Structure of human Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 regulatory region in complex with calmodulin and Ca2+

Pathophysiological role of ion channels and transporters in hepatocellular carcinoma

The incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has continued to increase annually worldwide, and HCC has become a common cause of cancer-related death. Despite great progress in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying HCC development, the treatment of HCC remains a considerable challenge. Thus, the survival and prognosis of HCC patients remain extremely poor. In recent years, the role of ion channels in the pathogenesis of diseases has become a hot topic. In normal liver tissue, ion channels and transporters maintain water and electrolyte balance and acid‒base homeostasis. However, dysfunction of these ion channels and transporters can lead to the development and progression of HCC, and thus these ion channels and transporters are expected to become new therapeutic targets. In this review, ion channels and transporters associated with HCC are reviewed, and potential targets for new and effective therapies are proposed.

The sodium-proton exchangers sNHE and NHE1 control plasma membrane hyperpolarization in mouse sperm

Sperm capacitation is a complex process that takes place in the female reproductive tract and empowers mammalian sperm with the competence to fertilize an egg. It consists of an intricate cascade of events that can be mimicked in vitro through incubation in a medium containing essential components, such as bicarbonate, albumin, Ca2+, and energy substrates, among others. Genetic and pharmacological studies have underscored the unique significance of the K+ channel SLO3 in membrane potential hyperpolarization, as evidenced by the infertility of mice lacking its expression. Notably, two key molecular events, sperm hyperpolarization and intracellular alkalinization, are central to the capacitation process. SLO3 is activated by alkalinization. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for intracellular alkalization and activation of SLO3 are not completely understood. In this study, we examined the impact of Na+/H+ exchangers (NHEs) on mouse sperm membrane hyperpolarization during capacitation. Pharmacological inhibition of the NHE1 blocked membrane hyperpolarization. A similar effect was observed in sperm deficient of the Ca2+ channel CatSper because of NHE1 not being activated by Ca2+. In addition, the sperm-specific NHE (sNHE) KO did not show membrane hyperpolarization upon capacitation or induction with cAMP analogs. Our results show that sNHE is dually modulated by cAMP and membrane hyperpolarization probably through its cyclic nucleotide-binding domain and the voltage-sensor motif, respectively. Together, sNHE and NHE1 provide the alkalinization need for SLO3 activation during capacitation.

The sodium-proton exchangers sNHE and NHE1 control plasma membrane hyperpolarization in mouse sperm

Sperm capacitation, crucial for fertilization, occurs in the female reproductive tract and can be replicated in vitro using a medium rich in bicarbonate, calcium, and albumin. These components trigger the cAMP-PKA signaling cascade, proposed to promote hyperpolarization of the mouse sperm plasma membrane through activation of SLO3 K+ channel. Hyperpolarization is a hallmark of capacitation: proper membrane hyperpolarization renders higher in vitro fertilizing ability, while Slo3 KO mice are infertile. However, the precise regulation of SLO3 opening remains elusive. Our study challenges the involvement of PKA in this event and reveals the role of Na+/H+ exchangers. During capacitation, calcium increase through CatSper channels activates NHE1, while cAMP directly stimulates the sperm-specific NHE, collectively promoting the alkalinization threshold needed for SLO3 opening. Hyperpolarization then feeds back Na+/H+ activity. Our work is supported by pharmacology, and a plethora of KO mouse models, and proposes a novel pathway leading to hyperpolarization.

ATP-mediated increase in H+ efflux from retinal Müller cells of the axolotl

Previous work has shown that activation of tiger salamander retinal radial glial cells by extracellular ATP induces a pronounced extracellular acidification, which has been proposed to be a potent modulator of neurotransmitter release. This study demonstrates that low micromolar concentrations of extracellular ATP similarly induce significant H+ effluxes from Müller cells isolated from the axolotl retina. Müller cells were enzymatically isolated from axolotl retina and H+ fluxes were measured from individual cells using self-referencing H+-selective microelectrodes. The increased H+ efflux from axolotl Müller cells induced by extracellular ATP required activation of metabotropic purinergic receptors and was dependent upon calcium released from internal stores. We further found that the ATP-evoked increase in H+ efflux from Müller cells of both tiger salamander and axolotl were sensitive to pharmacological agents known to interrupt calmodulin and protein kinase C (PKC) activity: chlorpromazine (CLP), trifluoperazine (TFP), and W-7 (all calmodulin inhibitors) and chelerythrine, a PKC inhibitor, all attenuated ATP-elicited increases in H+ efflux. ATP-initiated H+ fluxes of axolotl Müller cells were also significantly reduced by amiloride, suggesting a significant contribution by sodium-hydrogen exchangers (NHEs). In addition, α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate (4-cin), a monocarboxylate transport (MCT) inhibitor, also reduced the ATP-induced increase in H+ efflux in both axolotl and tiger salamander Müller cells, and when combined with amiloride, abolished ATP-evoked increase in H+ efflux. These data suggest that axolotl Müller cells are likely to be an excellent model system to understand the cell-signaling pathways regulating H+ release from glia and the role this may play in modulating neuronal signaling.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Glial cells are a key structural part of the tripartite synapse and have been suggested to regulate synaptic transmission, but the regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. We show that extracellular ATP, a potent glial cell activator, induces H+ efflux from axolotl retinal Müller (glial) cells through a calcium-dependent pathway that is likely to involve calmodulin, PKC, Na+/H+ exchange, and monocarboxylate transport, and suggest that such H+ release may play a key role in modulating neuronal transmission.

Binding by calmodulin is coupled to transient unfolding of the third FF domain of Prp40A

Human pre-mRNA processing protein 40 homolog A (hPrp40A) is a splicing factor that interacts with the Huntington's disease protein huntingtin (Htt). Evidence has accumulated that both Htt and hPrp40A are modulated by the intracellular Ca2+ sensor calmodulin (CaM). Here we report characterization of the interaction of human CM with the third FF domain (FF3 ) of hPrp40A using calorimetric, fluorescence and structural approaches. Homology modeling, differential scanning calorimetry and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) data show FF3 forms a folded globular domain. CaM was found to bind FF3 in a Ca2+ -dependent manner with a 1:1 stoichiometry and a dissociation constant (Kd ) of 25 ± 3 μM at 25°C. NMR studies showed that both domains of CaM are engaged in binding and SAXS analysis of the FF3 -CaM complex revealed CaM occupies an extended configuration. Analysis of the FF3 sequence showed that the anchors for CaM binding must be buried in its hydrophobic core, suggesting that binding to CaM requires unfolding of FF3 . Trp anchors were proposed based on sequence analysis and confirmed by intrinsic Trp fluorescence of FF3 upon binding of CaM and substantial reductions in affinity for Trp-Ala FF3 mutants. The consensus model of the complex showed that binding to CaM binding occurs to an extended, non-globular state of the FF3 , consistent with coupling to transient unfolding of the domain. The implications of these results are discussed in the context of the complex interplay of Ca2+ signaling and Ca2+ sensor proteins in modulating Prp40A-Htt function.

