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Krocker JD, Lee KH, Henriksen HH, Wang YWW, Schoof EM, Karvelsson ST, Rolfsson Ó, Johansson PI, Pedroza C, Wade CE. Exploratory Investigation of the Plasma Proteome Associated with the Endotheliopathy of Trauma. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:6213. [PMID: 35682894 PMCID: PMC9181752 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The endotheliopathy of trauma (EoT) is associated with increased mortality following injury. Herein, we describe the plasma proteome related to EoT in order to provide insight into the role of the endothelium within the systemic response to trauma. METHODS 99 subjects requiring the highest level of trauma activation were included in the study. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays of endothelial and catecholamine biomarkers were performed on admission plasma samples, as well as untargeted proteome quantification utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS Plasma endothelial and catecholamine biomarker abundance was elevated in EoT. Patients with EoT (n = 62) had an increased incidence of death within 24 h at 21% compared to 3% for non-EoT (n = 37). Proteomic analysis revealed that 52 out of 290 proteins were differentially expressed between the EoT and non-EoT groups. These proteins are involved in endothelial activation, coagulation, inflammation, and oxidative stress, and include known damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and intracellular proteins specific to several organs. CONCLUSIONS We report a proteomic profile of EoT suggestive of a surge of DAMPs and inflammation driving nonspecific activation of the endothelial, coagulation, and complement systems with subsequent end-organ damage and poor clinical outcome. These findings support the utility of EoT as an index of cellular injury and delineate protein candidates for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph D. Krocker
- Center for Translational Injury Research, Department of Surgery, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (Y.-W.W.W.); (C.E.W.)
| | - Kyung Hyun Lee
- Center for Clinical Research and Evidence-Based Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, McGovern Medical School at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (K.H.L.); (C.P.)
| | - Hanne H. Henriksen
- Center for Endotheliomics CAG, Department of Clinical Immunology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Yao-Wei Willa Wang
- Center for Translational Injury Research, Department of Surgery, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (Y.-W.W.W.); (C.E.W.)
| | - Erwin M. Schoof
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark;
| | - Sigurdur T. Karvelsson
- Center for Systems Biology, University of Iceland, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland; (S.T.K.); (Ó.R.)
| | - Óttar Rolfsson
- Center for Systems Biology, University of Iceland, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland; (S.T.K.); (Ó.R.)
| | - Pär I. Johansson
- Center for Endotheliomics CAG, Department of Clinical Immunology, Rigshospitalet, & Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark;
| | - Claudia Pedroza
- Center for Clinical Research and Evidence-Based Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, McGovern Medical School at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (K.H.L.); (C.P.)
| | - Charles E. Wade
- Center for Translational Injury Research, Department of Surgery, McGovern Medical School at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA; (Y.-W.W.W.); (C.E.W.)
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Lu X, Liu J, Wei T, Zhou X. Elevated salivary activity of mast cell chymase of periodontitis patients, and a new bradykinin generation cascade, mediating the cross-talks between mast cell and gingival fibroblast. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 101:108269. [PMID: 34688137 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.108269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Activated-mast cells (MCs) within gingival-tissue of chronic-periodontitis (CP) patients, release various inflammatory-factors. Bradykinin is a nine-amino-acid peptide and pro-inflammatory mediator, produced through factor-XII-cascade or tryptase-cascade. The ability of MC-chymase in bradykinin generation has not been discussed yet. This study investigated the salivary levels of MC-chymase, high molecular weight kininogen (HMWK) and bradykinin of CP patients; examined the potential of MC-proteases in bradykinin production using biochemistry-models; and explored the effects of bradykinin on gingival fibroblasts (GFs). Saliva-samples were collected; MC-protease activities were detected; HMWK cleavage was assessed by western-blot and SDS-PAGE; bradykinin levels were measured using immunoassay. Primary GFs were extracted and cultured with or without bradykinin; cell-viability, gelatine-zymography and flow-cytometry were applied. Immunocytochemistry and western-blot were used to detect intracellular protein expressions of bradykinin-stimulated GFs. The data showed that the salivary-levels of MC-proteases, bradykinin, HMWK, and lactoferrin of CP-patients were increased. HMWK was cleaved by MC-chymase in-vitro, resulting in bradykinin generation. Bradykinin promoted cell proliferation, cell cycle and matrix-metalloproteinase-2(MMP-2) activity, and increased intracellular expressions of nuclear-factor-kappa-B(NF-κB), focal-adhesion-kinase(FAK), transforming-growth-factor-β(TGF-β), P38, P53 of GFs. MC-chymase promotes bradykinin production to stimulate GFs and to continue inflammation during CP development. A new BK-generation cascade found in this study provides a new basis for the pathogenesis of CP and the mechanism of continuous inflammation. The activation of MC-chymase/bradykinin-generation cascade depends on HMWK level and MC-chymase activity under inflammatory condition. MC-chymase contributes to bradykinin production, mediating the cross-talks between MCs and GFs. MC-chymase can be used as a therapeutic target and a salivary biomarker in this case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xixi Lu
- School of Medicine, Changzhou University, Jiangsu 213164 China
| | - Jie Liu
- School of Medicine, Changzhou University, Jiangsu 213164 China
| | - Tao Wei
- School of Medicine, Changzhou University, Jiangsu 213164 China; Changzhou Third General Hospital, Jiangsu 213001 China
| | - Xiaoying Zhou
- School of Medicine, Changzhou University, Jiangsu 213164 China; The School of Medicine, the University of Southampton, Southampton SO16 6YD, UK.
