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Jiang K, Yu H, Kong L, Liu S, Li Q. Molecular characterization of transcription factor CREB3L2 and CREB3L3 and their role in melanogenesis in Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2024; 273:110970. [PMID: 38604561 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2024.110970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
Colorful shells in mollusks are commonly attributable to the presence of biological pigments. In Pacific oysters, the inheritance patterns of several shell colors have been investigated, but little is known about the molecular mechanisms of melanogenesis and pigmentation. cAMP-response element binding proteins (CREB) are important transcription factors in the cAMP-mediated melanogenesis pathway. In this study, we characterized two CREB genes (CREB3L2 and CREB3L3) from Pacific oysters. Both of them contained a conserved DNA-binding and dimerization domain (a basic-leucine zipper domain). CREB3L2 and CREB3L3 were expressed highly in the mantle tissues and exhibited higher expression levels in the black-shell oyster than in the white. Masson-Fontana melanin staining and immunofluorescence analysis showed that the location of CREB3L2 protein was generally consistent with the distribution of melanin in oyster edge mantle. Dual-luciferase reporter assays revealed that CREB3L2 and CREB3L3 could activate the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) promoter and this process was regulated by the level of cAMP. Additionally, we found that cAMP regulated melanogenic gene expression through the CREB-MITF-TYR axis. These results implied that CREB3L2 and CREB3L3 play important roles in melanin synthesis and pigmentation in Pacific oysters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunyin Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Hong Yu
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Lingfeng Kong
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Shikai Liu
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China
| | - Qi Li
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266003, China; Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China.
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2
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Jiang K, Yu H, Kong L, Liu S, Li Q. cAMP-Mediated CREM-MITF-TYR Axis Regulates Melanin Synthesis in Pacific Oysters. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 26:460-474. [PMID: 38613620 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-024-10309-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/15/2024]
Abstract
Colorful shells in bivalves are mostly caused by the presence of biological pigments, among which melanin is a key component in the formation of shell colours. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is an important messenger in the regulation of pigmentation in some species. However, the role of cAMP in bivalve melanogenesis has not yet been reported. In this study, we performed in vitro and in vivo experiments to determine the role of cAMP in regulating melanogenesis in Pacific oysters. Besides, the function of cAMP-responsive element modulator (CREM) and the interactions between CREM and melanogenic genes were investigated. Our results showed that a high level of cAMP promotes the expression of melanogenic genes in Pacific oysters. CREM controls the expression of the MITF gene under cAMP regulation. In addition, CREM can regulate melanogenic gene expression, tyrosine metabolism, and melanin synthesis. These results indicate that cAMP plays an important role in the regulation of melanogenesis in Pacific oysters. CREM is a key transcription factor in the oyster melanin synthesis pathway, which plays a crucial role in oyster melanin synthesis through a cAMP-mediated CREM-MITF-TYR axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunyin Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Hong Yu
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Lingfeng Kong
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Shikai Liu
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Qi Li
- Key Laboratory of Mariculture, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China.
- Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China.
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3
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Lee SY, Lee J, Park HL, Park YW, Kim H, Nam JH. The Adenylyl Cyclase Activator Forskolin Increases Influenza Virus Propagation in MDCK Cells by Regulating ERK1/2 Activity. J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 33:1576-1586. [PMID: 37644733 PMCID: PMC10772552 DOI: 10.4014/jmb.2306.06027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Vaccination is the most effective method for preventing the spread of the influenza virus. Cell-based influenza vaccines have been developed to overcome the disadvantages of egg-based vaccines and their production efficiency has been previously discussed. In this study, we investigated whether treatment with forskolin (FSK), an adenylyl cyclase activator, affected the output of a cell-based influenza vaccine. We found that FSK increased the propagation of three influenza virus subtypes (A/H1N1/California/4/09, A/H3N2/Mississippi/1/85, and B/Shandong/7/97) in Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells. Interestingly, FSK suppressed the growth of MDCK cells. This effect could be a result of protein kinase A (PKA)-Src axis activation, which downregulates extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 activity and delays cell cycle progression from G1 to S. This delay in cell growth might benefit the binding and entry of the influenza virus in the early stages of viral replication. In contrast, FSK dramatically upregulated ERK1/2 activity via the cAMP-PKA-Raf-1 axis at a late stage of viral replication. Thus, increased ERK1/2 activity might contribute to increased viral ribonucleoprotein export and influenza virus propagation. The increase in viral titer induced by FSK could be explained by the action of cAMP in assisting the entry and binding of the influenza virus. Therefore, FSK addition to cell culture systems could help increase the production efficiency of cell-based vaccines against the influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Yeon Lee
- Department of Medical and Biological Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Republic of Korea
| | - Jisun Lee
- Department of Medical and Biological Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Lim Park
- Department of Medical and Biological Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Wook Park
- Department of R&D, SK Bioscience, Seongnam 13493, Republic of Korea
| | - Hun Kim
- Department of R&D, SK Bioscience, Seongnam 13493, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Hwan Nam
- Department of Medical and Biological Sciences, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon 14662, Republic of Korea
- BK21 FOUR Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea
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Kubohara Y, Fukunaga Y, Kikuchi H, Kuwayama H. Pharmacological Evidence That Dictyostelium Differentiation-Inducing Factor 1 Promotes Glucose Uptake Partly via an Increase in Intracellular cAMP Content in Mouse 3T3-L1 Cells. Molecules 2023; 28:7926. [PMID: 38067655 PMCID: PMC10708055 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28237926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Differentiation-inducing factor 1 (DIF-1) isolated from the cellular slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum can inhibit mammalian calmodulin-dependent cAMP/cGMP phosphodiesterase (PDE1) in vitro. DIF-1 also promotes glucose uptake, at least in part, via a mitochondria- and AMPK-dependent pathway in mouse 3T3-L1 fibroblast cells, but the mechanism underlying this effect has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we investigated the effects of DIF-1 on intracellular cAMP and cGMP levels, as well as the effects that DIF-1 and several compounds that increase cAMP and cGMP levels have on glucose uptake in confluent 3T3-L1 cells. DIF-1 at 20 μM (a concentration that promotes glucose uptake) increased the level of intracellular cAMP by about 20% but did not affect the level of intracellular cGMP. Neither the PDE1 inhibitor 8-methoxymethyl-3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine at 10-200 μM nor the broad-range PDE inhibitor 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine at 40-400 μM had any marked effects on glucose uptake. The membrane-permeable cAMP analog 8-bromo-cAMP at 200-1000 μM significantly promoted glucose uptake (by 20-25%), whereas the membrane-permeable cGMP analog 8-bromo-cGMP at 3-100 μM did not affect glucose uptake. The adenylate cyclase activator forskolin at 1-10 μM promoted glucose uptake by 20-30%. Thus, DIF-1 may promote glucose uptake by 3T3-L1 cells, at least in part, via an increase in intracellular cAMP level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzuru Kubohara
- Laboratory of Health and Life Science, Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai 270-1695, Japan
| | - Yuko Fukunaga
- Department of Animal Risk Management, Faculty of Risk and Crisis Management, Chiba Institute of Science, Choshi 288-0025, Japan;
| | - Haruhisa Kikuchi
- Division of Natural Medicines, Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University, Tokyo 105-8512, Japan;
| | - Hidekazu Kuwayama
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba 305-8572, Japan;
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5
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Woranush W, Moskopp ML, Noll T, Dieterich P. Quantifying and mathematical modelling of the influence of soluble adenylate cyclase on cell cycle in human endothelial cells with Bayesian inference. J Cell Mol Med 2022; 26:5887-5900. [DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.17611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Warunya Woranush
- Institut für Physiologie, Medizinische Fakultät Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden Dresden Germany
| | - Mats Leif Moskopp
- Institut für Physiologie, Medizinische Fakultät Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden Dresden Germany
- Vivantes Klinikum im Friedrichshain, Charité Academic Teaching Hospital, Klinik für Neurochirurgie Berlin Germany
| | - Thomas Noll
- Institut für Physiologie, Medizinische Fakultät Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden Dresden Germany
| | - Peter Dieterich
- Institut für Physiologie, Medizinische Fakultät Carl Gustav Carus, Technische Universität Dresden Dresden Germany
