Deficiency of Capn4 gene inhibits nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) protein signaling/inflammation and reduces remodeling after myocardial infarction

Calpain: the regulatory point of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury

Calpain is a conserved cysteine protease readily expressed in several mammalian tissues, which is usually activated by Ca²⁺ and with maximum activity at neutral pH. The activity of calpain is tightly regulated because its aberrant activation will nonspecifically cleave various proteins in cells. Abnormally elevation of Ca²⁺ promotes the abnormal activation of calpain during myocardial ischemia-reperfusion, resulting in myocardial injury and cardiac dysfunction. In this paper, we mainly reviewed the effects of calpain in various programmed cell death (such as apoptosis, mitochondrial-mediated necrosis, autophagy-dependent cell death, and parthanatos) in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion. In addition, we also discussed the abnormal activation of calpain during myocardial ischemia-reperfusion, the effect of calpain on myocardial repair, and the possible future research directions of calpain.

Chick early amniotic fluid component improves heart function and protects against inflammation after myocardial infarction in mice

Myocardial infarction (MI) is the major cause of mortality around the world. We recently demonstrated that chick early amniotic fluid (ceAF) can effectively rescue ischemic heart injury, indicating that it has a therapeutic function in MI. However, its functional components and the underlying mechanisms remain to be clarified. Here, we demonstrated that a fraction of ceAF, peak 8 (P8), had a protective effect on acute MI. P8 significantly decreased cardiomyocyte cross-sectional areas and cardiomyocyte apoptosis in MI mice. Using a human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocyte model, which was subjected to hypoxia and reoxygenation, mimicking MI state, we found that P8 treatment reduced apoptosis and reversed myocardial contractility. Mechanistically, P8 improved cardiac function by inhibiting NF-κB signaling and downregulating inflammatory cytokine expression. Using mass spectrometry, we identified that guanosine and deoxynucleoside were the main functional components of P8 that suppressed the inflammatory response in human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. Collectively, our data suggest that specific components from ceAF are promising therapeutic agents for ischemic heart injury and could be a potential supplement to current medications for MI.

Sustained over-expression of calpain-2 induces age-dependent dilated cardiomyopathy in mice through aberrant autophagy

Calpains have been implicated in heart diseases. While calpain-1 has been detrimental to the heart, the role of calpain-2 in cardiac pathology remains controversial. In this study we investigated whether sustained over-expression of calpain-2 had any adverse effects on the heart and the underlying mechanisms. Double transgenic mice (Tg-Capn2/tTA) were generated, which express human CAPN2 restricted to cardiomyocytes. The mice were subjected to echocardiography at age 3, 6, 8 and 12 months, and their heart tissues and sera were collected for analyses. We showed that transgenic mice over-expressing calpain-2 restricted to cardiomyocytes had normal heart function with no evidence of cardiac pathological remodeling at age 3 months. However, they exhibited features of dilated cardiomyopathy including increased heart size, enlarged heart chambers and heart dysfunction from age 8 months; histological analysis revealed loss of cardiomyocytes replaced by myocardial fibrosis and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy in transgenic mice from age 8 months. These cardiac alterations closely correlated with aberrant autophagy evidenced by significantly increased LC3BII and p62 protein levels and accumulation of autophagosomes in the hearts of transgenic mice. Notably, injection of 3-methyladenine, a well-established inhibitor of autophagy (30 mg/kg, i.p. once every 3 days starting from age 6 months for 2 months) prevented aberrant autophagy, attenuated myocardial injury and improved heart function in the transgenic mice. In cultured cardiomyocytes, over-expression of calpain-2 blocked autophagic flux by impairing lysosomal function. Furthermore, over-expression of calpain-2 resulted in lower levels of junctophilin-2 protein in the heart of transgenic mice and in cultured cardiomyocytes, which was attenuated by 3-methyladenine. In addition, blockade of autophagic flux by bafilomycin A (100 nM) induced a reduction of junctophilin-2 protein in cardiomyocytes. In summary, transgenic over-expression of calpain-2 induces age-dependent dilated cardiomyopathy in mice, which may be mediated through aberrant autophagy and a reduction of junctophilin-2. Thus, a sustained increase in calpain-2 may be detrimental to the heart.

Calpains as Potential Therapeutic Targets for Myocardial Hypertrophy

Despite advances in its treatment, heart failure remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality, evidencing an urgent need for novel mechanism-based targets and strategies. Myocardial hypertrophy, caused by a wide variety of chronic stress stimuli, represents an independent risk factor for the development of heart failure, and its prevention constitutes a clinical objective. Recent studies performed in preclinical animal models support the contribution of the Ca²⁺-dependent cysteine proteases calpains in regulating the hypertrophic process and highlight the feasibility of their long-term inhibition as a pharmacological strategy. In this review, we discuss the existing evidence implicating calpains in the development of cardiac hypertrophy, as well as the latest advances in unraveling the underlying mechanisms. Finally, we provide an updated overview of calpain inhibitors that have been explored in preclinical models of cardiac hypertrophy and the progress made in developing new compounds that may serve for testing the efficacy of calpain inhibition in the treatment of pathological cardiac hypertrophy.

Elevated Wnt2 and Wnt4 activate NF-κB signaling to promote cardiac fibrosis by cooperation of Fzd4/2 and LRP6 following myocardial infarction

Background

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI)-induced excessive myocardial fibrosis exaggerates cardiac dysfunction. However, serum Wnt2 or Wnt4 level in AMI patients, and the roles in cardiac fibrosis are largely unkown.

Methods

AMI and non-AMI patients were enrolled to examine serum Wnt2 and Wnt4 levels by ELISA analysis. The AMI patients were followed-up for one year. MI mouse model was built by ligation of left anterior descending branch (LAD).

Findings

Serum Wnt2 or Wnt4 level was increased in patients with AMI, and the elevated Wnt2 and Wnt4 were correlated to adverse outcome of these patients. Knockdown of Wnt2 and Wnt4 significantly attenuated myocardial remodeling and cardiac dysfunction following experimental MI. In vitro, hypoxia enhanced the secretion and expression of Wnt2 and Wnt4 in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes (NRCMs) or fibroblasts (NRCFs). Mechanistically, the elevated Wnt2 or Wnt4 activated β-catenin /NF-κB signaling to promote pro-fibrotic effects in cultured NRCFs. In addition, Wnt2 or Wnt4 upregulated the expression of these Wnt co-receptors, frizzled (Fzd) 2, Fzd4 and (ow-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6). Further analysis revealed that Wnt2 or Wnt4 activated β-catenin /NF-κB by the co-operation of Fzd4 or Fzd2 and LRP6 signaling, respectively.

Interpretation

Elevated Wnt2 and Wnt4 activate β-catenin/NF-κB signaling to promote cardiac fibrosis by cooperation of Fzd4/2 and LRP6 in fibroblasts, which contributes to adverse outcome of patients with AMI, suggesting that systemic inhibition of Wnt2 and Wnt4 may improve cardiac dysfunction after MI.

Spatio-temporal regulation of calpain activity after experimental myocardial infarction in vivo

Background

Calpains are calcium activated cysteine proteases that play a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of cardiac remodeling.

Methods

Here, we performed left anterior descending coronary artery ligation in rats as a model for ischemic systolic heart failure and examined the time- and region-specific regulation of calpain-1 and calpain-2 in the left ventricular myocardium.

Results

Following anterior wall myocardial infarction, calpain activity was significantly increased restricted to the ischemic anterior area at days 1, 5 and 14. No changes in calpain activity at neither time point were detected in the borderzone and remote posterior area of the left ventricle. Of note, calpain activity in the infarcted anterior myocardium was regulated differentially in the acute vs. subacute and chronic phase. In the acute phase, calpain translocation to the plasma membrane and attenuation of the expression of its endogenous inhibitor, calpastatin, were identified as the driving forces. In the subacute and chronic phase, calpain activity was regulated at the level of protein expression that was shown to be essentially independent of transcriptional activity.

Conclusions

We conclude that myocardial infarction leads to a distinct calpain regulation pattern in the left ventricular myocardium that is region specific and time dependent. Considering the results from our previous studies, a spatio-temporal interaction between calpains and calcium dependent natriuretic peptide production in the infarcted myocardium is possible.

General significance

Our results shed more light in the differential regulation of calpain activity in the myocardium and might aid in the development of targeted post-infarct and/or heart failure therapeutics.