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Luan Y, Ruan Y, Wang T, Zhuan L, Wen Z, Chen R, Zhang Y, Cui K, Yang J, Wang S, Liu J, Ye Z, Wang D. Preserved Erectile Function in the Aged Transgenic Rat Harboring Human Tissue Kallikrein 1. J Sex Med 2017; 13:1311-1322. [PMID: 27555503 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Human tissue kallikrein 1 (hKLK1) has enormous potential for the protection of vasodilation and endothelial function in the cardiovascular system. Our previous study proved the decreased expression of kallikrein 1 in the corpus cavernosum (CC) of aged rats, but the role of kallikrein 1 in age-related erectile dysfunction remains unknown. AIM To explore the effect and underlying mechanisms of hKLK1 on age-related erectile dysfunction. METHODS Male wild-type Sprague-Dawley rats (WTR) and transgenic rats harboring the hKLK1 gene (TGR) were fed to 4 and 27 months of age, respectively, and divided into four groups: young WTR (yWTR) as the control, young TGR (yTGR), aged WTR (aWTR), and aged TGR (aTGR). Rats' erectile function was evaluated by the cavernous nerve electrostimulation method. Then, CCs were collected for verification of hKLK1 followed by measurement of nitric oxide (NO)-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and RhoA-Rho-kinase (ROCK) signaling activities. Masson trichrome staining and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase 2'-deoxyuridine 5'-triphosphate nick end labeling assay were conducted to evaluate penile fibrosis and apoptosis. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Erectile response, NO-cGMP and RhoA-ROCK pathway-related indices, ratio of smooth muscle to collagen, and apoptosis index. RESULTS The hKLK1 alleviated the decrease of erectile function in the aWTR group. Endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) and phospho-eNOS(Ser1177) expressions, NO synthase activity, and NO and cGMP levels were decreased, whereas phospho-eNOS(Thr495), L-type Ca(2+) channel, RhoA, ROCK1, ROCK2, and transforming growth factor β1 proteins were increased in the CCs of the aWTR group compared with the control yWTR group. These changes were obviously mitigated in the aTGR group. Moreover, hKLK1 prevented the sharp decrease of the ratio of smooth muscle to collagen and the increase of the apoptosis index in the CCs of the aWTR group. CONCLUSION These results suggest that hKLK1 could play a preventive role in age-related erectile dysfunction by activation of the NO-cGMP pathway and inhibition of the RhoA-ROCK pathway and by antitissue fibrotic and apoptotic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Luan
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yajun Ruan
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Li Zhuan
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zheng Wen
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Ruibao Chen
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Kai Cui
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jun Yang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Shaogang Wang
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Jihong Liu
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
| | - Zhangqun Ye
- Department of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China; Institute of Urology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Daowen Wang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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Abstract
Plasma prekallikrein is the liver-derived precursor of the trypsin-like serine protease plasma kallikrein, and circulates in plasma bound to high molecular weight kininogen. Plasma prekallikrein is activated to plasma kallikrein by activated factor XII or prolylcarboxypeptidase. Plasma kallikrein regulates the activity of multiple proteolytic cascades in the cardiovascular system such as the intrinsic pathway of coagulation, the kallikrein-kinin system, the fibrinolytic system, the renin-angiotensin system, and the complement pathways. As such, plasma kallikrein plays a central role in the pathogenesis of thrombosis, inflammation, and blood pressure regulation. Under physiological conditions, plasma kallikrein serves as a cardioprotective enzyme. However, its increased plasma concentration or hyperactivity perpetuates cardiovascular disease (CVD). In this article, we review the biochemistry and cell biology of plasma kallikrein and summarize data from preclinical and clinical studies that have established important functions of this serine protease in CVD states. Finally, we propose plasma kallikrein inhibitors as a novel class of drugs with potential therapeutic applications in the treatment of CVDs.