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Chaudhary V, Ah Kioon MD, Hwang SM, Mishra B, Lakin K, Kirou KA, Zhang-Sun J, Wiseman RL, Spiera RF, Crow MK, Gordon JK, Cubillos-Ruiz JR, Barrat FJ. Chronic activation of pDCs in autoimmunity is linked to dysregulated ER stress and metabolic responses. J Exp Med 2022; 219:e20221085. [PMID: 36053251 PMCID: PMC9441715 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20221085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) chronically produce type I interferon (IFN-I) in autoimmune diseases, including systemic sclerosis (SSc) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We report that the IRE1α-XBP1 branch of the unfolded protein response (UPR) inhibits IFN-α production by TLR7- or TLR9-activated pDCs. In SSc patients, UPR gene expression was reduced in pDCs, which inversely correlated with IFN-I-stimulated gene expression. CXCL4, a chemokine highly secreted in SSc patients, downregulated IRE1α-XBP1-controlled genes and promoted IFN-α production by pDCs. Mechanistically, IRE1α-XBP1 activation rewired glycolysis to serine biosynthesis by inducing phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH) expression. This process reduced pyruvate access to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and blunted mitochondrial ATP generation, which are essential for pDC IFN-I responses. Notably, PHGDH expression was reduced in pDCs from patients with SSc and SLE, and pharmacological blockade of TCA cycle reactions inhibited IFN-I responses in pDCs from these patients. Hence, modulating the IRE1α-XBP1-PHGDH axis may represent a hitherto unexplored strategy for alleviating chronic pDC activation in autoimmune disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vidyanath Chaudhary
- HSS Research Institute and David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Research Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY
| | - Marie Dominique Ah Kioon
- HSS Research Institute and David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Research Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
| | - Sung-Min Hwang
- Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center and Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Bikash Mishra
- HSS Research Institute and David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Research Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Kimberly Lakin
- Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Scleroderma and Vasculitis Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
| | - Kyriakos A. Kirou
- Mary Kirkland Center for Lupus Research, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
| | - Jeffrey Zhang-Sun
- Mary Kirkland Center for Lupus Research, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
| | - R. Luke Wiseman
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA
| | - Robert F. Spiera
- Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Scleroderma and Vasculitis Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
| | - Mary K. Crow
- HSS Research Institute and David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Research Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
- Mary Kirkland Center for Lupus Research, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Jessica K. Gordon
- Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology and Scleroderma and Vasculitis Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
| | - Juan R. Cubillos-Ruiz
- Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center and Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Franck J. Barrat
- HSS Research Institute and David Z. Rosensweig Genomics Research Center, Hospital for Special Surgery, New York, NY
- Immunology and Microbial Pathogenesis Program, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY
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7
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Guo R, Liu T, Shasaltaneh MD, Wang X, Imani S, Wen Q. Targeting Adenylate Cyclase Family: New Concept of Targeted Cancer Therapy. Front Oncol 2022; 12:829212. [PMID: 35832555 PMCID: PMC9271773 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.829212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The adenylate cyclase (ADCY) superfamily is a group of glycoproteins regulating intracellular signaling. ADCYs act as key regulators in the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) signaling pathway and are related to cell sensitivity to chemotherapy and ionizing radiation. Many members of the superfamily are detectable in most chemoresistance cases despite the complexity and unknownness of the specific mechanism underlying the role of ADCYs in the proliferation and invasion of cancer cells. The overactivation of ADCY, as well as its upstream and downstream regulators, is implicated as a major potential target of novel anticancer therapies and markers of exceptional responders to chemotherapy. The present review focuses on the oncogenic functions of the ADCY family and emphasizes the possibility of the mediating roles of deleterious nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (nsSNPs) in ADCY as a prognostic therapeutic target in modulating resistance to chemotherapy and immunotherapy. It assesses the mediating roles of ADCY and its counterparts as stress regulators in reprogramming cancer cell metabolism and the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, the well-evaluated inhibitors of ADCY-related signaling, which are under clinical investigation, are highlighted. A better understanding of ADCY-induced signaling and deleterious nsSNPs (p.E1003K and p.R1116C) in ADCY6 provides new opportunities for developing novel therapeutic strategies in personalized oncology and new approaches to enhance chemoimmunotherapy efficacy in treating various cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Guo
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Tian Liu
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | | | - Xuan Wang
- China Regional Research Center, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Taizhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Saber Imani
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- China Regional Research Center, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Taizhou, Jiangsu, China
- *Correspondence: Saber Imani, ; QingLian Wen,
| | - QingLian Wen
- Department of Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Saber Imani, ; QingLian Wen,
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Olguín-Martínez E, Muñoz-Paleta O, Ruiz-Medina BE, Ramos-Balderas JL, Licona-Limón I, Licona-Limón P. IL-33 and the PKA Pathway Regulate ILC2 Populations Expressing IL-9 and ST2. Front Immunol 2022; 13:787713. [PMID: 35711429 PMCID: PMC9197159 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.787713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 2 Innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) are tissue-resident immune cells activated by epithelial-derived alarmins upon tissue damage. They regulate immunity against helminth parasites and allergies by expressing type 2 immune response cytokines including IL-9, known to be critical for inducing and potentiating the immune response in such context. Although ILC2s are reported to be the main source of IL-9 in mice during N. brasiliensis infection, the mechanisms that regulate the expression of IL-9 in these cells are yet to be described. Recent studies have shown that in addition to cytokines, multiple molecules can differentially modulate the functions of ILC2s in various contexts both in vitro and in vivo. Among these stimuli are lipid mediators and neuropeptides, which activate the PKA pathway and have been associated with the regulation of type 2 immune cytokines. In this work we found that ILC2s in mice infected with N. brasiliensis can be classified into different groups based on the expression of IL-9 and ST2. These distinct populations were distributed in the lung and the small intestine. Through the development of an in vitro culture system, we sought to determine the stimuli that regulate the expression of these markers in ILC2s. We identified the alarmin IL-33 as being a key player for increased IL-9 expression. Additionally, we found the PKA pathway to be a dual regulator of ILC2 cells, working synergistically with IL-33 to enhance IL-9 production and capable of modulating proliferation and the expression of ILC2 markers. These data provide further evidence of a high heterogeneity between ILC2 subsets in a context dependent manner and calls for careful consideration when choosing the markers to identify these cells in vivo. Distinguishing ILC2 subsets and dissecting their mechanisms of activation is critical for a deeper understanding of the biology of these cells, allowing their manipulation for therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Olguín-Martínez
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México City, Mexico
| | - Ofelia Muñoz-Paleta
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México City, Mexico
| | - Blanca E. Ruiz-Medina
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México City, Mexico
| | - Jose Luis Ramos-Balderas
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México City, Mexico
| | | | - Paula Licona-Limón
- Departamento de Biología Celular y del Desarrollo, Instituto de Fisiología Celular, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México City, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Paula Licona-Limón,
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9
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Anti-inflammation and anti-cancer effects of Naringenin combination with Artemisinins in human lung cancer cells. GENE REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.genrep.2022.101532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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10
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Riff R, Naamani O, Mazar J, Haviv YS, Chaimovitz C, Douvdevani A. A 1 and A 2A adenosine receptors play a protective role to reduce prevalence of autoimmunity following tissue damage. Clin Exp Immunol 2021; 205:278-287. [PMID: 33894002 PMCID: PMC8374218 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenosine is a potent modulator that has a tremendous effect on the immune system. Adenosine affects T cell activity, and is necessary in maintaining the T helper/regulatory T cell (Treg ) ratio. Adenosine signalling is also involved in activating neutrophils and the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), which has been linked to autoimmune disorders. Therefore, adenosine, through its receptors, is extremely important in maintaining homeostasis and involved in the development of autoimmune diseases. In this study, we aim to evaluate the role of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors in involvement of autoimmune diseases. We studied adenosine regulation by NETosis in vitro, and used two murine models of autoimmune diseases: type I diabetes mellitus (T1DM) induced by low-dose streptozotocin and pristane-induced systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). We have found that A1 R enhances and A2A R suppresses NETosis. In addition, in both models, A1 R-knock-out (KO) mice were predisposed to the development of autoimmunity. In the SLE model in wild-type (WT) mice we observed a decline of A1 R mRNA levels 6 h after pristane injection that was parallel to lymphocyte reduction. Following pristane, 43% of A1 R-KO mice suffered from lupus-like disease while WT mice remained without any sign of disease at 36 weeks. In WT mice, at 10 days A2A R mRNA levels were significantly higher compared to A1R-KO mice. Similar to SLE, in the T1DM model the presence of A1 R and A2A R was protective. Our data suggest that, in autoimmune diseases, the acute elimination of lymphocytes and reduction of DNA release due to NETosis depends upon A1 R desensitization and long-term suppression of A2A R.