Dimethyl Fumarate Ameliorates Nucleus Pulposus Cell Dysfunction through Activating the Nrf2/HO-1 Pathway in Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Background

Oxidative stress, inflammation, and nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs) apoptosis are involved in pathogenesis of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration (IVDD). Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) has been found to effectively depress oxidative stress and inflammation via the Nrf2 pathway. Hence, this project was designed to explore the underlying mechanisms of how DMF protects NPCs from damage by LPS challenge.

Methods and Results

CCK8 assay and flow cytometry of apoptosis indicated that DMF treatment attenuated LPS-induced NPC damage. Western blot analysis demonstrated that DMF enhanced the expressions of nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in LPS-challenged NPCs. DMF treatment significantly decreased the accumulation of ROS, downregulated inflammatory cytokines (p-NF-κB, IL-1β, and TNF-α), and ER stress-associated apoptosis proteins (Bip, calpain-1, caspase-12, caspase-3, and Bax) in LPS-challenged NPCs. The level of antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 was promoted by DMF treatment in LPS-challenged NPCs. Glutathione (GSH) assay showed that DMF treatment improved reduced to oxidized glutathione ratio in LPS-challenged NPCs. Furthermore, the results of western blot analysis indicated that in LPS-challenged NPCs, DMF treatment ameliorated the elevated levels of matrix degradation enzymes (MMP-13, aggrecanase 1) and type I collagen and the reduced levels of matrix composition (type II collagen and ACAN). However, Nrf2 knockdown abolished these protective effects of DMF.

Conclusion

Our data suggested that treatment with DMF mitigated LPS-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and ER stress-associated apoptosis in NPCs via the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway, thus reliving LPS-induced dysfunction of NPCs, which offered a novel potential pharmacological treatment strategy for IVDD.

Dysregulated Circulating Apoptosis- and Autophagy-Related lncRNAs as Diagnostic Markers in Coronary Artery Disease

Objective

Increasing evidence emphasizes the implications of dysregulated apoptosis and autophagy cellular processes in coronary artery disease (CAD). Herein, we aimed to explore apoptosis- and autophagy-related long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in peripheral blood of CAD patients.

Methods

The mRNA and lncRNA expression profiles were retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. With ∣fold change | >1.5 and adjusted p value < 0.05, differentially expressed apoptosis- and autophagy-related mRNAs were screened between CAD and healthy blood samples. Also, differentially expressed lncRNAs were identified for CAD. Using the psych package, apoptosis- and autophagy-related lncRNAs were defined with Spearson's correlation analysis. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were conducted for the assessment of the diagnosed efficacy of these apoptosis- and autophagy-related lncRNAs.

Results

Our results showed that 24 apoptosis- and autophagy-related mRNAs were abnormally expressed in CAD than normal controls. 12 circulating upregulated and 1 downregulated apoptosis- and autophagy-related lncRNAs were identified for CAD. The ROCs confirmed that AC004485.3 (AUC = 0.899), AC004920.3 (AUC = 0.93), AJ006998.2 (AUC = 0.776), H19 (AUC = 0.943), RP5-902P8.10 (AUC = 0.956), RP5-1114G22.2 (AUC = 0.883), RP11-247A12.1 (AUC = 0.885), RP11-288L9.4 (AUC = 0.928), RP11-344B5.2 (AUC = 0.858), RP11-452C8.1 (AUC = 0.929), RP11-565A3.1 (AUC = 0.893), and XXbac-B33L19.4 (AUC = 0.932) exhibited good performance in differentiating CAD from healthy controls.

Conclusion

Collectively, our findings proposed that circulating apoptosis- and autophagy-related lncRNAs could become underlying diagnostic markers for CAD in clinical practice.

Calpain-Mediated Mitochondrial Damage: An Emerging Mechanism Contributing to Cardiac Disease

Calpains belong to the family of calcium-dependent cysteine proteases expressed ubiquitously in mammals and many other organisms. Activation of calpain is observed in diseased hearts and is implicated in cardiac cell death, hypertrophy, fibrosis, and inflammation. However, the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood. Recent studies have revealed that calpains target and impair mitochondria in cardiac disease. The objective of this review is to discuss the role of calpains in mediating mitochondrial damage and the underlying mechanisms, and to evaluate whether targeted inhibition of mitochondrial calpain is a potential strategy in treating cardiac disease. We expect to describe the wealth of new evidence surrounding calpain-mediated mitochondrial damage to facilitate future mechanistic studies and therapy development for cardiac disease.

Targeted inhibition of calpain in mitochondria alleviates oxidative stress-induced myocardial injury

The protein levels and activities of calpain-1 and calpain-2 are increased in cardiac mitochondria under pathological conditions including ischemia, diabetes, and sepsis, and transgenic overexpression of mitochondrial-targeted calpain-1 induces dilated heart failure, which underscores an important role of increased calpain in mitochondria in mediating myocardial injury. However, it remains to be determined whether selective inhibition of calpain in mitochondria protects the heart under pathological conditions. In this study, we generated transgenic mice overexpressing mitochondrial-targeted calpastatin in cardiomyocytes. Their hearts were isolated and subjected to global ischemia/reperfusion. Hyperglycemia was induced in the transgenic mice by injections of STZ. We showed that transgenic calpastatin was expressed exclusively in mitochondria isolated from their hearts but not from other organs including skeletal muscle and lung tissues. Transgenic overexpression of mitochondrial-targeted calpastatin significantly attenuated mitochondrial oxidative stress and cell death induced by global ischemia/reperfusion in isolated hearts, and ameliorated mitochondrial oxidative stress, cell death, myocardial remodeling and dysfunction in STZ-treated transgenic mice. The protective effects of mitochondrial-targeted calpastatin were correlated with increased ATP5A1 protein expression and ATP synthase activity in isolated hearts subjected to global ischemia/reperfusion and hearts of STZ-treated transgenic mice. In cultured rat myoblast H9c2 cells, overexpression of mitochondrial-targeted calpastatin maintained the protein levels of ATP5A1 and ATP synthase activity, prevented mitochondrial ROS production and decreased cell death following hypoxia/reoxygenation, whereas upregulation of ATP5A1 or scavenging of mitochondrial ROS by mito-TEMPO abrogated mitochondrial ROS production and decreased cell death. These results confirm the role of calpain in myocardial injury, suggesting that selective inhibition of calpain in myocardial mitochondria by mitochondrial-targeted calpastatin is an effective strategy for alleviating myocardial injury and dysfunction in cardiac pathologies.

Identification and analysis of key genes associated with acute myocardial infarction by integrated bioinformatics methods

BACKGROUND

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is a common disease leading threat to human health around the world. Here we aimed to explore new biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets in AMI through adopting integrated bioinformatics tools.

METHODS

The gene expression Omnibus (GEO) database was used to obtain genes data of AMI and no-AMI whole blood. Furthermore, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened using the "Limma" package in R 3.6.1 software. Functional and pathway enrichment analyses of DEGs were performed via "Bioconductor" and "GOplot" package in R 3.6.1 software. In order to screen hub DEGs, the STRING version 11.0 database, Cytoscape and molecular complex detection (MCODE) were applied. Correlation among the hub DEGs was evaluated using Pearson's correlation analysis.

RESULTS

By performing DEGs analysis, 289 upregulated and 62 downregulated DEGs were successfully identified from GSE66360, respectively. And they were mainly enriched in the terms of neutrophil activation, immune response, cytokine, nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, IL-17 signaling pathway, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathway. Based on the data of protein-protein interaction (PPI), the top 10 hub genes were ranked, including interleukin-8 (CXCL8), TNF, N-formyl peptide receptor 2 (FPR2), growth-regulated alpha protein (CXCL1), transcription factor AP-1 (JUN), interleukin-1 beta (IL1B), platelet basic protein (PPBP), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9), toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), and high affinity immunoglobulin epsilon receptor subunit gamma (FCER1G). What's more, the results of correlation analysis demonstrated that there was positive correlation between the 10 hub DEGs.

CONCLUSION

Ten DEGs were identified as potential candidate diagnostic biomarkers for patients with AMI in present study. However, further experiments are needed to confirm the functional pathways and hub genes associated with AMI.