PYK2 senses calcium through a disordered dimerization and calmodulin-binding element

Multidomain kinases use many ways to integrate and process diverse stimuli. Here, we investigated the mechanism by which the protein tyrosine kinase 2-beta (PYK2) functions as a sensor and effector of cellular calcium influx. We show that the linker between the PYK2 kinase and FAT domains (KFL) encompasses an unusual calmodulin (CaM) binding element. PYK2 KFL is disordered and engages CaM through an ensemble of transient binding events. Calcium increases the association by promoting structural changes in CaM that expose auxiliary interaction opportunities. KFL also forms fuzzy dimers, and dimerization is enhanced by CaM binding. As a monomer, however, KFL associates with the PYK2 FERM-kinase fragment. Thus, we identify a mechanism whereby calcium influx can promote PYK2 self-association, and hence kinase-activating trans-autophosphorylation. Collectively, our findings describe a flexible protein module that expands the paradigms for CaM binding and self-association, and their use for controlling kinase activity.

Protein tyrosine kinase 2-beta is shown to function as a sensor and effector of cellular calcium influx through self-association.

Structural basis of autoinhibition of the human NHE3-CHP1 complex

Sodium-proton exchanger 3 (NHE3/SLC9A3) located in the apical membrane of renal and gastrointestinal epithelia mediates salt and fluid absorption and regulates pH homeostasis. As an auxiliary regulatory factor of NHE proteins, calcineurin B homologous protein 1 (CHP1) facilitates NHE3 maturation, plasmalemmal expression, and pH sensitivity. Dysfunctions of NHE3 are associated with renal and digestive system disorders. Here, we report the cryo-electron microscopy structure of the human NHE3-CHP1 complex in its inward-facing conformation. We found that a cytosolic helix-loop-helix motif in NHE3 blocks the intracellular cavity formed between the core and dimerization domains, functioning as an autoinhibitory element and hindering substrate transport. Furthermore, two phosphatidylinositol molecules are found to bind to the peripheric juxtamembrane sides of the complex, function as anchors to stabilize the complex, and may thus enhance its transport activity.

Sodium hydrogen exchanger (NHE1) palmitoylation and potential functional regulation

AIMS

Determine the effect of palmitoylation on the sodium hydrogen exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1), a member of the SLC9 family.

MAIN METHODS

NHE1 expressed in native rat tissues or in heterologous cells was assessed for palmitoylation by acyl-biotinyl exchange (ABE) and metabolic labeling with [3H]palmitate. Cellular palmitoylation was inhibited using 2-bromopalmitate (2BP) followed by determination of NHE1 palmitoylation status, intracellular pH, stress fiber formation, and cell migration. In addition, NHE1 was activated with LPA treatment followed by determination of NHE1 palmitoylation status and LPA-induced change in intracellular pH was determined in the presence and absence of preincubation with 2BP.

KEY FINDINGS

In this study we demonstrate for the first time that NHE1 is palmitoylated in both cells and rat tissue, and that processes controlled by NHE1 including intracellular pH (pHi), stress fiber formation, and cell migration, are regulated in concert with NHE1 palmitoylation status. Importantly, LPA stimulates NHE1 palmitoylation, and 2BP pretreatment dampens LPA-induced increased pHi which is dependent on the presence of NHE1.

SIGNIFICANCE

Palmitoylation is a reversible lipid modification that regulates an array of critical protein functions including activity, trafficking, membrane microlocalization and protein-protein interactions. Our results suggest that palmitoylation of NHE1 and other control/signaling proteins play a major role in NHE1 regulation that could significantly impact multiple critical cellular functions.

Calmodulin complexes with brain and muscle creatine kinase peptides

Calmodulin (CaM) is a ubiquitous Ca2+ sensing protein that binds to and modulates numerous target proteins and enzymes during cellular signaling processes. A large number of CaM-target complexes have been identified and structurally characterized, revealing a wide diversity of CaM-binding modes. A newly identified target is creatine kinase (CK), a central enzyme in cellular energy homeostasis. This study reports two high-resolution X-ray structures, determined to 1.24 ​Å and 1.43 ​Å resolution, of calmodulin in complex with peptides from human brain and muscle CK, respectively. Both complexes adopt a rare extended binding mode with an observed stoichiometry of 1:2 CaM:peptide, confirmed by isothermal titration calorimetry, suggesting that each CaM domain independently binds one CK peptide in a Ca2+-depended manner. While the overall binding mode is similar between the structures with muscle or brain-type CK peptides, the most significant difference is the opposite binding orientation of the peptides in the N-terminal domain. This may extrapolate into distinct binding modes and regulation of the full-length CK isoforms. The structural insights gained in this study strengthen the link between cellular energy homeostasis and Ca2+-mediated cell signaling and may shed light on ways by which cells can 'fine tune' their energy levels to match the spatial and temporal demands.

Type-1 Na+/H+ exchanger is a prognostic factor and associate with immune infiltration in liver hepatocellular carcinoma

AIMS

SLC9A1 plays an important role in the growth, differentiation and glycolysis of tumor cells. The present study aimed to elucidate the correlation between SLC9A1 and tumor immune infiltration.

MAIN METHODS

Expression level of SLC9A1 gene in tumors was identified in GEPIA. The correlation between SLC9A1 and survival in various types of cancers was analyzed by the PrognoScan. SLC9A1 immune infiltration levels and clinical correlation analysis was generated via TIMER and TIMER2.0. KEGG enrichment analysis of SLC9A1 expression was evaluated via STRING.

KEY FINDINGS

We found that, in cancers such as liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC), the expression of SLC9A1 was significantly higher in tumor tissues compared with normal tissues, and was significantly associated with poor prognosis. Further analysis showed that SLC9A1 expression in LIHC was significantly positively correlated with immune cell infiltration, and the correlation was the highest for LIHC among 40 cancers. The expression of SLC9A1 is significantly correlated with the immune marker set of most immune cells in LIHC. Furthermore, we found that the expression level of TGF-β (TGFB1) in Tregs showed the highest correlation with the expression of SLC9A1 in LIHC.

SIGNIFICANCE

The increased expression of SLC9A1 is positively correlated with the prognosis of cancer and the level of immune infiltration. Therefore, SLC9A1 is an important prognostic factor for immunotherapy against hepatocellular carcinoma.