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MESH Headings
- Adenosine/metabolism
- Animals
- Autoimmunity/immunology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/immunology
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/pathology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Extracellular Traps/immunology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/immunology
- Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic/pathology
- Lymphopenia/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Neutrophil Activation/immunology
- Neutrophils/immunology
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- Receptor, Adenosine A1/genetics
- Receptor, Adenosine A1/metabolism
- Receptor, Adenosine A2A/genetics
- Receptor, Adenosine A2A/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- Streptozocin
- Terpenes
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Affiliation(s)
- Reut Riff
- Departments of Clinical Biochemistry and PharmacologyFaculty of Health SciencesBen‐Gurion University of the Negev and Soroka University Medical CenterBeer‐ShevaIsrael
- Present address:
Weizmann Institute of ScienceWolfson Building 158, 234 Herzl StreetFehovot7610001Israel
| | - Oshri Naamani
- Departments of Clinical Biochemistry and PharmacologyFaculty of Health SciencesBen‐Gurion University of the Negev and Soroka University Medical CenterBeer‐ShevaIsrael
- Department of ScienceHemdat HadaromCollege of EducationNetivotIsrael
| | - Julia Mazar
- Laboratory of Nephrology HematologyFaculty of Health SciencesBen‐Gurion University of the NegevBeer‐ShevaIsrael
| | - Yosef S. Haviv
- Department of Nephrology HematologyFaculty of Health SciencesBen‐Gurion University of the Negev and Soroka University Medical CenterBeer‐ShevaIsrael
| | - Cidio Chaimovitz
- Department of Nephrology HematologyFaculty of Health SciencesBen‐Gurion University of the Negev and Soroka University Medical CenterBeer‐ShevaIsrael
| | - Amos Douvdevani
- Departments of Clinical Biochemistry and PharmacologyFaculty of Health SciencesBen‐Gurion University of the Negev and Soroka University Medical CenterBeer‐ShevaIsrael
- Department of Nephrology HematologyFaculty of Health SciencesBen‐Gurion University of the Negev and Soroka University Medical CenterBeer‐ShevaIsrael
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11
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Release of adenosine-induced immunosuppression: Comprehensive characterization of dual A 2A/A 2B receptor antagonist. Int Immunopharmacol 2021; 96:107645. [PMID: 33894488 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2021.107645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Immunosuppression is one of the main mechanisms facilitating tumor expansion. It may be driven by immune checkpoint protein expression, anti-inflammatory cytokine secretion or enhanced metabolic enzyme production, leading to the subsequent build-up of metabolites such as adenosine. Under physiological conditions, adenosine prevents the development of tissue damage resulting from a prolonged immune response; the same mechanism might be employed by tumor tissue to promote immunosuppression. Immune cells expressing A2A and A2B adenosine receptors present in an adenosine-rich environment have suppressed effector functions, such as cytotoxicity, proinflammatory cytokine release, antigen presentation and others, making them inert to cancer cells. This study was designed to investigate the dual antagonist potential of SEL330-639 to abolish adenosine-driven immunosuppression. SEL330-639 has slow dissociation kinetics. It inhibits cAMP production in human CD4+ cells, CD8+ cells and moDCs, which leads to diminished CREB phosphorylation and restoration of antitumor cytokine production (IL-2, TNFα, IL-12) in multiple primary human immune cells. The aforementioned results were additionally validated by gene expression analysis and functional assays in which NK cell line cytotoxicity was recovered by SEL330-639. Adenosine-driven immunosuppression is believed to preclude the effectiveness of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop new immuno-oncological strategies. Here, we comprehensively characterize SEL330-639, a novel dual A2A/A2B receptor antagonist effective in both lymphoid and myeloid cell populations with nanomolar potency. Due to its tight binding to the A2A and A2B receptors, this binding is sustained even at high adenosine concentrations mimicking the upper limit of the range of adenosine levels observed in the tumor microenvironment.
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12
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Kalash L, Winfield I, Safitri D, Bermudez M, Carvalho S, Glen R, Ladds G, Bender A. Structure-based identification of dual ligands at the A 2AR and PDE10A with anti-proliferative effects in lung cancer cell-lines. J Cheminform 2021; 13:17. [PMID: 33658076 PMCID: PMC7927403 DOI: 10.1186/s13321-021-00492-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Enhanced/prolonged cAMP signalling has been suggested as a suppressor of cancer proliferation. Interestingly, two key modulators that elevate cAMP, the A2A receptor (A2AR) and phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A), are differentially co-expressed in various types of non-small lung cancer (NSCLC) cell-lines. Thus, finding dual-target compounds, which are simultaneously agonists at the A2AR whilst also inhibiting PDE10A, could be a novel anti-proliferative approach. Using ligand- and structure-based modelling combined with MD simulations (which identified Val84 displacement as a novel conformational descriptor of A2AR activation), a series of known PDE10A inhibitors were shown to dock to the orthosteric site of the A2AR. Subsequent in-vitro analysis confirmed that these compounds bind to the A2AR and exhibit dual-activity at both the A2AR and PDE10A. Furthermore, many of the compounds exhibited promising anti-proliferative effects upon NSCLC cell-lines, which directly correlated with the expression of both PDE10A and the A2AR. Thus, we propose a structure-based methodology, which has been validated in in-vitro binding and functional assays, and demonstrated a promising therapeutic value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leen Kalash
- Centre for Molecular Informatics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, CB21EW, Cambridge, UK
- GlaxoSmithKline, Gunnels Wood Road, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, Stevenage, UK
| | - Ian Winfield
- Centre for Molecular Informatics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, CB21EW, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, CB2 1PD, Cambridge, UK
| | - Dewi Safitri
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, CB2 1PD, Cambridge, UK
- Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy Research Group, School of Pharmacy, Bandung Institute of Technology, 40132, Bandung, Indonesia
| | - Marcel Bermudez
- Centre for Molecular Informatics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, CB21EW, Cambridge, UK
- Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straße 2 und 4, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sabrina Carvalho
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, CB2 1PD, Cambridge, UK
| | - Robert Glen
- Centre for Molecular Informatics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, CB21EW, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Metabolism Digestion and Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, SW7 2AZ, London, UK
| | - Graham Ladds
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, CB2 1PD, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Andreas Bender
- Centre for Molecular Informatics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, CB21EW, Cambridge, UK.