Calpain activation mediates microgravity-induced myocardial abnormalities in mice via p38 and ERK1/2 MAPK pathways

The human cardiovascular system has adapted to function optimally in Earth's 1G gravity, and microgravity conditions cause myocardial abnormalities, including atrophy and dysfunction. However, the underlying mechanisms linking microgravity and cardiac anomalies are incompletely understood. In this study, we investigated whether and how calpain activation promotes myocardial abnormalities under simulated microgravity conditions. Simulated microgravity was induced by tail suspension in mice with cardiomyocyte-specific deletion of Capns1, which disrupts activity and stability of calpain-1 and calpain-2, and their WT littermates. Tail suspension time-dependently reduced cardiomyocyte size, heart weight, and myocardial function in WT mice, and these changes were accompanied by calpain activation, NADPH oxidase activation, and oxidative stress in heart tissues. The effects of tail suspension were attenuated by deletion of Capns1 Notably, the protective effects of Capns1 deletion were associated with the prevention of phosphorylation of Ser-345 on p47 phox and attenuation of ERK1/2 and p38 activation in hearts of tail-suspended mice. Using a rotary cell culture system, we simulated microgravity in cultured neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes and observed decreased total protein/DNA ratio and induced calpain activation, phosphorylation of Ser-345 on p47 phox , and activation of ERK1/2 and p38, all of which were prevented by calpain inhibitor-III. Furthermore, inhibition of ERK1/2 or p38 attenuated phosphorylation of Ser-345 on p47 phox in cardiomyocytes under simulated microgravity. This study demonstrates for the first time that calpain promotes NADPH oxidase activation and myocardial abnormalities under microgravity by facilitating p47 phox phosphorylation via ERK1/2 and p38 pathways. Thus, calpain inhibition may be an effective therapeutic approach to reduce microgravity-induced myocardial abnormalities.

Inhibiting calpain 1 and 2 in cyclin G associated kinase-knockout mice mitigates podocyte injury

Evidence for reduced expression of cyclin G associated kinase (GAK) in glomeruli of patients with chronic kidney disease was observed in the Nephroseq human database, and GAK was found to be associated with the decline in kidney function. To examine the role of GAK, a protein that functions to uncoat clathrin during endocytosis, we generated podocyte-specific Gak-knockout mice (Gak-KO), which developed progressive proteinuria and kidney failure with global glomerulosclerosis. We isolated glomeruli from the mice carrying the mutation to perform messenger RNA profiling and unearthed evidence for dysregulated podocyte calpain protease activity as an important contributor to progressive podocyte damage. Treatment with calpain inhibitor III specifically inhibited calpain-1/-2 activities, mitigated the degree of proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis, and led to a striking increase in survival in the Gak-KO mice. Podocyte-specific deletion of Capns1, essential for calpain-1 and calpain-2 activities, also improved proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis in Gak-KO mice. Increased podocyte calpain activity-mediated proteolysis of IκBα resulted in increased NF-κB p65-induced expression of growth arrest and DNA-damage-inducible 45 beta in the Gak-KO mice. Our results suggest that loss of podocyte-associated Gak induces glomerular injury secondary to calcium dysregulation and aberrant calpain activation, which when inhibited, can provide a protective role.

Increased serum calpain activity is associated with HMGB1 levels in systemic sclerosis

Background

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) or scleroderma is an intractable autoimmune disorder that affects multiple organs. The objectives were to investigate clinical correlations of serum calpain activity and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) levels with immunological and clinical traits.

Methods

A total of 31 patients with SSc, 20 age- and gender-matched healthy control subjects (HC), and 10 patients with other connective tissue diseases (CTD) were recruited in the study. We measured serum calpain activity and HMGB1 levels and analyzed the datasets (GSE40839, GSE48149, GSE76808, GSE81292, GSE33463, and GSE58095) from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database to explore the potential mechanism by which calpain exerts its function through bioinformatics methods.

Results

Serum calpain activity was significantly increased in patients with SSc compared with those in HC and in patients with CTD and was correlated with serum HMGB1 levels, modified Rodnan skin score, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, mean platelet volume, and plateletcrit. Notably, serum calpain activity and HMGB1 levels in SSc patients with interstitial lung disease (ILD) were significantly higher than those in SSc patients without ILD. Serum calpain activity and HMGB1 levels could be the independent risk factors for SSc-ILD and novel biomarkers in patients with SSc.

Conclusion

This is the first study that reports increased serum calpain activity and the correlation between calpain and HMGB1 in patients with SSc or SSc-ILD. The serum calpain activity and HMGB1 levels may serve as measures of ILD in patients with SSc. Also, calpain and HMGB1 could be potential therapeutic targets for patients with SSc or SSc-ILD in the future.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced complex I defect: Central role of calcium overload

BACKGROUND

ER (endoplasmic reticulum) stress leads to decreased complex I activity in cardiac mitochondria. The aim of the current study is to explore the potential mechanisms by which ER stress leads to the complex I defect. ER stress contributes to intracellular calcium overload and oxidative stress that are two key factors to induce mitochondrial dysfunction. Since oxidative stress is often accompanied by intracellular calcium overload during ER stress in vivo, the role of oxidative stress and calcium overload in mitochondrial dysfunction was studied using in vitro models. ER stress results in intracellular calcium overload that favors activation of calcium-dependent calpains. The contribution of mitochondrial calpain activation in ER stress-mediated complex I damage was studied.

METHODS

Thapsigargin (THAP) was used to induce acute ER stress in H9c2 cells and C57BL/6 mice. Exogenous calcium (25 μM) and H₂O₂ (100 μM) were used to induce modest calcium overload and oxidative stress in isolated mitochondria. Calpain small subunit 1 (CAPNS1) is essential to maintain calpain 1 and calpain 2 (CPN1/2) activities. Deletion of CAPNS1 eliminates the activities of CPN1/2. Wild type and cardiac-specific CAPNS1 deletion mice were used to explore the role of CPN1/2 activation in calcium-induced mitochondrial damage.

RESULTS

In isolated mitochondria, exogenous calcium but not H₂O₂ treatment led to decreased oxidative phosphorylation, supporting that calcium overload contributes a key role in the mitochondrial damage. THAP treatment of H9c2 cells decreased respiration selectively with complex I substrates. THAP treatment activated cytosolic and mitochondrial CPN1/2 in C57BL/6 mice and led to degradation of complex I subunits including NDUFS7. Calcium treatment decreased NDUFS7 content in wild type but not in CAPNS1 knockout mice.

CONCLUSION

ER stress-mediated activation of mitochondria-localized CPN1/2 contributes to complex I damage by cleaving component subunits.

Cardiomyocyte-specific deficiency of HSPB1 worsens cardiac dysfunction by activating NFκB-mediated leucocyte recruitment after myocardial infarction

Aims

Inadequate healing after myocardial infarction (MI) leads to heart failure and fatal ventricular rupture, while optimal healing requires timely induction and resolution of inflammation. This study tested the hypothesis that heat shock protein B1 (HSPB1), which limits myocardial inflammation during endotoxemia, modulates wound healing after MI.

Methods and results

To test this hypothesis, cardiomyocyte-specific HSPB1 knockout (Hspb1-/-) mice were generated using the Cre-LoxP recombination system. MI was induced by ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery in Hspb1-/- and wild-type (WT) littermates. HSPB1 was up-regulated in cardiomyocytes of WT animals in response to MI, and deficiency of cardiomyocyte HSPB1 increased MI-induced cardiac rupture and mortality within 21 days after MI. Serial echocardiography showed more aggravated remodelling and cardiac dysfunction in Hspb1-/- mice than in WT mice at 1, 3, and 7 days after MI. Decreased collagen deposition and angiogenesis, as well as increased MMP2 and MMP9 activity, were also observed in Hspb1-/- mice compared with WT controls after MI, using immunofluorescence, polarized light microscopy, and zymographic analyses. Notably, Hspb1-/- hearts exhibited enhanced and prolonged leucocyte infiltration, enhanced expression of inflammatory cytokines, and enhanced TLR4/MyD88/NFκB activation compared with WT controls after MI. In-depth molecular analyses in both mice and primary cardiomyocytes demonstrated that cardiomyocyte-specific knockout of HSPB1 increased nuclear factor-κB (NFκB) activation, which promoted the expression of proinflammatory mediators. This led to increased leucocyte recruitment, thereby to excessive inflammation, ultimately resulting in adverse remodelling, cardiac dysfunction, and cardiac rupture following MI.

Conclusion

These data suggest that HSPB1 acts as a negative regulator of NFκB-mediated leucocyte recruitment and the subsequent inflammation in cardiomyocytes. Cardiomyocyte HSPB1 is required for wound healing after MI and could be a target for myocardial repair in MI patients.