Dynamic Na+/H+ exchanger 1 (NHE1) - calmodulin complexes of varying stoichiometry and structure regulate Ca2+-dependent NHE1 activation

Calmodulin (CaM) engages in Ca²⁺-dependent interactions with numerous proteins, including a still incompletely understood physical and functional interaction with the human Na⁺/H⁺-exchanger NHE1. Using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry, and fibroblasts stably expressing wildtype and mutant NHE1, we discovered multiple accessible states of this functionally important complex existing in different NHE1:CaM stoichiometries and structures. We determined the NMR solution structure of a ternary complex in which CaM links two NHE1 cytosolic tails. In vitro, stoichiometries and affinities could be tuned by variations in NHE1:CaM ratio and calcium ([Ca²⁺]) and by phosphorylation of S648 in the first CaM-binding α-helix. In cells, Ca²⁺-CaM-induced NHE1 activity was reduced by mimicking S648 phosphorylation and by mutation of the first CaM-binding α-helix, whereas it was unaffected by inhibition of Akt, one of several kinases phosphorylating S648. Our results demonstrate a diversity of NHE1:CaM interaction modes and suggest that CaM may contribute to NHE1 dimerization and thereby augment NHE1 regulation. We propose that a similar structural diversity is of relevance to many other CaM complexes.

Horizontal Cell Feedback to Cone Photoreceptors in Mammalian Retina: Novel Insights From the GABA-pH Hybrid Model

How neurons in the eye feed signals back to photoreceptors to optimize sensitivity to patterns of light appears to be mediated by one or more unconventional mechanisms. Via these mechanisms, horizontal cells control photoreceptor synaptic gain and enhance key aspects of temporal and spatial center-surround receptive field antagonism. After the transduction of light energy into an electrical signal in photoreceptors, the next key task in visual processing is the transmission of an optimized signal to the follower neurons in the retina. For this to happen, the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate from photoreceptors is carefully regulated via horizontal cell feedback, which acts as a thermostat to keep the synaptic transmission in an optimal range during changes to light patterns and intensities. Novel findings of a recently described model that casts a classical neurotransmitter system together with ion transport mechanisms to adjust the alkaline milieu outside the synapse are reviewed. This novel inter-neuronal messaging system carries feedback signals using two separate, but interwoven regulated systems. The complex interplay between these two signaling modalities, creating synaptic modulation-at-a-distance, has obscured it’s being defined. The foundations of our understanding of the feedback mechanism from horizontal cells to photoreceptors have been long established: Horizontal cells have broad receptive fields, suitable for providing surround inhibition, their membrane potential, a function of stimulus intensity and size, regulates inhibition of photoreceptor voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels, and strong artificial pH buffering eliminates this action. This review compares and contrasts models of how these foundations are linked, focusing on a recent report in mammals that shows tonic horizontal cell release of GABA activating Cl⁻ and HCO₃⁻ permeable GABA autoreceptors. The membrane potential of horizontal cells provides the driving force for GABAR-mediated HCO₃⁻ efflux, alkalinizing the cleft when horizontal cells are hyperpolarized by light or adding to their depolarization in darkness and contributing to cleft acidification via NHE-mediated H⁺ efflux. This model challenges interpretations of earlier studies that were considered to rule out a role for GABA in feedback to cones.

Cardiac transmembrane ion channels and action potentials: cellular physiology and arrhythmogenic behavior

Cardiac arrhythmias are among the leading causes of mortality. They often arise from alterations in the electrophysiological properties of cardiac cells and their underlying ionic mechanisms. It is therefore critical to further unravel the pathophysiology of the ionic basis of human cardiac electrophysiology in health and disease. In the first part of this review, current knowledge on the differences in ion channel expression and properties of the ionic processes that determine the morphology and properties of cardiac action potentials and calcium dynamics from cardiomyocytes in different regions of the heart are described. Then the cellular mechanisms promoting arrhythmias in congenital or acquired conditions of ion channel function (electrical remodeling) are discussed. The focus is on human-relevant findings obtained with clinical, experimental, and computational studies, given that interspecies differences make the extrapolation from animal experiments to human clinical settings difficult. Deepening the understanding of the diverse pathophysiology of human cellular electrophysiology will help in developing novel and effective antiarrhythmic strategies for specific subpopulations and disease conditions.

Calcium Signaling Alterations Caused by Epigenetic Mechanisms in Pancreatic Cancer: From Early Markers to Prognostic Impact

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is an aggressive disease with high mortality rates. PDAC initiation and progression are promoted by genetic and epigenetic dysregulation. Here, we aimed to characterize the PDAC DNA methylome in search of novel altered pathways associated with tumor development. We examined the genome-wide DNA methylation profile of PDAC in an exploratory cohort including the comparative analyses of tumoral and non-tumoral pancreatic tissues (PT). Pathway enrichment analysis was used to choose differentially methylated (DM) CpGs with potential biological relevance. Additional samples were used in a validation cohort. DNA methylation impact on gene expression and its association with overall survival (OS) was investigated from PDAC TCGA (The Cancer Genome Atlas) data. Pathway analysis revealed DM genes in the calcium signaling pathway that is linked to the key pathways in pancreatic carcinogenesis. DNA methylation was frequently correlated with expression, and a subgroup of calcium signaling genes was associated with OS, reinforcing its probable phenotypic effect. Cluster analysis of PT samples revealed that some of the methylation alterations observed in the Calcium signaling pathway seemed to occur early in the carcinogenesis process, a finding that may open new insights about PDAC tumor biology.

Structural Diversity in Calmodulin - Peptide Interactions

Calmodulin (CaM) is a highly conserved eukaryotic Ca2+ sensor protein that is able to bind a large variety of target sequences without a defined consensus sequence. The recognition of this diverse target set allows CaM to take part in the regulation of several vital cell functions. To fully understand the structural basis of the regulation functions of CaM, the investigation of complexes of CaM and its targets is essential. In this minireview we give an outline of the different types of CaM - peptide complexes with 3D structure determined, also providing an overview of recently determined structures. We discuss factors defining the orientations of peptides within the complexes, as well as roles of anchoring residues. The emphasis is on complexes where multiple binding modes were found.

The SLC9A-C Mammalian Na+/H+ Exchanger Family: Molecules, Mechanisms, and Physiology

Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers play pivotal roles in the control of cell and tissue pH by mediating the electroneutral exchange of Na⁺ and H⁺ across cellular membranes. They belong to an ancient family of highly evolutionarily conserved proteins, and they play essential physiological roles in all phyla. In this review, we focus on the mammalian Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers (NHEs), the solute carrier (SLC) 9 family. This family of electroneutral transporters constitutes three branches: SLC9A, -B, and -C. Within these, each isoform exhibits distinct tissue expression profiles, regulation, and physiological roles. Some of these transporters are highly studied, with hundreds of original articles, and some are still only rudimentarily understood. In this review, we present and discuss the pioneering original work as well as the current state-of-the-art research on mammalian NHEs. We aim to provide the reader with a comprehensive view of core knowledge and recent insights into each family member, from gene organization over protein structure and regulation to physiological and pathophysiological roles. Particular attention is given to the integrated physiology of NHEs in the main organ systems. We provide several novel analyses and useful overviews, and we pinpoint main remaining enigmas, which we hope will inspire novel research on these highly versatile proteins.