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13
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Briceño P, Rivas-Yañez E, Rosemblatt MV, Parra-Tello B, Farías P, Vargas L, Simon V, Cárdenas C, Lladser A, Salazar-Onfray F, Elorza AA, Rosemblatt M, Bono MR, Sauma D. CD73 Ectonucleotidase Restrains CD8+ T Cell Metabolic Fitness and Anti-tumoral Activity. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:638037. [PMID: 33681221 PMCID: PMC7930398 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.638037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
CD39 and CD73 are ectoenzymes that dephosphorylate ATP into its metabolites; ADP, AMP, and adenosine, and thus are considered instrumental in the development of immunosuppressive microenvironments. We have previously shown that within the CD8+ T cell population, naïve and memory cells express the CD73 ectonucleotidase, while terminally differentiated effector cells are devoid of this enzyme. This evidence suggests that adenosine might exert an autocrine effect on CD8+ T cells during T cell differentiation. To study the possible role of CD73 and adenosine during this process, we compared the expression of the adenosinergic signaling components, the phenotype, and the functional properties between CD73-deficient and WT CD8+ T cells. Upon activation, we observed an upregulation of CD73 expression in CD8+ T cells along with an upregulation of the adenosine A2A receptor. Interestingly, when we differentiated CD8+ T cells to Tc1 cells in vitro, we observed that these cells produce adenosine and that CD73-deficient cells present a higher cytotoxic potential evidenced by an increase in IFN-γ, TNF-α, and granzyme B production. Moreover, CD73-deficient cells presented a increased glucose uptake and higher mitochondrial respiration, indicating that this ectonucleotidase restrict the mitochondrial capacity in CD8+ T cells. In agreement, when adoptively transferred, antigen-specific CD73-deficient CD8+ T cells were more effective in reducing the tumor burden in B16.OVA melanoma-bearing mice and presented lower levels of exhaustion markers than wild type cells. All these data suggest an autocrine effect of CD73-mediated adenosine production, limiting differentiation and cytotoxic T cells' metabolic fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Briceño
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Elizabeth Rivas-Yañez
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Medicina y Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastian, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mariana V Rosemblatt
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Medicina y Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastian, Santiago, Chile
| | - Brian Parra-Tello
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Paula Farías
- Center for Integrative Biology, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Leonardo Vargas
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Valeska Simon
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - César Cárdenas
- Center for Integrative Biology, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alvaro Lladser
- Facultad de Medicina y Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastian, Santiago, Chile.,Fundacion Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | - Flavio Salazar-Onfray
- Disciplinary Program of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alvaro A Elorza
- Millennium Institute on Immunology and Immunotherapy, Santiago, Chile.,Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Life Sciences, Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mario Rosemblatt
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Facultad de Medicina y Ciencia, Universidad San Sebastian, Santiago, Chile.,Fundacion Ciencia & Vida, Santiago, Chile
| | - María Rosa Bono
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Daniela Sauma
- Departamento de Biologia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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14
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Diehl C, Sadoughifar R, Binic I, Golubovic M. A new, innovative, and safe treatment in vitiligo: Results of a randomized, double-blinded, parallel-group study. Dermatol Ther 2021; 34:e14697. [PMID: 33351209 DOI: 10.1111/dth.14697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Vitiligo is a chronic autoimmune disease affecting around 1% of the population worldwide. No existing treatment is giving fully satisfactory results. Further investigations are welcomed for innovative and safe treatments bringing better results. This trial aimed to compare the efficacy and tolerance of various treatment protocols on vitiligo lesions. Four randomized groups of 10 patients with vitiligo covering 8% to 14% of skin surface, except hands and feet were assigned during 8 weeks to (a) UVB microphototherapy 300 to 320 nm (Bioskin-) 1 x week; (b) VITILSI- gel 2 x day; (c) VITILSI- gel 2xday + Bioskin- 1 x week; and (d) placebo 2 x day. Efficacy of the treatment was assessed by planimetry, comparing the photographs of the patients taken at baseline and after 8-week treatment. After completion of the treatment, the increase of the pigment area was 28% in G1 (Bioskin-), 19% in G2 (VITILSI-), 41% in G3 (Bioskin- + VITILSI-) and null in G4. No subject stopped the treatment and no side effect was observed. It was demonstrated that the gel under study was able per se to induce repigmentation in vitiligo lesions and that the results were significantly better when combined with NB-UVB. The protocols used in this trial resulted safe and efficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Diehl
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rome G. Marconi, Rome, Italy
| | - Roxanna Sadoughifar
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rome G. Marconi, Rome, Italy.,Bidar Skin Center, Tehran, Iran
| | - Iva Binic
- Medical Faculty, Psychiatric Clinic, University of Niš, Niš, Serbia
| | - Masa Golubovic
- Department of Dermatology, Clinical Center, University of Niš, Niš, Serbia
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15
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Wei L, Zhang R, Zhang J, Li J, Kong D, Wang Q, Fang J, Wang L. PRKAR2A deficiency protects mice from experimental colitis by increasing IFN-stimulated gene expression and modulating the intestinal microbiota. Mucosal Immunol 2021; 14:1282-1294. [PMID: 34349238 PMCID: PMC8528707 DOI: 10.1038/s41385-021-00426-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Protein kinase A (PKA) plays an important role in regulating inflammation via its catalytic subunits. Recently, PKA regulatory subunits have been reported to directly modulate some signaling pathways and alleviate inflammation. However, the role of PKA regulatory subunits in colonic inflammation remains unclear. Therefore, we conducted this study to investigate the role of the PKA regulatory subunit PRKAR2A in colitis. We observed that PRKAR2A deficiency protected mice from dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced experimental colitis. Our experiments revealed that the intestinal epithelial cell-specific deletion of Prkar2a contributed to this protection. Mechanistically, the loss of PRKAR2A in Prkar2a-/- mice resulted in an increased IFN-stimulated gene (ISG) expression and altered gut microbiota. Inhibition of ISGs partially reversed the protective effects against DSS-induced colitis in Prkar2a-/- mice. Antibiotic treatment and cross-fostering experiments demonstrated that the protection against DSS-induced colitis in Prkar2a-/- mice was largely dependent on the gut microflora. Altogether, our work demonstrates a previously unidentified function of PRKAR2A in promoting DSS-induced colitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lumin Wei
- grid.412277.50000 0004 1760 6738Department of Gastroenterology, Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Rongjing Zhang
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shanghai Institute for Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinzhao Zhang
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shanghai Institute for Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Juanjuan Li
- grid.412277.50000 0004 1760 6738Department of Gastroenterology, Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Deping Kong
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Shanghai Institute for Nutrition and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Qi Wang
- grid.412277.50000 0004 1760 6738Department of Gastroenterology, Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Fang
- grid.412521.10000 0004 1769 1119Cancer Institute, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lifu Wang
- grid.412277.50000 0004 1760 6738Department of Gastroenterology, Ruijin Hospital affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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16