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Damasceno IZ, Melo KRB, Nascimento FD, Souza DSP, Araujo MS, Souza SEG, Sampaio MU, Nader HB, Tersariol ILS, Motta G. Bradykinin release avoids high molecular weight kininogen endocytosis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121721. [PMID: 25822177 PMCID: PMC4379145 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Human H-kininogen (120 kDa) plays a role in many pathophysiological processes and interacts with the cell surface through protein receptors and proteoglycans, which mediate H-kininogen endocytosis. In the present work we demonstrate that H-kininogen containing bradykinin domain is internalized and different endogenous kininogenases are present in CHO-K1 cells. We used CHO-K1 (wild type) and CHO-745 (mutant deficient in proteoglycans biosynthesis) cell lines. H-kininogen endocytosis was studied using confocal microscopy, and its hydrolysis by cell lysate fraction was determined by immunoblotting. Bradykinin release was also measured by radioimmunoassay. H-kininogen interaction with the cell surface of CHO-745 cells resulted in bradykinin release by serine proteases. In CHO-K1 cells, which produce heparan and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, internalization of H-kininogen through its bradykinin domain can occur on lipid raft domains/caveolae. Nevertheless bradykinin-free H-kininogen was not internalized by CHO-K1 cells. The H-kininogen present in acidic endosomal vesicles in CHO-K1 was approximately 10-fold higher than the levels in CHO-745. CHO-K1 lysate fractions were assayed at pH 5.5 and intact H-kininogen was totally hydrolyzed into a 62 kDa fragment. By contrast, at an assay pH 7.4, the remained fragments were 115 kDa, 83 kDa, 62 kDa and 48 kDa in size. The antipain-Sepharose chromatography separated endogenous kininogenases from CHO-K1 lysate fraction. No difference was detected in the assays at pH 5.5 or 7.4, but the proteins in the fraction bound to the resin released bradykinin from H-kininogen. However, the proteins in the unbound fraction cleaved intact H-kininogen at other sites but did not release bradykinin. H-kininogen can interact with extravascular cells, and is internalized dependent on its bradykinin domain and cell surface proteoglycans. After internalization, H-kininogen is proteolytically processed by intracellular kininogenases. The present data also demonstrates that serine or cysteine proteases in lipid raft domains/caveolae on the CHO cell can hydrolyze H-kininogen, thus releasing kinins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Z. Damasceno
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Katia R. B. Melo
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Fabio D. Nascimento
- Programas de Biomateriais e Biotecnologia, Universidade Anhanguera de São Paulo (UNIAN SP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Daianne S. P. Souza
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Mariana S. Araujo
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Sinval E. G. Souza
- Departamento de Biofísica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Misako U. Sampaio
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Helena B. Nader
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Ivarne L. S. Tersariol
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
- * E-mail: (ILST); (GM)
| | - Guacyara Motta
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo, SP, Brasil
- * E-mail: (ILST); (GM)
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Park JE, Park JW, Lee W, Lee JS. Pleiotropic effects of a vibrio extracellular protease on the activation of contact system. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 450:1099-103. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.06.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Kashuba E, Eagle GL, Bailey J, Evans P, Welham KJ, Allsup D, Cawkwell L. Proteomic analysis of B-cell receptor signaling in chronic lymphocytic leukaemia reveals a possible role for kininogen. J Proteomics 2013; 91:478-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2013.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Revised: 07/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Liu J, Feener EP. Plasma kallikrein-kinin system and diabetic retinopathy. Biol Chem 2013; 394:319-28. [PMID: 23362193 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2012-0316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 01/09/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) occurs, to some extent, in most people with at least 20 years' duration of diabetes mellitus. The progression of DR to its sight-threatening stages is usually associated with the worsening of underlying retinal vascular dysfunction and disease. The plasma kallikrein-kinin system (KKS) is activated during vascular injury, where it mediates important functions in innate inflammation, blood flow, and coagulation. Recent findings from human vitreous proteomics and experimental studies on diabetic animal models have implicated the KKS in contributing to DR. Vitreous fluid from people with advanced stages of DR contains increased levels of plasma KKS components, including plasma kallikrein (PK), coagulation factor XII, and high-molecular-weight kininogen. Both bradykinin B1 and B2 receptor isoforms (B1R and B2R, respectively) are expressed in human retina, and retinal B1R levels are increased in diabetic rodents. The activation of the intraocular KKS induces retinal vascular permeability, vasodilation, and retinal thickening, and these responses are exacerbated in diabetic rats. Preclinical studies have shown that the administration of PK inhibitors and B1R antagonists to diabetic rats ameliorates retinal vascular hyperpermeability and inflammation. These findings suggest that components of plasma KKS are potential therapeutic targets for diabetic macular edema.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Liu