Proteins with calmodulin-like domains: structures and functional roles

The appearance of modular proteins is a widespread phenomenon during the evolution of proteins. The combinatorial arrangement of different functional and/or structural domains within a single polypeptide chain yields a wide variety of activities and regulatory properties to the modular proteins. In this review, we will discuss proteins, that in addition to their catalytic, transport, structure, localization or adaptor functions, also have segments resembling the helix-loop-helix EF-hand motifs found in Ca2+-binding proteins, such as calmodulin (CaM). These segments are denoted CaM-like domains (CaM-LDs) and play a regulatory role, making these CaM-like proteins sensitive to Ca2+ transients within the cell, and hence are able to transduce the Ca2+ signal leading to specific cellular responses. Importantly, this arrangement allows to this group of proteins direct regulation independent of other Ca2+-sensitive sensor/transducer proteins, such as CaM. In addition, this review also covers CaM-binding proteins, in which their CaM-binding site (CBS), in the absence of CaM, is proposed to interact with other segments of the same protein denoted CaM-like binding site (CLBS). CLBS are important regulatory motifs, acting either by keeping these CaM-binding proteins inactive in the absence of CaM, enhancing the stability of protein complexes and/or facilitating their dimerization via CBS/CLBS interaction. The existence of proteins containing CaM-LDs or CLBSs substantially adds to the enormous versatility and complexity of Ca2+/CaM signaling.

Physiological, Structural, and Functional Analysis of the Paralogous Cation-Proton Antiporters of NhaP Type from Vibrio cholerae

The transmembrane K⁺/H⁺ antiporters of NhaP type of Vibrio cholerae (Vc-NhaP1, 2, and 3) are critical for maintenance of K⁺ homeostasis in the cytoplasm. The entire functional NhaP group is indispensable for the survival of V. cholerae at low pHs suggesting their possible role in the acid tolerance response (ATR) of V. cholerae. Our findings suggest that the Vc-NhaP123 group, and especially its major component, Vc-NhaP2, might be a promising target for the development of novel antimicrobials by narrowly targeting V. cholerae and other NhaP-expressing pathogens. On the basis of Vc-NhaP2 in silico structure modeling, Molecular Dynamics Simulations, and extensive mutagenesis studies, we suggest that the ion-motive module of Vc-NhaP2 is comprised of two functional regions: (i) a putative cation-binding pocket that is formed by antiparallel unfolded regions of two transmembrane segments (TMSs V/XII) crossing each other in the middle of the membrane, known as the NhaA fold; and (ii) a cluster of amino acids determining the ion selectivity.

Novel hybrid action of GABA mediates inhibitory feedback in the mammalian retina

The stream of visual information sent from photoreceptors to second-order bipolar cells is intercepted by laterally interacting horizontal cells that generate feedback to optimize and improve the efficiency of signal transmission. The mechanisms underlying the regulation of graded photoreceptor synaptic output in this nonspiking network have remained elusive. Here, we analyze with patch clamp recording the novel mechanisms by which horizontal cells control pH in the synaptic cleft to modulate photoreceptor neurotransmitter release. First, we show that mammalian horizontal cells respond to their own GABA release and that the results of this autaptic action affect cone voltage-gated Ca2+ channel (CaV channel) gating through changes in pH. As a proof-of-principle, we demonstrate that chemogenetic manipulation of horizontal cells with exogenous anion channel expression mimics GABA-mediated cone CaV channel inhibition. Activation of these GABA receptor anion channels can depolarize horizontal cells and increase cleft acidity via Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE) proton extrusion, which results in inhibition of cone CaV channels. This action is effectively counteracted when horizontal cells are sufficiently hyperpolarized by increased GABA receptor (GABAR)-mediated HCO3- efflux, alkalinizing the cleft and disinhibiting cone CaV channels. This demonstrates how hybrid actions of GABA operate in parallel to effect voltage-dependent pH changes, a novel mechanism for regulating synaptic output.

Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE) in Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei): Molecular cloning, transcriptional response to acidity stress, and physiological roles in pH homeostasis

Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers are the most common membrane proteins involved in the regulation of intracellular pH that concurrently transport Na⁺ into the cells and H⁺ out of the cells. In this study, the full-length cDNA of the Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger (NHE) from the Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) was cloned. The LvNHE cDNA is 3167 bp long, contains a 5’-untranslated region (UTR) of 74 bp and a 3’-UTR of 456 bp and an open reading frame (ORF) of 2637 bp, coding for a protein of 878 amino acids with 11 putative transmembrane domains and a long cytoplasmic tail. LvNHE shows high sequence homology with mud crab NHE at the amino acid level. LvNHE mRNA was detected in the hepatopancreas, gill, eyestalk, skin, heart, intestine, muscle, brain and stomach, with the highest abundance in the intestine. In the shrimp intestinal fragment cultures exposed to gradually declining pH medium (from pH 8.0 to pH 6.4), the LvNHE mRNA expression was significantly stimulated, with the highest response when incubated in pH 7.0 medium for 6 h. To investigate the functional roles of LvNHE in pH regulation at the physiological and cellular levels, the LvNHE mRNA expression was silenced by siRNA knockdown. Upon low-pH challenge, the hemolymph pH was significantly reduced in the LvNHE mRNA knockdown shrimp. In addition, knockdown of LvNHE mRNA reduced the recovery capacity of intracellular pH in intestinal fragment cultures after acidification. Altogether, this study demonstrates the role of NHE in shrimp response to low pH stress and provides new insights into the acid/base homeostasis mechanisms of crustaceans.

Calcineurin B homologous protein 3 binds with high affinity to the CHP binding domain of the human sodium/proton exchanger NHE1

The Na+/H+ exchanger NHE1 is critical for cell vitality as it controls intracellular pH and cell volume. Its functionality is influenced by calcineurin B homologous proteins (CHPs). The human isoform CHP3 is important for transport of NHE1 to the plasma membrane and for its activity. Here, we characterized the binding interaction of human CHP3 with the regulatory domain of NHE1. The exact binding site of CHP3 was previously debated. CHP3 as well as both regions of NHE1 in question were produced and purified. CHP3 specifically formed stable complexes with the CHP-binding region (CBD) of NHE1 (residues 503-545) in size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), but not with the C-terminal region (CTD, residues 633-815). CTD was functional as shown by Ca2+-dependent binding of calmodulin in SEC analysis. CHP3 bound with high affinity to CBD with an equilibrium dissociation constant (KD) of 56 nM determined by microscale thermophoresis. The high affinity was substantiated by isothermal calorimetry analysis (KD = 3 nM), which also revealed that the interaction with CBD is strongly exothermic (ΔG° = -48.6 kJ/mol, ΔH = -75.3 kJ/mol, -TΔS° = 26.7 kJ/mol). The data provide insights in the molecular mechanisms that underlie the regulatory interaction of CHP3 and NHE1 and more general of calcineurin homologous proteins with their target proteins.