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Wang Y, Zhang K, Georgiev P, Wells S, Xu H, Lacey BM, Xu Z, Laskey J, Mcleod R, Methot JL, Bittinger M, Pasternak A, Ranganath S. Pharmacological inhibition of hematopoietic progenitor kinase 1 positively regulates T-cell function. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0243145. [PMID: 33270695 PMCID: PMC7714195 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hematopoietic progenitor kinase 1 (HPK1), a hematopoietic cell-specific Ste20-related serine/threonine kinase, is a negative regulator of signal transduction in immune cells, including T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells (DCs). In mice, HPK1 deficiency subverts inhibition of the anti-tumor immune response and is associated with functional augmentation of anti-tumor T cells. We have used a potent, small molecule HPK1 inhibitor, Compound 1, to investigate the effects of pharmacological intervention of HPK1 kinase activity in immune cells. Compound 1 enhanced Th1 cytokine production in T cells and fully reverted immune suppression imposed by the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and adenosine pathways in human T cells. Moreover, the combination of Compound 1 with pembrolizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody against the programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), demonstrated a synergistic effect, resulting in enhanced interferon (IFN)-γ production. Collectively, our results suggest that blocking HPK1 kinase activity with small molecule inhibitors alone or in combination with checkpoint blockade may be an attractive approach for the immunotherapy of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Wang
- Department of Oncology Early Discovery, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kelvin Zhang
- Department of Genetics and Pharmacogenomics, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Peter Georgiev
- Department of Oncology Early Discovery, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Steven Wells
- Department of Oncology Early Discovery, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Haiyan Xu
- Department of Quantitative Biosciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Brian M. Lacey
- Department of Quantitative Biosciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Zangwei Xu
- Department of Quantitative Biosciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jason Laskey
- Department of Quantitative Biosciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Robbie Mcleod
- Department of Quantitative Biosciences, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Joey L. Methot
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mark Bittinger
- Department of Oncology Early Discovery, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Alexander Pasternak
- Department of Discovery Chemistry, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (AP); (SR)
| | - Sheila Ranganath
- Department of Oncology Early Discovery, Merck & Co., Inc., Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (AP); (SR)
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17
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Li K, Lin C, He Y, Lu L, Xu K, Tao B, Xia Z, Zeng R, Mao Y, Luo Z, Cai K. Engineering of Cascade-Responsive Nanoplatform to Inhibit Lactate Efflux for Enhanced Tumor Chemo-Immunotherapy. ACS NANO 2020; 14:14164-14180. [PMID: 32975406 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c07071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
As an increased product of high-rate aerobic glycolysis in tumors, lactate could regulate the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). A PEG-CDM surface modified, GSH-dependent responsive hollow mesoporous organosilica nanoplatform loaded with hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT) and siMCT-4 was administrated for synergistic tumor chemo-immunotherapy. The nanoplatform cascaded responded to the weak acid TME and the high level of GSH in tumor cells. HCPT and siMCT-4 were continuously released from the nanoplatform for chemotherapy and inhibiting intracellular lactate efflux. The increased intracellular lactate and HCPT effectively induced tumor cell apoptosis. Moreover, the decreased extracellular lactate polarized tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) phenotype from M2 type to M1 type and restored CD8+ T cell activity in vivo. The results demonstrated that the nanoplatform effectively removed the immunosuppressive TME, inhibited tumor growth, and suppressed lung metastasis of B16F10 cells and 4T1 cells via the combination of inhibiting lactate efflux and chemotherapy. Accordingly, it suggested a strategy to transform immunosuppressive tumors into "hot" tumors and inhibit the tumor growth with high efficiency in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Li
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Chuanchuan Lin
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Ye He
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Lu Lu
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Kun Xu
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Bailong Tao
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Zengzilu Xia
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Rui Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Yulan Mao
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Zhong Luo
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Soft-Matter Material Chemistry and Function Manufacturing, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Kaiyong Cai
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology, Ministry of Education College of Bioengineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
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18
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Xu H, Ding J, Porter CBM, Wallrapp A, Tabaka M, Ma S, Fu S, Guo X, Riesenfeld SJ, Su C, Dionne D, Nguyen LT, Lefkovith A, Ashenberg O, Burkett PR, Shi HN, Rozenblatt-Rosen O, Graham DB, Kuchroo VK, Regev A, Xavier RJ. Transcriptional Atlas of Intestinal Immune Cells Reveals that Neuropeptide α-CGRP Modulates Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Responses. Immunity 2020; 51:696-708.e9. [PMID: 31618654 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2019.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Signaling abnormalities in immune responses in the small intestine can trigger chronic type 2 inflammation involving interaction of multiple immune cell types. To systematically characterize this response, we analyzed 58,067 immune cells from the mouse small intestine by single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) at steady state and after induction of a type 2 inflammatory reaction to ovalbumin (OVA). Computational analysis revealed broad shifts in both cell-type composition and cell programs in response to the inflammation, especially in group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s). Inflammation induced the expression of exon 5 of Calca, which encodes the alpha-calcitonin gene-related peptide (α-CGRP), in intestinal KLRG1+ ILC2s. α-CGRP antagonized KLRG1+ ILC2s proliferation but promoted IL-5 expression. Genetic perturbation of α-CGRP increased the proportion of intestinal KLRG1+ ILC2s. Our work highlights a model where α-CGRP-mediated neuronal signaling is critical for suppressing ILC2 expansion and maintaining homeostasis of the type 2 immune machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heping Xu
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang Province, China; Laboratory of Systems Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang Province, China.
| | - Jiarui Ding
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | | | - Antonia Wallrapp
- Evergrande Center for Immunologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Marcin Tabaka
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Sai Ma
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Shujie Fu
- Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang Province, China; Laboratory of Systems Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xuanxuan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang Province, China; Laboratory of Systems Immunology, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang Province, China
| | | | - Chienwen Su
- Mucosal Immunology and Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| | - Danielle Dionne
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Lan T Nguyen
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Ariel Lefkovith
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Orr Ashenberg
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Patrick R Burkett
- Evergrande Center for Immunologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Hai Ning Shi
- Mucosal Immunology and Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| | | | - Daniel B Graham
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Gastrointestinal Unit and Center for the Study of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Center for Microbiome Informatics and Therapeutics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02114, USA
| | - Vijay K Kuchroo
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Evergrande Center for Immunologic Diseases, Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Aviv Regev
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.