Capn4 is induced by and required for Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 promotion of nasopharyngeal carcinoma metastasis through ERK/AP-1 signaling

Capn4, also known as CapnS1, is a member of the calpain family, which plays a crucial role in maintaining the activity and function of calpain. We previously reported that Capn4 also plays an essential role in the migration of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cells through regulation of (MMP‐2) by nuclear factor‐kappa B activation. Epstein‐Barr virus latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) is closely related to the malignant functions of NPC; however, the relationship between LMP1 and Capn4 in NPC remain unclear. Immunohistochemical studies showed that the level of LMP1 and Capn4 expression was high in both primary and metastatic NPC tissues, with a significantly positive correlation. We further found that LMP1 was able to upregulate the Capn4 promoter in a dose‐dependent way through the C‐terminal activation region (CTAR)1 and CTAR2 domains to activate AP‐1. Moreover, we also found that LMP1 activated AP‐1 through ERK/JNK phosphorylation. These findings indicate that Capn4 coordination with LMP1 promotes actin rearrangement and, ultimately, cellular migration. These results show that Capn4 coordination with LMP1 enhances NPC migration by increasing actin rearrangement involving ERK/JNK/AP‐1 signaling. Therapeutically, additional and more specific LMP1 and Capn4 targeted inhibitors could be exploited to treat NPC.

Taurine Prevented Hypoxia Induced Chicken Cardiomyocyte Apoptosis Through the Inhibition of Mitochondrial Pathway Activated by Calpain-1

Objective To determine whether taurine has protective effects on chicken myocardial apoptosis induced by hypoxic condition through inhibiting calpain-1 derived mitochondrial apoptotic pathway. Methods Chicken primary embryonic myocardial cells were isolated and cultured at 37 °C under a 5% CO₂ atmosphere. Firstly the optimum concentration of taurine or PD150606 was chosen by detecting the cell viability. Chicken cardiomyocytes were cultured in 95% N₂-5% CO₂ atmosphere for 12 h to produce hypoxic conditions. Before hypoxic treatment, 10 mM taurine and 10 uM PD150606 (a specific calpains inhibitor) were added separately or together. The cell apoptosis was detected by acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) double staining. Western blotting was used to determine the protein expressions of calpain-1, cytochrome c, Bcl-2, procaspase-9 and procaspase-3 in the cardiomyocytes. Results Taurine administration effectively attenuated the myocardial apoptosis under hypoxic condition, reduced the calpain-1 protein level. In addition, pre-treated taurine could up-regulate the protein expressions of Bcl-2 and procaspase-3 in hypoxic myocardial cells, down-regulate protein expression levels of cytochrome c and procaspase-9. Moreover, taurine exhibited same inhibition effect as PD150606 on the cell apoptosis and proteins express under hypoxic condition. Conclusions Taurine could attenuate the chicken cardiomyocyte apoptosis impaired by hypoxia through inhibiting calpian-1-derived mitochondrial apoptotic pathway in vitro.

Phosphatase PPM1L Prevents Excessive Inflammatory Responses and Cardiac Dysfunction after Myocardial Infarction by Inhibiting IKKβ Activation

Although the inflammatory response triggered by damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in the infarcted cardiac tissues after acute myocardial infarction (MI) contributes to cardiac repair, the unrestrained inflammation induces excessive matrix degradation and myocardial fibrosis, leading to the development of adverse remodeling and cardiac dysfunction, although the molecular mechanisms that fine tune inflammation post-MI need to be fully elucidated. Protein phosphatase Mg²⁺/Mn²⁺-dependent 1L (PPM1L) is a member of the serine/threonine phosphatase family. It is originally identified as a negative regulator of stress-activated protein kinase signaling and involved in the regulation of ceramide trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum to Golgi apparatus. However, the role of PPM1L in MI remains unknown. In this study, we found that PPM1L transgenic mice exhibited reduced infarct size, attenuated myocardial fibrosis, and improved cardiac function. PPM1L transgenic mice showed significantly lower levels of inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-12, in myocardial tissue. In response to DAMPs, such as HMGB1 or HSP60, released in myocardial tissue after MI, macrophages from PPM1L transgenic mice consistently produced fewer inflammatory cytokines. PPM1L-silenced macrophages showed higher levels of inflammatory cytokine production induced by DAMPs. Mechanically, PPM1L overexpression selectively inhibited the activation of NF-κB signaling in myocardial tissue post-MI and DAMP-triggered macrophages. PPM1L directly bound IKKβ and then inhibited its phosphorylation and activation, leading to impaired NF-κB signaling activation and suppressed inflammatory cytokine production. Thus, our data demonstrate that PPM1L prevents excessive inflammation and cardiac dysfunction after MI, which sheds new light on the protective regulatory mechanism underlying MI.

Increased calpain-1 in mitochondria induces dilated heart failure in mice: role of mitochondrial superoxide anion

We and others have reported that calpain-1 was increased in myocardial mitochondria from various animal models of heart disease. This study investigated whether constitutive up-regulation of calpain-1 restricted to mitochondria induced myocardial injury and heart failure and, if so, whether these phenotypes could be rescued by selective inhibition of mitochondrial superoxide production. Transgenic mice with human CAPN1 up-regulation restricted to mitochondria in cardiomyocytes (Tg-mtCapn1/tTA) were generated and characterized with low and high over-expression of transgenic human CAPN1 restricted to mitochondria, respectively. Transgenic up-regulation of mitochondria-targeted CAPN1 dose-dependently induced cardiac cell death, adverse myocardial remodeling, heart failure, and early death in mice, the changes of which were associated with mitochondrial dysfunction and mitochondrial superoxide generation. Importantly, a daily injection of mitochondria-targeted superoxide dismutase mimetics mito-TEMPO for 1 month starting from age 2 months attenuated cardiac cell death, adverse myocardial remodeling and heart failure, and reduced mortality in Tg-mtCapn1/tTA mice. In contrast, administration of TEMPO did not achieve similar cardiac protection in transgenic mice. Furthermore, transgenic up-regulation of mitochondria-targeted CAPN1 induced a reduction of ATP5A1 protein and ATP synthase activity in hearts. In cultured cardiomyocytes, increased calpain-1 in mitochondria promoted mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening and induced cell death, which were prevented by over-expression of ATP5A1, mito-TEMPO or cyclosporin A, an inhibitor of mPTP opening. In conclusion, this study has provided direct evidence demonstrating that increased mitochondrial calpain-1 is an important mechanism contributing to myocardial injury and heart failure by disrupting ATP synthase, and promoting mitochondrial superoxide generation and mPTP opening.

Simvastatin Improves Cardiac Hypertrophy in Diabetic Rats by Attenuation of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Induced by Calpain-1-Mediated Activation of Nuclear Factor-κB (NF-κB)

Background

Simvastatin, an HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, has been reported to exert multiple protective effects on the cardiovascular system. However, the molecular mechanism remains to be examined. The present study was designed to study the effects of simvastatin on cardiac hypertrophy in diabetic rats and to explore its potential mechanism.

Material/Methods

Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned into a control (Con) group, a streptozotocin (STZ) group, and a STZ+simvastatin (STZ+SIM) group. The level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured by using dihydroethidium (DHE) staining. The protein expressions of p65, IκBα, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), calpain-1, and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) were examined by Western blot analysis. qPCR was used to detect the levels of brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).

Results

Simvastatin improved the cardiac hypertrophy of diabetic rats, as demonstrated by decreases in the ratios of left ventricular weight/body weight (LVW/BW) and heart weight/body weight (HW/BW) and by the downregulation of mRNA expression of BNP and ANP in the heart tissue. Simvastatin decreased the protein expressions of VCAM-1, ICAM-1, IL-6, and TNF-α, increased eNOS protein expression, and limited an increase in ROS levels in the heart tissue. Simvastatin increased IκBα protein expression in cytoplasm and inhibited the translocation of p65, the subunit of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) to the nucleus from the cytoplasm of the heart tissue. Furthermore, simvastatin attenuated the activity of calpain and calpain-1 protein expression in heart tissue.

Conclusions

Simvastatin attenuates cardiac hypertrophy in diabetic rats, which might be due to the attenuation of oxidative stress and inflammation induced by calpain-1-mediated activation of NF-κB.