The interactome and spatial redistribution feature of Ca2+ receptor protein calmodulin reveals a novel role in invadopodia-mediated invasion

Numerous studies have shown that calmodulin (CaM) is a major regulator of calcium-dependent signaling, which regulates cell proliferation, programmed cell death, and autophagy in cancer. However, limited information is available on mechanisms underlying the effect of CaM on the invasive property of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells, especially with respect to invadopodia formation. In this study, we find that CaM serves as a prognostic factor for GBM, and it is strongly associated with the invasive nature of this tumor. Results of preliminary experiments indicated that CaM concentration was significantly correlated with the invasive capacity of and invadopodia formation by different GBM cell lines. CaM inhibition via a small hairpin RNA or a pharmacological inhibitor significantly disrupted invadopodia formation and MMP activity and downregulated vimentin expression. Moreover, CaM knockdown exerted a strong anti-invasive effect on GBM in vivo. Interestingly, epidermal growth factor treatment promoted CaM redistribution from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, eventually activating invadopodia-associated proteins by binding to them via their cytosolic-binding sites. Moreover, CaM inhibition suppressed the activation of invadopodia-associated proteins. Thus, our findings provide a novel therapeutic strategy to impede GBM invasion by inhibiting invadopodia formation, and shed light on the spatial organization of CaM signals during GBM invasion.

Both NHERF3 and NHERF2 are necessary for multiple aspects of acute regulation of NHE3 by elevated Ca2+, cGMP, and lysophosphatidic acid

The intestinal epithelial brush border Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger NHE3 accounts for a large component of intestinal Na absorption. NHE3 is regulated during digestion by signaling complexes on its COOH terminus that include the four multi-PDZ domain-containing NHERF family proteins. All bind to NHE3 and take part in different aspects of NHE3 regulation. Because the roles of each NHERF appear to vary on the basis of the cell model or intestinal segment studied and because of our recent finding that a NHERF3-NHERF2 heterodimer appears important for NHE3 regulation in Caco-2 cells, we examined the role of NHERF3 and NHERF2 in C57BL/6 mouse jejunum using homozygous NHERF2 and NHERF3 knockout mice. NHE3 activity was determined with two-photon microscopy and the dual-emission pH-sensitive dye SNARF-4F. The jejunal apical membrane of NHERF3-null mice appeared similar to wild-type (WT) mice in surface area, microvillus number, and height, which is similar to results previously reported for jejunum of NHERF2-null mice. NHE3 basal activity was not different from WT in either NHERF2- or NHERF3-null jejunum, while d-glucose-stimulated NHE3 activity was reduced in NHERF2, but similar to WT in NHERF3 KO. LPA stimulation and UTP (elevated Ca²⁺) and cGMP inhibition of NHE3 were markedly reduced in both NHERF2- and NHERF3-null jejunum. Forskolin inhibited NHE3 in NHERF3-null jejunum, but the extent of inhibition was reduced compared with WT. The forskolin inhibition of NHE3 in NHERF2-null mice was too inconsistent to determine whether there was an effect and whether it was altered compared with the WT response. These results demonstrate similar requirement for NHERF2 and NHERF3 in mouse jejunal NHE3 regulation by LPA, Ca²⁺, and cGMP. The explanation for the similarity is not known but is consistent with involvement of a brush-border NHERF3-NHERF2 heterodimer or sequential NHERF-dependent effects in these aspects of NHE3 regulation. NEW & NOTEWORTHY NHERF2 and NHERF3 are apical membrane multi-PDZ domain-containing proteins that are involved in regulation of intestinal NHE3. This study demonstrates that NHERF2 and NHERF3 have overlapping roles in NHE3 stimulation by LPA and inhibition by elevated Ca²⁺ and cGMP. These results are consistent with their role being as a NHERF3-NHERF2 heterodimer or via sequential NHERF-dependent signaling steps, and they begin to clarify a role for multiple NHERF proteins in NHE3 regulation.

Calmodulin as a protein linker and a regulator of adaptor/scaffold proteins

Calmodulin (CaM) is a universal regulator for a huge number of proteins in all eukaryotic cells. Best known is its function as a calcium-dependent modulator of the activity of enzymes, such as protein kinases and phosphatases, as well as other signaling proteins including membrane receptors, channels and structural proteins. However, less well known is the fact that CaM can also function as a Ca²⁺-dependent adaptor protein, either by bridging between different domains of the same protein or by linking two identical or different target proteins together. These activities are possible due to the fact that CaM contains two independently-folded Ca²⁺ binding lobes that are able to interact differentially and to some degree separately with targets proteins. In addition, CaM can interact with and regulates several proteins that function exclusively as adaptors. This review provides an overview over our present knowledge concerning the structural and functional aspects of the role of CaM as an adaptor protein and as a regulator of known adaptor/scaffold proteins.

The effects of angiotensin-(1-7) on the exchanger NHE3 and on [Ca2+]i in the proximal tubules of spontaneously hypertensive rats

The acute effects of angiotensin-1-7 [ANG-(1-7)] on the reabsorptive bicarbonate flow (J[Formula: see text]) were evaluated using stationary microperfusion in vivo in the proximal tubules of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and their normotensive controls, Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats, using a microelectrode sensitive to H⁺ In WKY rats, the control J[Formula: see text] was 2.40 ± 0.10 nmol·cm^-2·s^-1 (n = 120); losartan (10^-7 M) or A779 (10^-6 M, a specific Mas antagonist), alone or in combination with losartan, decreased the J[Formula: see text] ANG-(1-7) had biphasic effects on J[Formula: see text]: at 10^-9 M, it inhibited, and at 10^-6, it stimulated the flow. S3226 [10^-6 M, a specific Na⁺-H⁺ exchanger 3 (NHE3) antagonist] decreased J[Formula: see text] and changed the stimulatory effect of ANG-(1-7) to an inhibitory one but did not alter the inhibitory action of ANG-(1-7). In SHR, the control J[Formula: see text] was 2.04 ± 0.13 nmol·cm^-2·s^-1 (n = 56), and A779 and/or losartan reduced the flow. ANG-(1-7) at 10^-9 M increased J[Formula: see text], and ANG-(1-7) at 10^-6 M reduced it. The effects of A779, losartan, and S3226 on the J[Formula: see text] were similar to those found in WKY rats, which indicated that in SHR, the ANG-(1-7) action on the NHE3 was via Mas and ANG II type 1. The cytosolic calcium in the WKY or SHR rats was ~100 nM and was increased by ANG-(1-7) at 10^-9 or 10^-6 M. In hypertensive animals, a high plasma level of ANG-(1-7) inhibited NHE3 in the proximal tubule, which mitigated the hypertension caused by the high plasma level of ANG II.