| | - Ramnik J Xavier
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Gastrointestinal Unit and Center for the Study of Inflammatory Bowel Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Center for Microbiome Informatics and Therapeutics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02114, USA; Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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19
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Vigano S, Alatzoglou D, Irving M, Ménétrier-Caux C, Caux C, Romero P, Coukos G. Targeting Adenosine in Cancer Immunotherapy to Enhance T-Cell Function. Front Immunol 2019; 10:925. [PMID: 31244820 PMCID: PMC6562565 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
T cells play a critical role in cancer control, but a range of potent immunosuppressive mechanisms can be upregulated in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to abrogate their activity. While various immunotherapies (IMTs) aiming at re-invigorating the T-cell-mediated anti-tumor response, such as immune checkpoint blockade (ICB), and the adoptive cell transfer (ACT) of natural or gene-engineered ex vivo expanded tumor-specific T cells, have led to unprecedented clinical responses, only a small proportion of cancer patients benefit from these treatments. Important research efforts are thus underway to identify biomarkers of response, as well as to develop personalized combinatorial approaches that can target other inhibitory mechanisms at play in the TME. In recent years, adenosinergic signaling has emerged as a powerful immuno-metabolic checkpoint in tumors. Like several other barriers in the TME, such as the PD-1/PDL-1 axis, CTLA-4, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO-1), adenosine plays important physiologic roles, but has been co-opted by tumors to promote their growth and impair immunity. Several agents counteracting the adenosine axis have been developed, and pre-clinical studies have demonstrated important anti-tumor activity, alone and in combination with other IMTs including ICB and ACT. Here we review the regulation of adenosine levels and mechanisms by which it promotes tumor growth and broadly suppresses protective immunity, with extra focus on the attenuation of T cell function. Finally, we present an overview of promising pre-clinical and clinical approaches being explored for blocking the adenosine axis for enhanced control of solid tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selena Vigano
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Dimitrios Alatzoglou
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Melita Irving
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Christine Ménétrier-Caux
- Department of Immunology Virology and Inflammation, INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Léon Bérard Cancer Center, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, University of Lyon, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Christophe Caux
- Department of Immunology Virology and Inflammation, INSERM 1052, CNRS 5286, Léon Bérard Cancer Center, Cancer Research Center of Lyon, University of Lyon, University Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Pedro Romero
- Department of Oncology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - George Coukos
- Department of Oncology, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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20
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Isoproterenol-induced beta-2 adrenergic receptor activation negatively regulates interleukin-2 signaling. Biochem J 2018; 475:2907-2923. [PMID: 30120106 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20180503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Regulation of intracellular signaling pathways in lymphocytes is critical for cell homeostasis and immune response. Interleukin-2 (IL-2), a key regulator of lymphocytes, signals following receptor-ligand engagement and subsequent recruitment and activation of effector proteins including JAKs and STATs. Lymphocytes can also be regulated by the central nervous system through the β2 adrenergic receptor (β2AR) pathway which can affect cell trafficking, proliferation, differentiation, and cytokine production. The cross-talk between these two signaling pathways represents an important mechanism that has yet to be fully elucidated. The present study provides evidence for communication between the IL-2 receptor (IL-2R) and β2AR. Treatment of human lymphoid cell lines with the β2AR agonist isoproterenol (ISO) alone increased cAMP levels and mediated a stimulatory response by activating AKT and ERK to promote cell viability. Interestingly, ISO activation of β2AR also induced threonine phosphorylation of the IL-2Rβ. In contrast, ISO treatment prior to IL-2 stimulation produced an inhibitory signal that disrupted IL-2 induced activation of the JAK/STAT, MEK/ERK, and PI3K pathways by inhibiting the formation of the IL-2R beta-gamma chain complex, and subsequently cell proliferation. Moreover, γc-family cytokines-mediated STAT5 activation was also inhibited by ISO. These results suggest a molecular mechanism by which β2AR signaling can both stimulate and suppress lymphocyte responses and thus explain how certain therapeutic agents, such as vasodilators, may impact immune responsiveness.
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21
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Barnes MJ, Cyster JG. Lysophosphatidylserine suppression of T-cell activation via GPR174 requires Gαs proteins. Immunol Cell Biol 2018; 96:439-445. [PMID: 29457279 PMCID: PMC5916342 DOI: 10.1111/imcb.12025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors regulate diverse aspects of T-cell activity and effector function. Recently, we showed that GPR174 mediates the suppression of T-cell proliferation in vitro induced by the polar lipid lysophosphatidylserine (LysoPS). Here, we investigated the in vivo activity of this pathway and characterized the mechanisms involved. Using in vivo models of T-cell proliferation induced by sublethal irradiation or regulatory T-cell depletion, we show that GPR174 expression can constrain T-cell proliferation. In vitro experiments established that Gαs G proteins are needed for LysoPS/GPR174-mediated suppression of T-cell proliferation. Mechanistically, LysoPS acts via GPR174 and Gαs to suppress IL-2 production by activated T cells and limit upregulation of the activation markers CD25 and CD69. Together, our findings identify GPR174 as an abundantly expressed Gαs-dependent receptor that can negatively regulate naive T-cell activation. See also: News and Commentary by Robert & Mackay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Barnes
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and University of California, San Francisco; Department of Microbiology and Immunology; 513 Parnassus Ave. HSE-1001H; San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Jason G. Cyster
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and University of California, San Francisco; Department of Microbiology and Immunology; 513 Parnassus Ave. HSE-1001H; San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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22
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Veremeyko T, Yung AWY, Dukhinova M, Kuznetsova IS, Pomytkin I, Lyundup A, Strekalova T, Barteneva NS, Ponomarev ED. Cyclic AMP Pathway Suppress Autoimmune Neuroinflammation by Inhibiting Functions of Encephalitogenic CD4 T Cells and Enhancing M2 Macrophage Polarization at the Site of Inflammation. Front Immunol 2018; 9:50. [PMID: 29422898 PMCID: PMC5788911 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Although it has been demonstrated that cAMP pathway affect both adaptive and innate cell functions, the role of this pathway in the regulation of T-cell-mediated central nervous system (CNS) autoimmune inflammation, such as in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), remains unclear. It is also unclear how cAMP pathway affects the function of CD4 T cells in vivo at the site of inflammation. We found that adenylyl cyclase activator Forskolin besides inhibition of functions autoimmune CD4 T cells also upregulated microRNA (miR)-124 in the CNS during EAE, which is associated with M2 phenotype of microglia/macrophages. Our study further established that in addition to direct influence of cAMP pathway on CD4 T cells, stimulation of this pathway promoted macrophage polarization toward M2 leading to indirect inhibition of function of T cells in the CNS. We demonstrated that Forskolin together with IL-4 or with Forskolin together with IL-4 and IFNγ effectively stimulated M2 phenotype of macrophages indicating high potency of this pathway in reprogramming of macrophage polarization in Th2- and even in Th1/Th2-mixed inflammatory conditions such as EAE. Mechanistically, Forskolin and/or IL-4 activated ERK pathway in macrophages resulting in the upregulation of M2-associated molecules miR-124, arginase (Arg)1, and Mannose receptor C-type 1 (Mrc1), which was reversed by ERK inhibitors. Administration of Forskolin after the onset of EAE substantially upregulated M2 markers Arg1, Mrc1, Fizz1, and Ym1 and inhibited M1 markers nitric oxide synthetase 2 and CD86 in the CNS during EAE resulting in decrease in macrophage/microglia activation, lymphocyte and CD4 T cell infiltration, and the recovery from the disease. Forskolin inhibited proliferation and IFNγ production by CD4 T cells in the CNS but had rather weak direct effect on proliferation of autoimmune T cells in the periphery and in vitro, suggesting prevalence of indirect effect of Forskolin on differentiation and functions of autoimmune CD4 T cells in vivo. Thus, our data indicate that Forskolin has potency to skew balance toward M2 affecting ERK pathway in macrophages and indirectly inhibit pathogenic CD4 T cells in the CNS leading to the suppression of autoimmune inflammation. These data may have also implications for future therapeutic approaches to inhibit autoimmune Th1 cells at the site of tissue inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana Veremeyko
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Amanda W Y Yung
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Marina Dukhinova
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Inna S Kuznetsova
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Igor Pomytkin
- Department of Advanced Cell Technologies, Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexey Lyundup
- Department of Advanced Cell Technologies, Institute for Regenerative Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Tatyana Strekalova
- Department of Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands.,Laboratory of Psychiatric Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Natasha S Barteneva
- Department of Pediatrics, Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children's Hospital Boston, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,School of Science and Technology, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan
| | - Eugene D Ponomarev
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
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23