Calpain-2 protects against heat stress-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis and heart dysfunction by blocking p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation

Cardiovascular dysfunction is a common complication among heatstroke patients, but its underlying mechanism is unclear. This study was designed to investigate the role of calpain-2 and its downstream signal pathway in heat stress-induced cardiomyocyte apoptosis and heart dysfunction. In cultured primary mouse neonatal cardiomyocytes (MNCs), heat stress (43°C for 2 hr) induced a heat-shock response, as indicated by upregulated heat-shock protein 27 (HSP27) expression and cellular apoptosis, as indicated by increased caspase-3 activity, DNA fragmentation and decreased cell viability. Meanwhile, heat stress decreased calpain activity, which was accompanied by downregulated calpain-2 expression and increased phosphorylation of p38, extraceIIuIar signaI-reguIated protein kinase (ERK1/2) and c-Jun N-terminaI kinase (JNK). Calpain-2 overexpression abrogated heat stress-induced apoptosis and phosphorylation of p38 and JNK, but not of ERK1/2. Blocking only p38 prevented heat stress-induced apoptosis in MNCs. In cardiac-specific calpain-2 overexpressing transgenic mice, p38 phosphorylation and cardiomyocyte apoptosis were decreased in the heart tissue of heatstroke mice, as revealed by western blot and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelling assays, respectively. M-mode echocardiography also demonstrated that calpain-2 overexpression significantly improved heatstroke-induced decreases in ventricular end-diastolic volume and cardiac output. In conclusion, our study suggests that heat stress reduces calpain-2 expression, which then activates p38, leading to cardiomyocyte apoptosis and heart dysfunction.

Calpain inhibition ameliorates scald burn-induced acute lung injury in rats

Background

The molecular pattern of severe burn-induced acute lung injury, characterized by cell structure damage and leukocyte infiltration, remains unknown. This study aimed to determine whether calpain, a protease involved in both processes, mediates severe burn-induced acute lung injury.

Methods

Rats received full-thickness scald burns covering 30% of the total body surface area, followed by instant fluid resuscitation. MDL28170 (Tocris Bioscience), an inhibitor of calpain, was given intravenously 1 h before or after the scald burn. The histological score, wet/dry weight ratio, and caspase-3 activity were examined to evaluate the degree of lung damage. Calpain activity and its source were detected by an assay kit and immunofluorescence staining. The proteolysis of membrane skeleton proteins α-fodrin and ankyrin-B, which are substrates of calpain, was measured by Western blot.

Results

Time-course studies showed that tissue damage reached a peak between 1 and 6 h post-scald burn and gradually diminished at 24 h. More importantly, calpain activity reached peak levels at 1 h and was maintained until 24 h, paralleled by lung damage to some extent. Western blot showed that the levels of the proteolyzed forms of α-fodrin and ankyrin-B correlated well with the degree of damage. MDL28170 at a dose of 3 mg/kg b. w. given 1 h before burn injury not only antagonized the increase in calpain activity but also ameliorated scald burn-induced lung injury, including the degradation of α-fodrin and ankyrin-B. Immunofluorescence images revealed calpain 1 and CD45 double-positive cells in the lung tissue of rats exposed to scald burn injury, suggesting that leukocytes were a dominant source of calpain. Furthermore, this change was blocked by MDL28170. Finally, MDL28170 given at 1 h post-scald burn injury significantly ameliorated the wet/dry weight ratio compared with burn injury alone.

Conclusions

Calpain, a product of infiltrating leukocytes, is a mediator of scald burn-induced acute lung injury that involves enhancement of inflammation and proteolysis of membrane skeleton proteins. Its late effects warrant further study.

Over-expression of calpastatin attenuates myocardial injury following myocardial infarction by inhibiting endoplasmic reticulum stress

Background

Ischemic heart injury activates calpains and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in cardiomyocytes. This study investigated whether over-expression of calpastatin, an endogenous calpain inhibitor, protects the heart against myocardial infarction (MI) by inhibiting ER stress.

Methods

Mice over-expressing calpastatin (Tg-CAST) and littermate wild type (WT) mice were divided into four groups: WT-sham, Tg-CAST-sham, WT-MI, and Tg-CAST-MI, respectively. WT-sham and Tg-CAST-sham mice showed similar cardiac function at baseline. MI for 7 days impaired cardiac function in WT-MI mice, which was ameliorated in Tg-CAST-MI mice.

Results

Tg-CAST-MI mice exhibited significantly decreased diameter of the left ventricular cavity, scar area, and cardiac cell death compared to WT-MI mice. WT-MI mice had higher cardiac expression of C/EBP homologous protein (CHOP) and BIP, indicators of ER stress, compared to WT-sham mice, indicative of MI-induced ER stress. This increase was abolished in Tg-CAST-MI hearts. Furthermore, administration of tauroursodeoxycholic acid, an inhibitor of ER stress, reduced MI-induced expression of CHOP and BIP, scar area, and myocardial dysfunction. In an in vitro model of oxidative stress, H₂O₂ stimulation of H9c2 cardiomyoblasts induced calpain activation, CHOP expression, and cell death, all of which were prevented by the calpain inhibitor PD150606, as well as CHOP silencing.

Conclusions

Over-expression of calpastatin ameliorates MI-induced myocardial injury in mice. These protective effects of calpastatin are partially achieved through suppression of the ER stress/CHOP pathway.

Targeting Calpain for Heart Failure Therapy: Implications From Multiple Murine Models

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Calpain is hyperactivated in human failing hearts and rodent heart failure models of different etiologies.

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Inhibition of calpain activity with MDL-28170 protects against cardiac dysfunction by preserving JP2 expression and T-tubule ultrastructural integrity in murine models of heart failure.

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Overexpression of JP2 delays the onset of early cardiac sudden death and heart failure, induced by calpain overactivation.

Heart failure remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in developed countries. There is still a strong need to devise new mechanism-based treatments for heart failure. Numerous studies have suggested the importance of the Ca²⁺-dependent protease calpain in cardiac physiology and pathology. However, no drugs are currently under development or testing in human patients to target calpain for heart failure treatment. Herein the data demonstrate that inhibition of calpain activity protects against deleterious ultrastructural remodeling and cardiac dysfunction in multiple rodent models of heart failure, providing compelling evidence that calpain inhibition is a promising therapeutic strategy for heart failure treatment.

Delayed, oral pharmacological inhibition of calpains attenuates adverse post-infarction remodelling

 

Calpains activate during myocardial ischemia-reperfusion and contribute to reperfusion injury. Studies in transgenic animals with altered calpain/calpastatin system subjected to permanent ischemia suggest that calpains are also involved in post-infarction remodelling and heart failure.

Aims

To determine whether delayed oral administration of the calpain inhibitor SNJ-1945 reduces adverse myocardial remodelling and dysfunction following transient coronary occlusion.

Methods and results

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to 30 min of ischemia followed by 21 days of reperfusion and received the calpain inhibitor SNJ-1945 intraperitoneally at the onset of reperfusion (Acute group), orally starting after 24 h of reperfusion and for 14 days (Chronic group), or the combination of both treatments. Calpain-1 and calpain-2 protein content increased and correlated with higher calpain activity in control hearts. Administration of SNJ-1945 attenuated calpain activation, and reduced scar expansion, ventricular dilation and dysfunction in both acute and chronic groups. Acute treatment reduced infarct size in hearts reperfused for 24 h and inflammation measured after 3 days. Delayed, chronic oral administration of SNJ-1945 attenuated inflammation, cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and collagen infiltration in the non-infarcted myocardium at 21 days in correlation with increased levels of IĸB and reduced NF-ĸB activation. In cultured fibroblasts, SNJ-1945 attenuated TGF-β1-induced fibroblast activation.

Conclusions

Our data demonstrate for the first time that long-term calpain inhibition is possible with delayed oral treatment, attenuates adverse post-infarction remodelling, likely through prevention of NF-ĸB activation, and may be a promising therapeutic intervention to prevent adverse remodelling and heart failure in patients with acute myocardial infarction.

Combined Analysis of Stress- and ECM-Related Genes in Their Effect on Weight Regain

OBJECTIVE

During weight loss, the volume of adipocytes decreases, leading to stress because of the misfit between the cell contents and the surrounding extracellular matrix (ECM). This stress can be resolved by remodeling the ECM or the restorage of triglycerides within the adipocytes. The objective of this study was to investigate the existence of a connection between stress-related and ECM-related genes that is associated with weight regain.

METHODS

Thirty-one participants with overweight or obesity followed a 5-week very-low-calorie diet (500 kcal/d) with a subsequent 4-week weight-stable diet (WS), and then an uncontrolled 9-month follow-up. Adipose tissue biopsies were collected for microarray analysis. A correlation and interaction analysis was performed with the weight regain percentage (WR%) ([weight after follow-up - weight after WS] ÷ weight after WS × 100%) by using two gene sets that were previously defined as "stress-related" (n = 107) and "ECM-related" genes (n = 277).

RESULTS

During WS, a coexpression network of 8 stress-related genes and 15 ECM-related genes correlating with WR% could be constructed, with links to multiple biological processes. Interaction analysis between stress- and ECM-related genes revealed that several gene combinations were highly related to weight regain.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings underscore the importance of the connection between stress- and ECM-related genes in the risk for weight regain.

