedical research. In the last decade, high-throughput and genome-wide experimental approaches developed in yeast have paved the way to functional genomics that aims at a global understanding of the relationship between genotype and phenotype. In this review we first present the yeast strain and plasmid collections for genome-wide experimental approaches to study complex interactions between genes, proteins and endo- or exogenous small molecules. We describe methods for protein-protein, protein-DNA, genetic and chemo-genetic interactions, as well as localization studies, focussing on their application in research on small pharmacologically active molecules. Next we review the use of yeast as a model organism in neurobiology, emphasizing work done towards elucidating the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and the mechanism of action of neurotoxic phospholipases A(2).
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojca Mattiazzi
- Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences, Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Boder ET, Raeeszadeh-Sarmazdeh M, Price JV. Engineering antibodies by yeast display. Arch Biochem Biophys 2012; 526:99-106. [PMID: 22450168 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Revised: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 03/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Since its first application to antibody engineering 15 years ago, yeast display technology has been developed into a highly potent tool for both affinity maturing lead molecules and isolating novel antibodies and antibody-like species. Robust approaches to the creation of diversity, construction of yeast libraries, and library screening or selection have been elaborated, improving the quality of engineered molecules and certainty of success in an antibody engineering campaign and positioning yeast display as one of the premier antibody engineering technologies currently in use. Here, we summarize the history of antibody engineering by yeast surface display, approaches used in its application, and a number of examples highlighting the utility of this method for antibody engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric T Boder
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-2200, USA.
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15
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Visualizing and Quantifying Acute Inflammation Using ICAM-1 Specific Nanoparticles and MRI Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping. Ann Biomed Eng 2011; 40:1328-38. [DOI: 10.1007/s10439-011-0482-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/28/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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16
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Yeast two-hybrid and itc studies of alpha and beta spectrin interaction at the tetramerization site. Cell Mol Biol Lett 2011; 16:452-61. [PMID: 21786033 PMCID: PMC3169182 DOI: 10.2478/s11658-011-0017-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) methods were used to further study the mutational effect of non-erythroid alpha spectrin (αII) at position 22 in tetramer formation with beta spectrin (βII). Four mutants, αII-V22D, V22F, V22M and V22W, were studied. For the Y2H system, we used plasmids pGBKT7, consisting of the cDNA of the first 359 residues at the N-terminal region of αII, and pGADT7, consisting of the cDNA of residues 1697–2145 at the C-terminal region of βII. Strain AH109 yeast cells were used for colony growth assays and strain Y187 was used for β-galactosidase activity assays. Y2H results showed that the C-terminal region of βII interacts with the N-terminal region of αII, either the wild type, or those with V22F, V22M or V22W mutations. The V22D mutant did not interact with βII. For ITC studies, we used recombinant proteins of the αII N-terminal fragment and of the erythroid beta spectrin (βI) C-terminal fragment; results showed that the Kd values for V22F were similar to those for the wild-type (about 7 nM), whereas the Kd values were about 35 nM for V22M and about 90 nM for V22W. We were not able to detect any binding for V22D with ITC methods. This study clearly demonstrates that the single mutation at position 22 of αII, a region critical to the function of nonerythroid α spectrin, may lead to a reduced level of spectrin tetramers and abnormal spectrin-based membrane skeleton. These abnormalities could cause abnormal neural activities in cells.