Cellular acidification as a new approach to cancer treatment and to the understanding and therapeutics of neurodegenerative diseases

During the last few years, the understanding of the dysregulated hydrogen ion dynamics and reversed proton gradient of cancer cells has resulted in a new and integral pH-centric paradigm in oncology, a translational model embracing from cancer etiopathogenesis to treatment. The abnormalities of intracellular alkalinization along with extracellular acidification of all types of solid tumors and leukemic cells have never been described in any other disease and now appear to be a specific hallmark of malignancy. As a consequence of this intracellular acid-base homeostatic failure, the attempt to induce cellular acidification using proton transport inhibitors and other intracellular acidifiers of different origins is becoming a new therapeutic concept and selective target of cancer treatment, both as a metabolic mediator of apoptosis and in the overcoming of multiple drug resistance (MDR). Importantly, there is increasing data showing that different ion channels contribute to mediate significant aspects of cancer pH regulation and etiopathogenesis. Finally, we discuss the extension of this new pH-centric oncological paradigm into the opposite metabolic and homeostatic acid-base situation found in human neurodegenerative diseases (HNDDs), which opens novel concepts in the prevention and treatment of HNDDs through the utilization of a cohort of neural and non-neural derived hormones and human growth factors.

Na+/H+ exchanger 1, Na+/Ca2+ exchanger 1 and calmodulin complex regulates interleukin 6-mediated cellular behavior of human hepatocellular carcinoma

Interleukin 6 (IL6) is a key cytokine involved in the development and progression of inflammation-associated hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the mechanisms of IL6 action on HCC remain largely unknown. Proton and Ca(2+) are two intracellular messenger ions, which are believed to play a central role in tumorigenesis and tumor progression. In this study, we found that IL6 stimulation markedly increased intracellualr pH recovery rates of human HCC cells, Huh7 and HepG2, after NH4Cl acidification, and the NH4Cl acidification induced transient intracellular Ca(2+) increases in the HCC cells. The inhibition of Na(+)/H(+) exchanger 1 (NHE1), Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger 1 (NCX1) and calmodulin (CaM) inhibited the IL6 stimulation-induced intracellular pH recovery increases and NH4Cl acidification-induced intracellular Ca(2+) increases. IL6 stimulation also induced the structural interaction of NHE1, NCX1 and CaM proteins. The protein expression levels of NHE1, NCX1 and CaM in native human HCC tissues were markedly higher than those in normal liver tissues. IL6 upregulated the expressions of NHE1, NCX1 and CaM in Huh7 and HepG2 cells. NHE1, NCX1 and CaM mediated the promotion of IL6 on the proliferation, migration and invasion of Huh7 and HepG2 cells and the growth of HCC in nude mice. In conclusion, IL6 activates the functional activity of NHE1 and induces the functional and structural interaction of NHE1, NCX1 and CaM. The interaction of NHE1, NCX1 and CaM mediates the effects of IL6 on human HCC.

Lessons in Protein Design from Combined Evolution and Conformational Dynamics

Protein-protein interactions play important roles in the control of every cellular process. How natural selection has optimized protein design to produce molecules capable of binding to many partner proteins is a fascinating problem but not well understood. Here, we performed a combinatorial analysis of protein sequence evolution and conformational dynamics to study how calmodulin (CaM), which plays essential roles in calcium signaling pathways, has adapted to bind to a large number of partner proteins. We discovered that amino acid residues in CaM can be partitioned into unique classes according to their degree of evolutionary conservation and local stability. Holistically, categorization of CaM residues into these classes reveals enriched physico-chemical interactions required for binding to diverse targets, balanced against the need to maintain the folding and structural modularity of CaM to achieve its overall function. The sequence-structure-function relationship of CaM provides a concrete example of the general principle of protein design. We have demonstrated the synergy between the fields of molecular evolution and protein biophysics and created a generalizable framework broadly applicable to the study of protein-protein interactions.

Na(+)/H(+) exchange and hypoxic pulmonary hypertension

Intracellular pH (pHi) homeostasis is key to the functioning of vascular smooth muscle cells, including pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Sodium-hydrogen exchange (NHE) is an important contributor to pHi control in PASMCs. In this review, we examine the role of NHE in PASMC function, in both physiologic and pathologic conditions. In particular, we focus on the contribution of NHE to the PASMC response to hypoxia, considering both acute hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and the development of pulmonary vascular remodeling and pulmonary hypertension in response to chronic hypoxia. Hypoxic pulmonary hypertension remains a disease with limited therapeutic options. Thus, this review explores past efforts at disrupting NHE signaling and discusses the therapeutic potential that such efforts may have in the field of pulmonary hypertension.

Structural dynamics and regulation of the mammalian SLC9A family of Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers

Mammalian Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers of the SLC9A family are widely expressed and involved in numerous essential physiological processes. Their primary function is to mediate the 1:1 exchange of Na⁺ for H⁺ across the membrane in which they reside, and they play central roles in regulation of body, cellular, and organellar pH. Their function is tightly regulated through mechanisms involving interactions with multiple protein and lipid-binding partners, phosphorylations, and other posttranslational modifications. Biochemical and mutational analyses indicate that the SLC9As have a short intracellular N-terminus, 12 transmembrane (TM) helices necessary and sufficient for ion transport, and a C-terminal cytoplasmic tail region with essential regulatory roles. No high-resolution structures of the SLC9As exist; however, models based on crystal structures of the bacterial NhaAs support the 12 TM organization and suggest that TMIV and XI may form a central part of the ion-translocation pathway, whereas pH sensing may involve TMII, TMIX, and several intracellular loops. Similar to most ion transporters studied, SLC9As likely exist as coupled dimers in the membrane, and this appears to be important for the well-studied cooperativity of H⁺ binding. The aim of this work is to summarize and critically discuss the currently available evidence on the structural dynamics, regulation, and binding partner interactions of SLC9As, focusing in particular on the most widely studied isoform, SLC9A1/NHE1. Further, novel bioinformatic and structural analyses are provided that to some extent challenge the existing paradigm on how ions are transported by mammalian SLC9As.