Calpain Inhibition Attenuates Adipose Tissue Inflammation and Fibrosis in Diet-induced Obese Mice

Adipose tissue macrophages have been proposed as a link between obesity and insulin resistance. However, the mechanisms underlying these processes are not completely defined. Calpains are calcium-dependent neutral cysteine proteases that modulate cellular function and have been implicated in various inflammatory diseases. To define whether activated calpains influence diet-induced obesity and adipose tissue macrophage accumulation, mice that were either wild type (WT) or overexpressing calpastatin (CAST Tg), the endogenous inhibitor of calpains were fed with high (60% kcal) fat diet for 16 weeks. CAST overexpression did not influence high fat diet-induced body weight and fat mass gain throughout the study. Calpain inhibition showed a transient improvement in glucose tolerance at 5 weeks of HFD whereas it lost this effect on glucose and insulin tolerance at 16 weeks HFD in obese mice. However, CAST overexpression significantly reduced adipocyte apoptosis, adipose tissue collagen and macrophage accumulation as detected by TUNEL, Picro Sirius and F4/80 immunostaining, respectively. CAST overexpression significantly attenuated obesity-induced inflammatory responses in adipose tissue. Furthermore, calpain inhibition suppressed macrophage migration to adipose tissue in vitro. The present study demonstrates a pivotal role for calpains in mediating HFD-induced adipose tissue remodeling by influencing multiple functions including apoptosis, fibrosis and inflammation.

Sterile Inflammation and Degradation Systems in Heart Failure

In most patients with chronic heart failure (HF), levels of circulating cytokines are elevated and the elevated cytokine levels correlate with the severity of HF and prognosis. Various stresses induce subcellular component abnormalities, such as mitochondrial damage. Damaged mitochondria induce accumulation of reactive oxygen species and apoptogenic proteins, and subcellular inflammation. The vicious cycle of subcellular component abnormalities, inflammatory cell infiltration and neurohumoral activation induces cardiomyocyte injury and death, and cardiac fibrosis, resulting in cardiac dysfunction and HF. Quality control mechanisms at both the protein and organelle levels, such as elimination of apoptogenic proteins and damaged mitochondria, maintain cellular homeostasis. An imbalance between protein synthesis and degradation is likely to result in cellular dysfunction and disease. Three major protein degradation systems have been identified, namely the cysteine protease system, autophagy, and the ubiquitin proteasome system. Autophagy was initially believed to be a non-selective process. However, recent studies have described the process of selective mitochondrial autophagy, known as mitophagy. Elimination of damaged mitochondria by autophagy is important for maintenance of cellular homeostasis. DNA and RNA degradation systems also play a critical role in regulating inflammation and maintaining cellular homeostasis mediated by damaged DNA clearance and post-transcriptional regulation, respectively. This review discusses some recent advances in understanding the role of sterile inflammation and degradation systems in HF.

Critical role of calpain in inflammation

Calpains are a family of cysteine proteases, implicated in a wide range of cellular calcium-regulated functions. Evidence from previous studies using an inhibitor of calpain indicates that calpain activation is involved in the process of numerous inflammation-associated diseases. As a result of in-depth studies, calpains have been proposed to influence the process of inflammation via a variety of mechanisms. The aim of the present study is to provide an overview of recent reports regarding the role of calpain in the process of inflammation, including regulation of immune cell migration, modulation of the activation of inflammatory mediators, degradation of certain associated proteins and induction of cell apoptosis. Understanding these mechanisms may contribute to the investigation of novel therapeutic targets for inflammation-associated diseases.

Dual roles of calpain in facilitating Coxsackievirus B3 replication and prompting inflammation in acute myocarditis

Background

Viral myocarditis (VMC) treatment has long been lacking of effective methods. Our former studies indicated roles of calpain in VMC pathogenesis. This study aimed at verifying the potential of calpain in Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3)-induced myocarditis treatment.

Methods

A transgenic mouse overexpressing the endogenous calpain inhibitor, calpastatin, was introduced in the study. VMC mouse model was established via intraperitoneal injection of CVB3 in transgenic and wild mouse respectively. Myocardial injury was assayed histologically (HE staining and pathology grading) and serologically (myocardial damage markers of CK-MB and cTnI). CVB3 replication was observed in vivo and in vitro via the capsid protein VP1 detection or virus titration. Inflammation/fibrotic factors of MPO, perforin, IFNγ, IL17, Smad3 and MMP2 were evaluated using western blot or immunohistology stain. Role of calpain in regulating fibroblast migration was studied in scratch assays.

Results

Calpastatin overexpression ameliorated myocardial injury induced by CVB3 infection significantly in transgenic mouse indicated by reduced peripheral CK-MB and cTnI levels and improved histology injury. Comparing with CVB3-infected wild type mouse, the transgenic mouse heart tissue carried lower virus load. The inflammation factors of MPO, perforin, IFNγ and IL17 were down-regulated accompanied with fibrotic agents of Smad3 and MMP2 inhibition. And calpain participated in the migration of fibroblasts in vitro, which further proves its role in regulating fibrosis.

Conclusion

Calpain plays dual roles of facilitating CVB3 replication and inflammation promotion. Calpain inhibition in CVB3-induced myocarditis showed significant treatment effect. Calpain might be a novel target for VMC treatment in clinical practices.

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Calpain is involved in virus replication in myocarditis.

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Calpain mediates inflammation infiltration in myocarditis.

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Calpain might be a candidate for viral myocarditis treatment.

Mitochondrial function in hypoxic ischemic injury and influence of aging

Mitochondria are a major target in hypoxic/ischemic injury. Mitochondrial impairment increases with age leading to dysregulation of molecular pathways linked to mitochondria. The perturbation of mitochondrial homeostasis and cellular energetics worsens outcome following hypoxic-ischemic insults in elderly individuals. In response to acute injury conditions, cellular machinery relies on rapid adaptations by modulating posttranslational modifications. Therefore, post-translational regulation of molecular mediators such as hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator α (PGC-1α), c-MYC, SIRT1 and AMPK play a critical role in the control of the glycolytic-mitochondrial energy axis in response to hypoxic-ischemic conditions. The deficiency of oxygen and nutrients leads to decreased energetic reliance on mitochondria, promoting glycolysis. The combination of pseudohypoxia, declining autophagy, and dysregulation of stress responses with aging adds to impaired host response to hypoxic-ischemic injury. Furthermore, intermitochondrial signal propagation and tissue wide oscillations in mitochondrial metabolism in response to oxidative stress are emerging as vital to cellular energetics. Recently reported intercellular transport of mitochondria through tunneling nanotubes also play a role in the response to and treatments for ischemic injury. In this review we attempt to provide an overview of some of the molecular mechanisms and potential therapies involved in the alteration of cellular energetics with aging and injury with a neurobiological perspective.

Leukocyte Calpain Deficiency Reduces Angiotensin II-Induced Inflammation and Atherosclerosis But Not Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms in Mice

OBJECTIVE

Angiotensin II (AngII) infusion profoundly increases activity of calpains, calcium-dependent neutral cysteine proteases, in mice. Pharmacological inhibition of calpains attenuates AngII-induced aortic medial macrophage accumulation, atherosclerosis, and abdominal aortic aneurysm in mice. However, the precise functional contribution of leukocyte-derived calpains in AngII-induced vascular pathologies has not been determined. The purpose of this study was to determine whether calpains expressed in bone marrow (BM)-derived cells contribute to AngII-induced atherosclerosis and aortic aneurysms in hypercholesterolemic mice.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

To study whether leukocyte calpains contributed to AngII-induced aortic pathologies, irradiated male low-density lipoprotein receptor(-/-) mice were repopulated with BM-derived cells that were either wild-type or overexpressed calpastatin, the endogenous inhibitor of calpains. Mice were fed a fat-enriched diet and infused with AngII (1000 ng/kg per minute) for 4 weeks. Overexpression of calpastatin in BM-derived cells significantly attenuated AngII-induced atherosclerotic lesion formation in aortic arches, but had no effect on aneurysm formation. Using either BM-derived cells from calpain-1-deficient mice or mice with leukocyte-specific calpain-2 deficiency generated using cre-loxP recombination technology, further studies demonstrated that independent deficiency of either calpain-1 or -2 in leukocytes modestly attenuated AngII-induced atherosclerosis. Calpastatin overexpression significantly attenuated AngII-induced inflammatory responses in macrophages and spleen. Furthermore, calpain inhibition suppressed migration and adhesion of macrophages to endothelial cells in vitro. Calpain inhibition also significantly decreased hypercholesterolemia-induced atherosclerosis in the absence of AngII.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates a pivotal role for BM-derived calpains in mediating AngII-induced atherosclerosis by influencing macrophage function.