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17
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Dube DH, Li B, Greenblatt EJ, Nimer S, Raymond AK, Kohler JJ. A two-hybrid assay to study protein interactions within the secretory pathway. PLoS One 2010; 5:e15648. [PMID: 21209940 PMCID: PMC3011011 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Accepted: 11/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Interactions of transcriptional activators are difficult to study using transcription-based two-hybrid assays due to potent activation resulting in false positives. Here we report the development of the Golgi two-hybrid (G2H), a method that interrogates protein interactions within the Golgi, where transcriptional activators can be assayed with negligible background. The G2H relies on cell surface glycosylation to report extracellularly on protein-protein interactions occurring within the secretory pathway. In the G2H, protein pairs are fused to modular domains of the reporter glycosyltransferase, Och1p, and proper cell wall formation due to Och1p activity is observed only when a pair of proteins interacts. Cells containing interacting protein pairs are identified by selectable phenotypes associated with Och1p activity and proper cell wall formation: cells that have interacting proteins grow under selective conditions and display weak wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) binding by flow cytometry, whereas cells that lack interacting proteins display stunted growth and strong WGA binding. Using this assay, we detected the interaction between transcription factor MyoD and its binding partner Id2. Interfering mutations along the MyoD:Id2 interaction interface ablated signal in the G2H assay. Furthermore, we used the G2H to detect interactions of the activation domain of Gal4p with a variety of binding partners. Finally, selective conditions were used to enrich for cells encoding interacting partners. The G2H detects protein-protein interactions that cannot be identified via traditional two-hybrid methods and should be broadly useful for probing previously inaccessible subsets of the interactome, including transcriptional activators and proteins that traffic through the secretory pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle H. Dube
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Bin Li
- Division of Translational Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ethan J. Greenblatt
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Biophysics Program, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Sadeieh Nimer
- Division of Translational Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
| | - Amanda K. Raymond
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Jennifer J. Kohler
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States of America
- Division of Translational Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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18
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Park S, Kang S, Veach AJ, Vedvyas Y, Zarnegar R, Kim JY, Jin MM. Self-assembled nanoplatform for targeted delivery of chemotherapy agents via affinity-regulated molecular interactions. Biomaterials 2010; 31:7766-75. [PMID: 20667589 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Site-specific delivery of drugs while minimizing unwanted distribution has been one of the pursued goals in cancer therapy. In this endeavor, we have developed targeted polymeric nanoparticles called amphiphilic urethane acrylate nonionomer (UAN) for encapsulation of diverse water-insoluble drugs and diagnostic agents, as well as for simple and reproducible surface conjugation of targeting ligands. Using monoclonal antibodies or lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) I domain engineered for varying affinities to intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, we were able to deliver UAN nanoparticles to human cancer cells with the efficiency dependent on the strength of the molecular interactions and the degree of ICAM-1 expression on cell surface. Compared to non-specific uptake of free drugs, targeted delivery of UAN nanoparticles carrying equal amount of drugs produced more potent cytotoxicity. Notably, without the targeting ligands attached, UAN nanoparticles were largely precluded from non-specific uptake by the cells, resulting in much lower toxicity. The versatility of our UAN nanoparticles in both payload encapsulation and presentation of targeting ligands may facilitate developing a robust platform for evaluating various combinations of cancer drugs and molecular interactions toward developing effective cancer therapy formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer Park
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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19
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Tremblay JM, Kuo CL, Abeijon C, Sepulveda J, Oyler G, Hu X, Jin MM, Shoemaker CB. Camelid single domain antibodies (VHHs) as neuronal cell intrabody binding agents and inhibitors of Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) proteases. Toxicon 2010; 56:990-8. [PMID: 20637220 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2010] [Revised: 07/02/2010] [Accepted: 07/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) function by delivering a protease to neuronal cells that cleave SNARE proteins and inactivate neurotransmitter exocytosis. Small (14 kDa) binding domains specific for the protease of BoNT serotypes A or B were selected from libraries of heavy chain only antibody domains (VHHs or nanobodies) cloned from immunized alpacas. Several VHHs bind the BoNT proteases with high affinity (K(D) near 1 nM) and include potent inhibitors of BoNT/A protease activity (K(i) near 1 nM). The VHHs retain their binding specificity and inhibitory functions when expressed within mammalian neuronal cells as intrabodies. A VHH inhibitor of BoNT/A protease was able to protect neuronal cell SNAP25 protein from cleavage following intoxication with BoNT/A holotoxin. These results demonstrate that VHH domains have potential as components of therapeutic agents for reversal of botulism intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline M Tremblay
- Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, 200 Westboro Road, North Grafton, MA 01536, USA
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20
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High-throughput engineering and analysis of peptide binding to class II MHC. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:13258-63. [PMID: 20622157 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1006344107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC-II) proteins govern stimulation of adaptive immunity by presenting antigenic peptides to CD4+ T lymphocytes. Many allelic variants of MHC-II exist with implications in peptide presentation and immunity; thus, high-throughput experimental tools for rapid and quantitative analysis of peptide binding to MHC-II are needed. Here, we present an expression system wherein peptide and MHC-II are codisplayed on the surface of yeast in an intracellular association-dependent manner and assayed by flow cytometry. Accordingly, the relative binding of different peptides and/or MHC-II variants can be assayed by genetically manipulating either partner, enabling the application of directed evolution approaches for high-throughput characterization or engineering. We demonstrate the application of this tool to map the side-chain preference for peptides binding to HLA-DR1 and to evolve novel HLA-DR1 mutants with altered peptide-binding specificity.