- Research Division, Joslin Diabetes Center, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, One Joslin Place, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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Kashuba E, Bailey J, Allsup D, Cawkwell L. The kinin-kallikrein system: physiological roles, pathophysiology and its relationship to cancer biomarkers. Biomarkers 2013; 18:279-96. [PMID: 23672534 DOI: 10.3109/1354750x.2013.787544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The kinin-kallikrein system (KKS) is an endogenous multiprotein cascade, the activation of which leads to triggering of the intrinsic coagulation pathway and enzymatic hydrolysis of kininogens with the consequent release of bradykinin-related peptides. This system plays a crucial role in inflammation, vasodilation, smooth muscle contraction, cardioprotection, vascular permeability, blood pressure control, coagulation and pain. In this review, we will outline the physiology and pathophysiology of the KKS and also highlight the association of this system with carcinogenesis and cancer progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Kashuba
- Postgraduate Medical Institute, University of Hull, Hull, UK
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Albert-Weißenberger C, Sirén AL, Kleinschnitz C. Ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury: the role of the kallikrein-kinin system. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 101-102:65-82. [PMID: 23274649 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Revised: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 11/20/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Acute ischemic stroke and traumatic brain injury are a major cause of mortality and morbidity. Due to the paucity of therapies, there is a pressing clinical demand for new treatment options. Successful therapeutic strategies for these conditions must target multiple pathophysiological mechanisms occurring at different stages of brain injury. In this respect, the kallikrein-kinin system is an ideal target linking key pathological hallmarks of ischemic and traumatic brain damage such as edema formation, inflammation, and thrombosis. In particular, the kinin receptors, plasma kallikrein, and coagulation factor XIIa are highly attractive candidates for pharmacological development, as kinin receptor antagonists or inhibitors of plasma kallikrein and coagulation factor XIIa are neuroprotective in animal models of stroke and traumatic brain injury. Nevertheless, conflicting preclinical evaluation as well as limited and inconclusive data from clinical trials suggest caution when transferring observations made in animals into the human situation. This review summarizes current evidence on the pathological significance of the kallikrein-kinin system during ischemic and traumatic brain damage, with a particular focus on experimental data derived from animal models. Experimental findings are also compared with human data if available, and potential therapeutic implications are discussed.
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Cysteine cathepsins: from structure, function and regulation to new frontiers. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2011; 1824:68-88. [PMID: 22024571 PMCID: PMC7105208 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 874] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 10/04/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
It is more than 50 years since the lysosome was discovered. Since then its hydrolytic machinery, including proteases and other hydrolases, has been fairly well identified and characterized. Among these are the cysteine cathepsins, members of the family of papain-like cysteine proteases. They have unique reactive-site properties and an uneven tissue-specific expression pattern. In living organisms their activity is a delicate balance of expression, targeting, zymogen activation, inhibition by protein inhibitors and degradation. The specificity of their substrate binding sites, small-molecule inhibitor repertoire and crystal structures are providing new tools for research and development. Their unique reactive-site properties have made it possible to confine the targets simply by the use of appropriate reactive groups. The epoxysuccinyls still dominate the field, but now nitriles seem to be the most appropriate “warhead”. The view of cysteine cathepsins as lysosomal proteases is changing as there is now clear evidence of their localization in other cellular compartments. Besides being involved in protein turnover, they build an important part of the endosomal antigen presentation. Together with the growing number of non-endosomal roles of cysteine cathepsins is growing also the knowledge of their involvement in diseases such as cancer and rheumatoid arthritis, among others. Finally, cysteine cathepsins are important regulators and signaling molecules of an unimaginable number of biological processes. The current challenge is to identify their endogenous substrates, in order to gain an insight into the mechanisms of substrate degradation and processing. In this review, some of the remarkable advances that have taken place in the past decade are presented. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Proteolysis 50 years after the discovery of lysosome.
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