Gualou Xiebai decoction inhibits cardiac dysfunction and inflammation in cardiac fibrosis rats

Background

Gualou Xiebai Decoction (GXD) is a well-known traditional Chinese recipe. It has been used to treat cardiovascular disorders for nearly two thousand years. But there is a lack of reports on cardiac fibrosis and underlying mechanism.

Methods

Myocardial infarction was performed by ligation of left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) in male Wistar rats. Rats with myocardial infarction were treated with GXD (1.14 g/kg, 4.53 g/kg) daily for 4 weeks. Cardiac function was evaluated by echocardiography. Hemodynamic parameters and infarct size were measured in each group. Myocardial enzymes were examined by biochemical tests. Inflammatory cytokines were assessed by ELISA, and interrelated proteins were detected by western blot.

Results

Cardiac function was significantly improved in GXD-treatment rats after myocardial infarction (MI), which was accompanied with decreased infarct size. Administration of GXD to myocardial fibrosis rats significantly ameliorated the activities of AST, LDH and CK-MB in serum. The increase in inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β) were markedly reduced upon GXD treatment. Furthermore, the inflammatory mediators (NF-κB p65, TNF-α, MCP-1) were down-regulated by GXD in the myocardial fibrosis rats.

Conclusions

Treatment with GXD improved cardiac function induced by myocardial fibrosis by inhibiting expression of inflammatory mediators associated with NF-κB.

Mitochondrial Calpain-1 Disrupts ATP Synthase and Induces Superoxide Generation in Type 1 Diabetic Hearts: A Novel Mechanism Contributing to Diabetic Cardiomyopathy

Calpain plays a critical role in cardiomyopathic changes in type 1 diabetes (T1D). This study investigated how calpain regulates mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy. T1D was induced in transgenic mice overexpressing calpastatin, in mice with cardiomyocyte-specific capn4 deletion, or in their wild-type littermates by injection of streptozotocin. Calpain-1 protein and activity in mitochondria were elevated in diabetic mouse hearts. The increased mitochondrial calpain-1 was associated with an increase in mitochondrial ROS generation and oxidative damage and a reduction in ATP synthase-α (ATP5A1) protein and ATP synthase activity. Genetic inhibition of calpain or upregulation of ATP5A1 increased ATP5A1 and ATP synthase activity, prevented mitochondrial ROS generation and oxidative damage, and reduced cardiomyopathic changes in diabetic mice. High glucose concentration induced ATP synthase disruption, mitochondrial superoxide generation, and cell death in cardiomyocytes, all of which were prevented by overexpression of mitochondria-targeted calpastatin or ATP5A1. Moreover, upregulation of calpain-1 specifically in mitochondria induced the cleavage of ATP5A1, superoxide generation, and apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. In summary, calpain-1 accumulation in mitochondria disrupts ATP synthase and induces ROS generation, which promotes diabetic cardiomyopathy. These findings suggest a novel mechanism for and may have significant implications in diabetic cardiac complications.

Calpastatin overexpression impairs postinfarct scar healing in mice by compromising reparative immune cell recruitment and activation

The activation of the calpain system is involved in the repair process following myocardial infarction (MI). However, the impact of the inhibition of calpain by calpastatin, its natural inhibitor, on scar healing and left ventricular (LV) remodeling is elusive. Male mice ubiquitously overexpressing calpastatin (TG) and wild-type (WT) controls were subjected to an anterior coronary artery ligation. Mortality at 6 wk was higher in TG mice (24% in WT vs. 44% in TG, P < 0.05) driven by a significantly higher incidence of cardiac rupture during the first week post-MI, despite comparable infarct size and LV dysfunction and dilatation. Calpain activation post-MI was blunted in TG myocardium. In TG mice, inflammatory cell infiltration and activation were reduced in the infarct zone (IZ), particularly affecting M2 macrophages and CD4(+) T cells, which are crucial for scar healing. To elucidate the role of calpastatin overexpression in macrophages, we stimulated peritoneal macrophages obtained from TG and WT mice in vitro with IL-4, yielding an abrogated M2 polarization in TG but not in WT cells. Lymphopenic Rag1(-/-) mice receiving TG splenocytes before MI demonstrated decreased T-cell recruitment and M2 macrophage activation in the IZ day 5 after MI compared with those receiving WT splenocytes. Calpastatin overexpression prevented the activation of the calpain system after MI. It also impaired scar healing, promoted LV rupture, and increased mortality. Defective scar formation was associated with blunted CD4(+) T-cell and M2-macrophage recruitment.

Heart mitochondria and calpain 1: Location, function, and targets

Calpain 1 is an ubiquitous Ca(2+)-dependent cysteine protease. Although calpain 1 has been found in cardiac mitochondria, the exact location within mitochondrial compartments and its function remain unclear. The aim of the current review is to discuss the localization of calpain 1 in different mitochondrial compartments in relationship to its function, especially in pathophysiological conditions. Briefly, mitochondrial calpain 1 (mit-CPN1) is located within the intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix. Activation of the mit-CPN1 within intermembrane space cleaves apoptosis inducing factor (AIF), whereas the activated mit-CPN1 within matrix cleaves complex I subunits and metabolic enzymes. Inhibition of the mit-CPN1 could be a potential strategy to decrease cardiac injury during ischemia-reperfusion.

Silencing of miR-195 reduces diabetic cardiomyopathy in C57BL/6 mice

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

MicroRNAs (miRs) have been suggested as potential therapeutic targets for heart diseases. Inhibition of miR-195 prevents apoptosis in cardiomyocytes stimulated with palmitate and transgenic overexpression of miR-195 induces cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. We investigated whether silencing of miR-195 reduces diabetic cardiomyopathy in a mouse model of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 1 diabetes.

METHODS

Type 1 diabetes was induced in C57BL/6 mice (male, 2 months old) by injections of STZ.

RESULTS

MiR-195 expression was increased and levels of its target proteins (B cell leukaemia/lymphoma 2 and sirtuin 1) were decreased in STZ-induced type 1 and db/db type 2 diabetic mouse hearts. Systemically delivering an anti-miR-195 construct knocked down miR-195 expression in the heart, reduced caspase-3 activity, decreased oxidative stress, attenuated myocardial hypertrophy and improved myocardial function in STZ-induced mice with a concurrent upregulation of B cell leukaemia/lymphoma 2 and sirtuin 1. Diabetes reduced myocardial capillary density and decreased maximal coronary blood flow in mice. Knockdown of miR-195 increased myocardial capillary density and improved maximal coronary blood flow in diabetic mice. Upregulation of miR-195 sufficiently induced apoptosis in cardiomyocytes and attenuated the angiogenesis of cardiac endothelial cells in vitro. Furthermore, inhibition of miR-195 prevented apoptosis in cardiac endothelial cells in response to NEFA, an important feature of diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Therapeutic silencing of miR-195 reduces myocardial hypertrophy and improves coronary blood flow and myocardial function in diabetes, at least in part by reducing oxidative damage, inhibiting apoptosis and promoting angiogenesis. Thus, miR-195 may represent an alternative therapeutic target for diabetic heart diseases.

Degradation systems in heart failure

Heart failure is a complex clinical syndrome that results from any structural or functional impairment of ventricular filling or the ejection of blood, and is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in industrialized countries. The mechanisms underlying the development of heart failure are multiple, complex and not well understood. Cardiac mass and its homeostasis are maintained by the balance between protein synthesis and degradation, and an imbalance is likely to result in cellular dysfunction and disease. The protein degradation systems are the principle mechanisms for maintaining cellular homeostasis via protein quality control. Three major protein degradation systems have been identified, namely the calpain system, autophagy, and the ubiquitin proteasome system. Proinflammatory mediators involve the development and progression of heart failure. DNA and RNA degradation systems play a critical role in regulating inflammation and maintaining cellular homeostasis mediated by damaged DNA clearance and posttranscriptional regulation, respectively. This review discusses some recent advances in understanding the role of these degradation systems in heart failure.

Toll-interacting protein contributes to mortality following myocardial infarction through promoting inflammation and apoptosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Toll-interacting protein (Tollip) is an endogenous inhibitor of toll-like receptors, a superfamily that plays a pivotal role in various pathological conditions, including myocardial infarction (MI). However, the exact role of Tollip in MI remains unknown.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

MI models were established in Tollip knockout (KO) mice, mice with cardiac-specific overexpression of human Tollip gene and in their Tollip(+/+) and non-transgenic controls respectively. The effects of Tollip on MI were evaluated by mortality, infarct size and cardiac function. Hypoxia-induced cardiomyocyte damage was investigated in vitro to confirm the role of Tollip in heart damage.