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Lim KH, Madabhushi SR, Mann J, Neelamegham S, Park S. Disulfide trapping of protein complexes on the yeast surface. Biotechnol Bioeng 2010; 106:27-41. [PMID: 20047188 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Protein complexes are common in nature and play important roles in biology, but studying the quaternary structure formation in vitro is challenging since it involves lengthy and expensive biochemical steps. There are frequent technical difficulties as well with the sensitivity and resolution of the assays. In this regard, a technique that can analyze protein-protein interactions in high throughput would be a useful experimental tool. Here, we introduce a combination of yeast display and disulfide trapping that we refer to as stabilization of transient and unstable complexes by engineered disulfide (STUCKED) that can be used to detect the formation of a broad spectrum of protein complexes on the yeast surface using fluorescence labeling. The technique uses an engineered intersubunit disulfide to covalently crosslink the subunits of a complex, so that the disulfide-trapped complex can be displayed on the yeast surface for detection and analysis. Transient protein complexes are difficult to display on the yeast surface, since they may dissociate before they can be detected due to a long induction period in yeast. To this end, we show that three different quaternary structures with the subunit dissociation constant K(d) approximately 0.5-20 microM, the antibody variable domain (Fv), the IL-8 dimer, and the p53-MDM2 complex, cannot be displayed on the yeast surface as a noncovalent complex. However, when we introduce an interchain disulfide between the subunits, all three systems are efficiently displayed on the yeast surface, showing that disulfide trapping can help display protein complexes that cannot be displayed otherwise. We also demonstrate that a disulfide forms only between the subunits that interact specifically, the displayed complexes exhibit functional characteristics that are expected of wt proteins, the mutations that decrease the affinity of subunit interaction also reduce the display efficiency, and most of the disulfide stabilized complexes are formed within the secretory pathway during export to the surface. Disulfide crosslinking is therefore a convenient way to study weak protein association in the context of yeast display.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok Hong Lim
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14260, USA
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22
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Owens RM, Gu X, Shin M, Springer TA, Jin MM. Engineering of single Ig superfamily domain of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) for native fold and function. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:15906-15. [PMID: 20304924 PMCID: PMC2871458 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.104349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2010] [Revised: 03/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily is one of the largest families in the vertebrate genome, found most frequently in cell surface molecules. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) contains five extracellular Ig superfamily domains (D1-D5) of which the first domain, D1, is the binding site for the integrin lymphocyte function-associated antigen-1 (LFA-1) and human rhinovirus. Despite the modular nature of many Ig superfamily domains with respect to domain folding and ligand recognition, D1 does not fold on its own due to the loss of its interaction with the second domain. The goal of this study was to engineer ICAM-1 D1 by introducing mutations that would stabilize the Ig superfamily domain fold while retaining its ability to bind to LFA-1 and rhinovirus. First, with a directed evolution approach, we isolated mutations in D1 that showed binding to conformation-specific antibodies and the ligand binding domain of LFA-1 called the inserted, or I, domain. Then, with a rational design approach we introduced mutations that contributed to the stability of ICAM-1 D1 in solution. The mutations that restored native folding of D1 in isolation were those that would convert hydrogen bond networks in buried regions into hydrophobic contacts. Notably, for most mutations, identical or similar types of substitutions were found in ICAM-1 molecules of different species and other ICAM family members. The systematic approach demonstrated in this study to engineer a single Ig superfamily fold in ICAM-1 can be broadly applicable to the engineering of modular Ig superfamily domains in other cell surface molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Róisín M. Owens
- From the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Xiaoling Gu
- From the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Miran Shin
- From the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
| | - Timothy A. Springer
- the Immune Disease Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
| | - Moonsoo M. Jin
- From the Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853 and
- the Immune Disease Institute, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115
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Combinatorial libraries against libraries for selecting neoepitope activation-specific antibodies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:6252-7. [PMID: 20308586 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0914358107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A systematic approach to the discovery of conformation-specific antibodies or those that recognize activation-induced neoepitopes in signaling molecules and enzymes will be a powerful tool in developing antibodies for basic science and therapy. Here, we report the isolation of antibody antagonists that preferentially bind activated integrin Mac-1 (alpha(M)beta(2)) and are potent in blocking neutrophil adhesion and migration. A novel strategy was developed for this task, consisting of yeast surface display of Mac-1 inserted (I) domain library, directed evolution to isolate active mutants of the I domain, and screening of phage display of human antibody library against the active I domain in yeast. Enriched antibody library was then introduced into yeast surface two-hybrid system for final quantitative selection of antibodies from monomeric antigen-antibody interaction. This led to highly efficient isolation of intermediate to high affinity antibodies, which preferentially reacted with the active I domain, antagonized the I domain binding to intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, complement C3 fragment iC3b, and fibronectin, and potently inhibited neutrophil migration on fibrinogen. The strategy demonstrated herein can be broadly applicable to developing antibodies against modular domains that switch between inactive and active conformations, particularly toward the discovery of antibody antagonists in therapeutic and diagnostic applications.
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24
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Current awareness on yeast. Yeast 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/yea.1627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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