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Wang HH, Li Y, Li A, Yan F, Li ZL, Liu ZY, Zhang L, Zhang J, Dong WR, Zhang L. Forskolin Induces Hyperphosphorylation of Tau Accompanied by Cell Cycle Reactivation in Primary Hippocampal Neurons. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 55:696-706. [PMID: 27995573 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0348-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Abnormally hyperphosphorylated tau is the major protein constituent of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) in the brain of Alzheimer disease (AD) patients. Cell cycle reactivation is considered an important neuropathological feature of AD, and re-expression and activation of cell cycle regulators are known to occur in neurons containing NFTs. The aim of the present study was to investigate cell cycle reactivation during tau hyperphosphorylation in primary hippocampal neurons. We used forskolin, a specific activator of PKA, to induce tau hyperphosphorylation in cultured primary hippocampal neurons, and then measured levels of cyclin D1 and cyclin B1. We found that forskolin induced hyperphosphorylation of tau at Ser214, Ser396, and Ser202/Thr205 sites, attaining peak levels at 6, 12, and 12 h, respectively, while returning to normal levels at 24 h. Forskolin also induced a sustained cAMP elevation and PKA activation, which peaked at 6 h, in association with activation and overexpression of protein phosphatase-2A (PP-2A) at 24 h. The tau hyperphosphorylation was accompanied by increases in cyclin D1 and cyclin B1 levels; immunostaining showed overlapping distribution of hyperphosphorylated tau and cyclin D1 and cyclin B1 in primary hippocampal neurons. Forskolin induced hyperphosphorylation of tau and increased cyclin D1 and cyclin B1 protein levels in HEK293/tau441 cells, but not in the HEK293/vector cells, whereas the PKA inhibitor H89 inhibited the effects of forskolin on tau hyperphosphorylation and cyclin D1 and cyclin B1 protein levels. These findings suggest that forskolin induces tau hyperphosphorylation, which is itself necessary for the subsequent increases of cyclin D1 and cyclin B1 levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Hong Wang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Ang Li
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Fang Yan
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Zhen-Lin Li
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Zhong-Ying Liu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Department of Oncology, Zhujiang Hospital of Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510280, China
| | - Wei-Ren Dong
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China.
| | - Lin Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, 510515, China.
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24
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Wu XD, Luo D, Tu WC, Deng ZT, Chen XJ, Su J, Ji X, Zhao QS. Hypophyllins A–D, Labdane-Type Diterpenoids with Vasorelaxant Activity from Hypoestes phyllostachya “Rosea”. Org Lett 2016; 18:6484-6487. [PMID: 27978671 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.6b03388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xing-De Wu
- State
Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China
| | - Dan Luo
- State
Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China
| | - Wen-Chao Tu
- State
Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhen-Tao Deng
- State
Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xue-Jiao Chen
- State
Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jia Su
- State
Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xu Ji
- State
Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China
| | - Qin-Shi Zhao
- State
Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China,
Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People’s Republic of China
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25
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Wehbi VL, Taskén K. Molecular Mechanisms for cAMP-Mediated Immunoregulation in T cells - Role of Anchored Protein Kinase A Signaling Units. Front Immunol 2016; 7:222. [PMID: 27375620 PMCID: PMC4896925 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) pathway is one of the most common and versatile signal pathways in eukaryotic cells. A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) target PKA to specific substrates and distinct subcellular compartments providing spatial and temporal specificity for mediation of biological effects channeled through the cAMP/PKA pathway. In the immune system, cAMP is a potent negative regulator of T cell receptor-mediated activation of effector T cells (Teff) acting through a proximal PKA/Csk/Lck pathway anchored via a scaffold consisting of the AKAP Ezrin holding PKA, the linker protein EBP50, and the anchoring protein phosphoprotein associated with glycosphingolipid-enriched microdomains holding Csk. As PKA activates Csk and Csk inhibits Lck, this pathway in response to cAMP shuts down proximal T cell activation. This immunomodulating pathway in Teff mediates clinically important responses to regulatory T cell (Treg) suppression and inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins (PGs), adrenergic stimuli, adenosine, and a number of other ligands. A major inducer of T cell cAMP levels is PG E2 (PGE2) acting through EP2 and EP4 prostanoid receptors. PGE2 plays a crucial role in the normal physiological control of immune homeostasis as well as in inflammation and cancer immune evasion. Peripherally induced Tregs express cyclooxygenase-2, secrete PGE2, and elicit the immunosuppressive cAMP pathway in Teff as one tumor immune evasion mechanism. Moreover, a cAMP increase can also be induced by indirect mechanisms, such as intercellular transfer between T cells. Indeed, Treg, known to have elevated levels of intracellular cAMP, may mediate their suppressive function by transferring cAMP to Teff through gap junctions, which we speculate could also be regulated by PKA/AKAP complexes. In this review, we present an updated overview on the influence of cAMP-mediated immunoregulatory mechanisms acting through localized cAMP signaling and the therapeutical increasing prospects of AKAPs disruptors in T-cell immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa L. Wehbi
- Nordic EMBL Partnership, Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Jebsen Inflammation Research Centre, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Biotechnology Centre, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjetil Taskén
- Nordic EMBL Partnership, Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Jebsen Inflammation Research Centre, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Biotechnology Centre, Oslo University Hospital, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Jebsen Centre for Cancer Immunotherapy, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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26
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Clark AA, Nurmukhambetova S, Li X, Munger SD, Lees JR. Odorants specifically modulate chemotaxis and tissue retention of CD4+ T cells via cyclic adenosine monophosphate induction. J Leukoc Biol 2016; 100:699-709. [PMID: 27154353 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.1a0914-425rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Retention of T cells within affected tissue is a critical component of adaptive immune inflammation. However, the mechanisms involved in T cell retention remain largely undefined. Previous studies revealed the capacity of cAMP signaling to regulate immune cell migration, as well as dynamic regulation of receptors that could induce cAMP production in immune cells. The potential for cAMP to act as a retention signal has been mostly unexplored, partially as a result of this second messenger's well-characterized inhibition of effector function in immune cells. Here, we report that cAMP regulates the tissue retention of mouse T cells at concentrations well below those that inhibited proliferation or decreased acquisition of an effector phenotype. Stimulation of CD4+ T cells with odorants known to be cognate ligands for T cell-expressed olfactory receptors induced cAMP and inhibited chemokine-driven chemotaxis without decreasing T cell proliferation or effector functions. Similar effects were observed following treatment with relatively low concentrations of the cAMP analog Sp-5,6-dichloro-1-β-d-ribofuranosylbenzimidazole-3',5'-monophosphorothioate. Furthermore, pretreatment with odorants or cAMP at concentrations that did not inhibit effector function induced T cell tissue retention in mice by inhibiting chemokine-dependent T cell egress from the footpad to the draining lymph node. Together, these results suggest that odorant receptor-mediated increases in intracellular cAMP can modulate T cell tissue trafficking and may offer new therapeutic targets for controlling T cell tissue accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam A Clark
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Saule Nurmukhambetova
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Surgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Steven D Munger
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; Department of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Nutrition, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA; and
| | - Jason R Lees
- Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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27
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Ruiz-Medina BE, Ross JA, Kirken RA. Interleukin-2 Receptor β Thr-450 Phosphorylation Is a Positive Regulator for Receptor Complex Stability and Activation of Signaling Molecules. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:20972-20983. [PMID: 26152718 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.660654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
T, B, and natural killer cells are required for normal immune response and are regulated by cytokines such as IL-2. These cell signals are propagated following receptor-ligand engagement, controlling recruitment and activation of effector proteins. The IL-2 receptor β subunit (IL-2Rβ) serves in this capacity and is known to be phosphorylated. Tyrosine phosphorylation of the β chain has been studied extensively. However, the identification and putative regulatory roles for serine and threonine phosphorylation sites have yet to be fully characterized. Using LC-MS/MS and phosphospecific antibodies, a novel IL-2/IL-15 inducible IL-2Rβ phosphorylation site (Thr-450) was identified. IL-2 phosphokinetic analysis revealed that phosphorylation of IL-2Rβ Thr-450 is rapid (2.5 min), transient (peaks at 15 min), and protracted compared with receptor tyrosine phosphorylation and occurs in multiple cell types, including primary human lymphocytes. Pharmacological and siRNA-mediated inhibition of various serine/threonine kinases revealed ERK1/2 as a positive regulator, whereas purified protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), dephosphorylated Thr-450 in vitro. Reconstitution assays demonstrated that Thr-450 is important for regulating IL-2R complex formation, recruitment of JAK3, and activation of AKT and ERK1/2 and a transcriptionally active STAT5. These results provide the first evidence of the identification and functional characterization for threonine phosphorylation of an interleukin receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blanca E Ruiz-Medina
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968
| | - Jeremy A Ross
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968
| | - Robert A Kirken
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79968.