KEY RESULTS

Tollip expression was dramatically up-regulated in human ischaemic hearts and infarcted mice hearts. MI-induced mortality, infarct size and cardiac dysfunction were decreased in Tollip-KO mice compared with Tollip(+/+) controls. Ischaemic hearts from Tollip-KO mice exhibited decreased inflammatory cell infiltration and reduced NF-κB activation. Tollip depletion also alleviated myocardial apoptosis by down-regulating pro-apoptotic protein levels and up-regulating anti-apoptotic protein expressions in infarct border zone. Conversely, MI effects were exacerbated in mice with cardiac-specific Tollip overexpression. This aggravated MI injury by Tollip in vivo was confirmed with in vitro assays. Inhibition of Akt signalling was associated with the detrimental effects of Tollip on MI injury; activation of Akt largely reversed the deleterious effects of Tollip on MI-induced cardiomyocyte death.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Tollip promotes inflammatory and apoptotic responses after MI, leading to increased mortality and aggravated cardiac dysfunction. These findings suggest that Tollip may serve as a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of MI.

Over-expression of calpastatin inhibits calpain activation and attenuates post-infarction myocardial remodeling

Background

Calpain is activated following myocardial infarction and ablation of calpastatin (CAST), an endogenous inhibitor of calpains, promotes left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction (MI). The present study aimed to investigate the effect of transgenic over-expression of CAST on the post-infarction myocardial remodeling process.

Method

We established transgenic mice (TG) ubiquitously over-expressing human CAST protein and produced MI in TG mice and C57BL/6J wild-type (WT) littermates.

Results

The CAST protein expression was profoundly upregulated in the myocardial tissue of TG mice compared with WT littermates (P < 0.01). Overexpression of CAST significantly reduced the infarct size (P < 0.01) and blunted MI-induced interventricular hypertrophy, global myocardial fibrosis and collagen I and collagen III deposition, hypotension and hemodynamic disturbances at 21 days after MI. Moreover, the MI-induced up-regulation and activation of calpains were obviously attenuated in CAST TG mice. MI-induced down-regulation of CAST was partially reversed in TG mice. Additionally, the MI-caused imbalance of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors was improved in TG mice.

Conclusions

Transgenic over-expression of CAST inhibits calpain activation and attenuates post-infarction myocardial remodeling.

Calpain-1 induces endoplasmic reticulum stress in promoting cardiomyocyte apoptosis following hypoxia/reoxygenation

Both calpain activation and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress are implicated in ischemic heart injury. However, the role of calpain in ER stress remains largely elusive. This study investigated whether calpain activation causes ER stress, thereby mediating cardiomyocyte apoptosis in an in vitro model of hypoxia/re-oxygenation (H/R). In neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes and rat cardiomyocyte-like H9c2 cells, up-regulation of calpain-1 sufficiently induced ER stress, c-Jun N-terminal protein kinase1/2 (JNK1/2) activation and apoptosis. Inhibition of ER stress or JNK1/2 prevented apoptosis induced by calpain-1. In an in vitro model of H/R-induced injury in cardiomyocytes, H/R was induced by a 24-hour hypoxia followed by a 24-hour re-oxygenation. H/R activated calpain-1, induced ER stress and JNK1/2 activation, and triggered apoptosis. Inhibition of calpain and ER stress blocked JNK1/2 activation and prevented H/R-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, blockade of JNK1/2 signaling inhibited apoptosis following H/R. The role of calpain in ER stress was also demonstrated in an in vivo model of ischemia/reperfusion using transgenic mice over-expressing calpastatin. In summary, calpain-1 induces ER stress and JNK1/2 activation, thereby mediating apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. Accordingly, inhibition of calpain prevents ER stress, JNK1/2 activation and apoptosis in H/R-induced cardiomyocytes. Thus, ER stress/JNK1/2 activation may represent an important mechanism linking calpain-1 to ischemic injury.

Calpain system and its involvement in myocardial ischemia and reperfusion injury

Calpains are ubiquitous non-lysosomal Ca²⁺-dependent cysteine proteases also present in myocardial cytosol and mitochondria. Numerous experimental studies reveal an essential role of the calpain system in myocardial injury during ischemia, reperfusion and postischemic structural remodelling. The increasing Ca²⁺-content and Ca²⁺-overload in myocardial cytosol and mitochondria during ischemia and reperfusion causes an activation of calpains. Upon activation they are able to injure the contractile apparatus and impair the energy production by cleaving structural and functional proteins of myocytes and mitochondria. Besides their causal involvement in acute myocardial dysfunction they are also involved in structural remodelling after myocardial infarction by the generation and release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria. Calpain inhibition can prevent or attenuate myocardial injury during ischemia, reperfusion, and in later stages of myocardial infarction.

Calpain-dependent cleavage of N-cadherin is involved in the progression of post-myocardial infarction remodeling

Enzymatic proteolysis by calpains, Ca(2+)-dependent intracellular cysteine proteases, has been implicated in pathological processes such as cellular degeneration or death. Here, we investigated the role of calpain activation in the hearts subjected to myocardial infarction. We produced myocardial infarction in Cast(-/-) mice deficient for calpastatin, the specific endogenous inhibitory protein for calpains, and Cast(+/+) mice. The activity of cardiac calpains in Cast(+/+) mice was not elevated within 1 day but showed a gradual elevation after 7 days following myocardial infarction, which was further pronounced in Cast(-/-) mice. Although the prevalence of cardiomyocyte death was indistinguishable between Cast(-/-) and Cast(+/+) mice, Cast(-/-) mice exhibited profound contractile dysfunction and chamber dilatation and showed a significant reduction in survival rate after myocardial infarction as compared with Cast(+/+) mice. Notably, immunofluorescence revealed that at 28 days after myocardial infarction, calpains were activated in cardiomyocytes exclusively at the border zone and that Cast(-/-) mice showed higher intensity and a broader extent of calpain activation at the border zone than Cast(+/+) mice. In the border zone of Cast(-/-) mice, pronounced activation of calpains was associated with a decrease in N-cadherin expression and up-regulation of molecular markers for cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis. In cultured rat neonatal cardiomyocytes, calpain activation by treatment with ionomycin induced cleavage of N-cadherin and decreased expression levels of β-catenin and connexin 43, which was attenuated by calpain inhibitor. These results thus demonstrate that activation of calpains disassembles cell-cell adhesion at intercalated discs by degrading N-cadherin and thereby promotes left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction.

Sang-qi Granula Reduces Blood Pressure and Myocardial Fibrosis by Suppressing Inflammatory Responses Associated with the Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors and Nuclear Factor κ B Protein in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

Aim. Sang-qi Granula (SQ) is a compound prepared from Chinese herbs and is currently used for treatment of hypertension in China. Given its protective effects on cardial function in decreasing blood pressure, we investigated the mechanism of protective effects of SQ on myocardium. Methods. 16 male normal Wistar-Kyoto rats and 16 spontaneous hypertension rats (SHR) were employed without medical treatment. 16 SHR were employed with SQ treatment. Rats in each group were sacrificed at two time points (8-week treatment and 16-week treatment). Blood pressure (BP), and heart weight/body weight (HW/BW) were measured. The expression of myeloperoxidase (MCP-1), ICAM-1, TNF- α , and CD68-positive cells was assessed. The interstitial collagen volume fraction (CVF), perivascular collagen volume area (PVCA), and the expression of TGF- β , Smad-3, PPAR α , γ , and NF- κ B (P65 and P50) were observed. Results. SQ significantly inhibited the elevation of the blood pressure and HW/BW of SHR. Next, SQ prevented myocardial fibrosis. Finally, a proinflammatory mediator associated with NF- κ B (TNF- α , ICAM-1, MCP-1, CD68), TGF- β , and Smad-3 related to collagen deposition, which is upregulated in SHR group, was significantly suppressed by SQ. Expression of NF- κ B was decreased in SHQ+SQ group compared to PPAR α , and γ expression was increased by SQ. Conclusion. Treatment with SQ ameliorates cardial fibrosis induced by hypertension by attenuating the upregulation of ICAM-1, TNF- α , MCP-1, TGF- β , Smad-3, P65, and P50 expression and improving PPAR α and PPAR γ expression level. The results suggest that SQ may be an option for preventing cardial fibrosis through PPAR signalling pathway.