The many faces of calmodulin in cell proliferation, programmed cell death, autophagy, and cancer

Calmodulin (CaM) is a ubiquitous Ca(2+) receptor protein mediating a large number of signaling processes in all eukaryotic cells. CaM plays a central role in regulating a myriad of cellular functions via interaction with multiple target proteins. This review focuses on the action of CaM and CaM-dependent signaling systems in the control of vertebrate cell proliferation, programmed cell death and autophagy. The significance of CaM and interconnected CaM-regulated systems for the physiology of cancer cells including tumor stem cells, and processes required for tumor progression such as growth, tumor-associated angiogenesis and metastasis are highlighted. Furthermore, the potential targeting of CaM-dependent signaling processes for therapeutic use is discussed.

Calmodulin-dependent binding to the NHE1 cytosolic tail mediates activation of the Na+/H+ exchanger by Ca2+ and endothelin

The mammalian Na(+)/H(+) exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) is a ubiquitous plasma membrane protein that regulates intracellular pH by removing a single proton (H(+)) in exchange for one extracellular Na(+). The human protein contains a ∼500-amino acid membrane domain and a regulatory, ∼315-amino acid cytosolic domain. NHE1 is activated by a number of hormones including endothelin (ET) and by Ca(2+). The regulatory tail possesses an inhibitory calmodulin (CaM)-binding domain, and inhibition of NHE1 is relieved by binding of a Ca(2+)-CaM complex. We examined the dynamics of ET-1 and Ca(2+) regulation of binding to NHE1 in vivo. CFP was linked to the NHE1 protein cytoplasmic COOH terminus. This was stably transfected into AP-1 cells that are devoid of their own NHE1 protein. The protein was expressed and targeted properly and retained NHE1 activity comparable to the wild-type protein. We examined the in vivo coupling of NHE1 to CaM by Förster resonance energy transfer using CaM linked to the fluorescent protein Venus. CaM interaction with NHE1 was dynamic. Removal of serum reduced CaM interaction with NHE1. Addition of the Ca(2+) ionophore ionomycin increased the interaction between CaM and NHE1. We expressed an ET receptor in AP-1 cells and also found a time-dependent association of NHE1 with CaM in vivo that was dependent on ET treatment. The results are the first demonstration of the in vivo association of NHE1 and CaM through ET-dependent signaling pathways.

SLC9/NHE gene family, a plasma membrane and organellar family of Na⁺/H⁺ exchangers

This brief review of the human Na/H exchanger gene family introduces a new classification with three subgroups to the SLC9 gene family. Progress in the structure and function of this gene family is reviewed with structure based on homology to the bacterial Na/H exchanger NhaA. Human diseases which result from genetic abnormalities of the SLC9 family are discussed although the exact role of these transporters in causing any disease is not established, other than poorly functioning NHE3 in congenital Na diarrhea.

Structural diversity of calmodulin binding to its target sites

Calmodulin (CaM) is a ubiquitous, highly conserved, eukaryotic protein that binds to and regulates a number of diverse target proteins involved in different functions such as metabolism, muscle contraction, apoptosis, memory, inflammation and the immune response. In this minireview, we analyze the large number of CaM-complex structures deposited in the Protein Data Bank (i.e. crystal and nuclear magnetic resonance structures) to gain insight into the structural diversity of CaM-binding sites and mechanisms, such as those for CaM-activated protein kinases and phosphatases, voltage-gated Ca(2+)-channels and the plasma membrane Ca(2+)-ATPase.

Regulation of the cardiac Na⁺/H⁺ exchanger in health and disease

The Na(+) gradient produced across the cardiac sarcolemma by the ATP-dependent Na(+)-pump is a constant source of energy for Na(+)-dependent transporters. The plasma membrane Na(+)/H(+) exchanger (NHE) is one such secondary active transporter, regulating intracellular pH, Na(+) concentration, and cell volume. NHE1, the major isoform found in the heart, is activated in response to a variety of stimuli such as hormones and mechanical stress. This important characteristic of NHE1 is intimately linked to heart diseases, including maladaptive cardiac hypertrophy and subsequent heart failure, as well as acute ischemic-reperfusion injury. NHE1 activation results in elevation of pH and intracellular Na(+) concentration, which potentially enhance downstream signaling cascades in the myocardium. Therefore, in addition to determining the mechanism underlying regulation of NHE1 activity, it is important to understand how the ionic signal produced by NHE1 is transmitted to the downstream targets. Extensive studies have identified many accessory factors that interact with NHE1. Here, we have summarized the recent progress on understanding the molecular mechanism underlying NHE1 regulation and have shown a possible signaling pathway leading to cardiac remodeling, which is initiated from NHE1. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Na(+) Regulation in Cardiac Myocytes".

Structural characterization of the interaction of human lactoferrin with calmodulin

Lactoferrin (Lf) is an 80 kDa, iron (Fe³⁺)-binding immunoregulatory glycoprotein secreted into most exocrine fluids, found in high concentrations in colostrum and milk, and released from neutrophil secondary granules at sites of infection and inflammation. In a number of cell types, Lf is internalized through receptor-mediated endocytosis and targeted to the nucleus where it has been demonstrated to act as a transcriptional trans-activator. Here we characterize human Lf’s interaction with calmodulin (CaM), a ubiquitous, 17 kDa regulatory calcium (Ca²⁺)-binding protein localized in the cytoplasm and nucleus of activated cells. Due to the size of this intermolecular complex (∼100 kDa), TROSY-based NMR techniques were employed to structurally characterize Ca²⁺-CaM when bound to intact apo-Lf. Both CaM’s backbone amides and the ε-methyl group of key methionine residues were used as probes in chemical shift perturbation and cross-saturation experiments to define the binding interface of apo-Lf on Ca²⁺-CaM. Unlike the collapsed conformation through which Ca²⁺-CaM binds the CaM-binding domains of its classical targets, Ca²⁺-CaM assumes an extended structure when bound to apo-Lf. Apo-Lf appears to interact predominantly with the C-terminal lobe of Ca²⁺-CaM, enabling the N-terminal lobe to potentially bind another target. Our use of intact apo-Lf has made possible the identification of a secondary interaction interface, removed from CaM’s primary binding domain. Secondary interfaces play a key role in the target’s response to CaM binding, highlighting the importance of studying intact complexes. This solution-based approach can be applied to study other regulatory calcium-binding EF-hand proteins in intact intermolecular complexes.

Characterization of cytoskeletal protein 4.1R interaction with NHE1 (Na(+)/H(+) exchanger isoform 1)

NHE1 (Na(+)/H(+) exchanger isoform 1) has been reported to be hyperactive in 4.1R-null erythrocytes [Rivera, De Franceschi, Peters, Gascard, Mohandas and Brugnara (2006) Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 291, C880-C886], supporting a functional interaction between NHE1 and 4.1R. In the present paper we demonstrate that 4.1R binds directly to the NHE1cd (cytoplasmic domain of NHE1) through the interaction of an EED motif in the 4.1R FERM (4.1/ezrin/radixin/moesin) domain with two clusters of basic amino acids in the NHE1cd, K(519)R and R(556)FNKKYVKK, previously shown to mediate PIP(2) (phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate) binding [Aharonovitz, Zaun, Balla, York, Orlowski and Grinstein (2000) J. Cell. Biol. 150, 213-224]. The affinity of this interaction (K(d) = 100-200 nM) is reduced in hypertonic and acidic conditions, demonstrating that this interaction is of an electrostatic nature. The binding affinity is also reduced upon binding of Ca(2+)/CaM (Ca(2+)-saturated calmodulin) to the 4.1R FERM domain. We propose that 4.1R regulates NHE1 activity through a direct protein-protein interaction that can be modulated by intracellular pH and Na(+) and Ca(2+) concentrations.

The motif of human cardiac myosin-binding protein C is required for its Ca2+-dependent interaction with calmodulin

The N-terminal modules of cardiac myosin-binding protein C (cMyBP-C) play a regulatory role in mediating interactions between myosin and actin during heart muscle contraction. The so-called "motif," located between the second and third immunoglobulin modules of the cardiac isoform, is believed to modulate contractility via an "on-off" phosphorylation-dependent tether to myosin ΔS2. Here we report a novel Ca(2+)-dependent interaction between the motif and calmodulin (CaM) based on the results of a combined fluorescence, NMR, and light and x-ray scattering study. We show that constructs of cMyBP-C containing the motif bind to Ca(2+)/CaM with a moderate affinity (K(D) ∼10 μM), which is similar to the affinity previously determined for myosin ΔS2. However, unlike the interaction with myosin ΔS2, the Ca(2+)/CaM interaction is unaffected by substitution with a triphosphorylated motif mimic. Further, Ca(2+)/CaM interacts with the highly conserved residues (Glu(319)-Lys(341)) toward the C-terminal end of the motif. Consistent with the Ca(2+) dependence, the binding of CaM to the motif is mediated via the hydrophobic clefts within the N- and C-lobes that are known to become more exposed upon Ca(2+) binding. Overall, Ca(2+)/CaM engages with the motif in an extended clamp configuration as opposed to the collapsed binding mode often observed in other CaM-protein interactions. Our results suggest that CaM may act as a structural conduit that links cMyBP-C with Ca(2+) signaling pathways to help coordinate phosphorylation events and synchronize the multiple interactions between cMyBP-C, myosin, and actin during the heart muscle contraction.

Recognition pliability is coupled to structural heterogeneity: a calmodulin intrinsically disordered binding region complex

Protein interactions within regulatory networks should adapt in a spatiotemporal-dependent dynamic environment, in order to process and respond to diverse and versatile cellular signals. However, the principles governing recognition pliability in protein complexes are not well understood. We have investigated a region of the intrinsically disordered protein myelin basic protein (MBP(145-165)) that interacts with calmodulin, but that also promiscuously binds other biomolecules (membranes, modifying enzymes). To characterize this interaction, we implemented an NMR spectroscopic approach that calculates, for each conformation of the complex, the maximum occurrence based on recorded pseudocontact shifts and residual dipolar couplings. We found that the MBP(145-165)-calmodulin interaction is characterized by structural heterogeneity. Quantitative comparative analysis indicated that distinct conformational landscapes of structural heterogeneity are sampled for different calmodulin-target complexes. Such structural heterogeneity in protein complexes could potentially explain the way that transient and promiscuous protein interactions are optimized and tuned in complex regulatory networks.

Synergetic effect of recoverin and calmodulin on regulation of rhodopsin kinase

Phosphorylation of photoactivated rhodopsin by rhodopsin kinase (RK or GRK1), a first step of the phototransduction cascade turnoff, is under the control of Ca²⁺/recoverin. Here, we demonstrate that calmodulin, a ubiquitous Ca²⁺-sensor, can inhibit RK, though less effectively than recoverin does. We have utilized the surface plasmon resonance technology to map the calmodulin binding site in the RK molecule. Calmodulin does not interact with the recoverin-binding site within amino acid residues M1-S25 of the enzyme. Instead, the high affinity calmodulin binding site is localized within a stretch of amino acid residues V150-K175 in the N-terminal regulatory region of RK. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of calmodulin and recoverin on RK activity is synergetic, which is in agreement with the existence of separate binding sites for each Ca²⁺-sensing protein. The synergetic inhibition of RK by both Ca²⁺-sensors occurs over a broader range of Ca²⁺-concentration than by recoverin alone, indicating increased Ca²⁺-sensitivity of RK regulation in the presence of both Ca²⁺-sensors. Taken together, our data suggest that RK regulation by calmodulin in photoreceptor cells could complement the well-known inhibitory effect of recoverin on RK.

Phosphorylation and activation of the plasma membrane Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE1) during osmotic cell shrinkage

The Na(+)/H(+)Exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1) is a highly versatile, broadly distributed and precisely controlled transport protein that mediates volume and pH regulation in most cell types. NHE1 phosphorylation contributes to Na(+)/H(+) exchange activity in response to phorbol esters, growth factors or protein phosphatase inhibitors, but has not been observed during activation by osmotic cell shrinkage (OCS). We examined the role of NHE1 phosphorylation during activation by OCS, using an ideal model system, the Amphiuma tridactylum red blood cell (atRBC). Na(+)/H(+) exchange in atRBCs is mediated by an NHE1 homolog (atNHE1) that is 79% identical to human NHE1 at the amino acid level. NHE1 activity in atRBCs is exceptionally robust in that transport activity can increase more than 2 orders of magnitude from rest to full activation. Michaelis-Menten transport kinetics indicates that either OCS or treatment with the phosphatase inhibitor calyculin-A (CLA) increase Na(+) transport capacity without affecting transport affinity (K(m)=44 mM) in atRBCs. CLA and OCS act non-additively to activate atNHE1, indicating convergent, phosphorylation-dependent signaling in atNHE1 activation. In situ(32)P labeling and immunoprecipitation demonstrates that the net phosphorylation of atNHE1 is increased 4-fold during OCS coinciding with a more than 2-order increase in Na(+) transport activity. This is the first reported evidence of increased NHE1 phosphorylation during OCS in any vertebrate cell type. Finally, liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis of atNHE1 immunoprecipitated from atRBC membranes reveals 9 phosphorylated serine/threonine residues, suggesting that activation of atNHE1 involves multiple phosphorylation and/or dephosphorylation events.