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28
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Fatemi A, Kazemi A, Kashiri M, Safa M. Elevation of cAMP Levels Inhibits Doxorubicin-Induced Apoptosis in Pre- B ALL NALM- 6 Cells Through Induction of BAD Phosphorylation and Inhibition of P53 Accumulation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR MEDICINE 2015; 4:94-102. [PMID: 26261798 PMCID: PMC4499571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Revised: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Recognition of the molecular mechanisms of cAMP action against DNA damage-induced apoptosis can be useful to improve the efficacy of DNA damaging therapeutic agents. Considering the critical role of bcl-2-associated death promoter (BAD) and p53 proteins in DNA damage -induced apoptosis, the aim of this study was to assess the effect of cAMP-elevating agents on these proteins in doxorubicin-treated pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukemia (pre-B ALL) NALM-6 cells.The pre-B ALL cell line NALM-6 was cultured and treated with doxorubicin in combination with or without cAMP-elevating agents forskolin and 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX). Cell viability was measured by trypan blue staining and MTT assay. For evaluation of apoptosis, annexin-V staining by flow cytometry and caspase-3 activity assay were used. Protein expression of p53, BAD and phoshorylated BAD was detected by western blotting analysis.cAMP-increasing agents diminished the doxorubicin-mediated cytotoxicity in NALM-6 cells as indicated by the viability assays. Annexin-V apoptosis assay showed that the cAMP-elevating agents decreased doxorubicin-induced apoptosis. Moreover, doxorubicin-induced caspase-3 activity was attenuated in the presence of cAMP-increasing agents. Western blot results revealed the reduced expression of p53 protein in cells treated with combination of cAMP-elevating agents and doxorubicin in contrast to cells treated with doxorubicin alone. Expression of total BAD protein was not affected by doxorubicin and cAMP-elevating agents. However, phosphorylation of BAD protein was induced in the presence of cAMP-elevating agents. Our study suggests that elevated cAMP levels inhibit doxorubicin-induced apoptosis in pre-B ALL cells through induction of BAD phosphorylation and abrogation of p53 accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Fatemi
- Department of Hematology, School of Allied Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Ahmad Kazemi
- Department of Hematology, School of Allied Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Meysam Kashiri
- Department of Hematology, School of Allied Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Majid Safa
- Department of Hematology, School of Allied Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Razi Drug Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Corresponding author: Razi Drug Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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29
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Burgers PP, van der Heyden MAG, Kok B, Heck AJR, Scholten A. A Systematic Evaluation of Protein Kinase A–A-Kinase Anchoring Protein Interaction Motifs. Biochemistry 2014; 54:11-21. [DOI: 10.1021/bi500721a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Pepijn P. Burgers
- Biomolecular
Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular
Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Centre, Padualaan
8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel A. G. van der Heyden
- Department
of Medical Physiology, Division of Heart and Lungs, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Yalelaan 50, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Bart Kok
- Department
of Medical Physiology, Division of Heart and Lungs, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Yalelaan 50, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Albert J. R. Heck
- Biomolecular
Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular
Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Centre, Padualaan
8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Arjen Scholten
- Biomolecular
Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular
Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Proteomics Centre, Padualaan
8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
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30
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COX-1-derived thromboxane A2 plays an essential role in early B-cell development via regulation of JAK/STAT5 signaling in mouse. Blood 2014; 124:1610-21. [PMID: 25030064 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2014-03-559658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclooxygenases (COXs) and their prostanoid products play important roles in a diverse range of physiological processes, including in the immune system. Here, we provide evidence that COX-1 is an essential regulator in early stages of B-cell development. COX-1-deficient mice displayed systematic reduction in total B cells, which was attributed to the arrest of early B-cell development from pro-B to pre-B stage. We further demonstrated that this defect was mediated through downregulation of the Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 (JAK/STAT5) signaling and its target genes, including Pax5, in COX-1(-/-) mice. Mechanistic studies revealed that COX-1-derived thromboxane A2 (TxA2) could regulate JAK3/STAT5 signaling through the cyclic adenosine monophosphate-protein kinase A pathway, via binding with its receptor thromboxane A2 receptor (TP). Administration of the TP agonist could rescue the defective B-cell development and JAK/STAT5 signaling activity in COX-1-deficient mice. Moreover, administration of low-dose aspirin caused a significant reduction in total B cells in peripheral blood of healthy human volunteers, coincidentally with reduced TxA2 production and downregulation of JAK/STAT5 signaling. Taken together, our results demonstrate that COX-1-derived TxA2 plays a critical role in the stage transition of early B-cell development through regulation of JAK/STAT5 signaling and indicate a potential immune-suppressive effect of low-dose aspirin in humans.
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31
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Chou JP, Ramirez CM, Ryba DM, Koduri MP, Effros RB. Prostaglandin E2 promotes features of replicative senescence in chronically activated human CD8+ T cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99432. [PMID: 24918932 PMCID: PMC4053423 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 05/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a pleiotropic immunomodulatory molecule, and its free radical catalyzed isoform, iso-PGE2, are frequently elevated in the context of cancer and chronic infection. Previous studies have documented the effects of PGE2 on the various CD4+ T cell functions, but little is known about its impact on cytotoxic CD8+ T lymphocytes, the immune cells responsible for eliminating virally infected and tumor cells. Here we provide the first demonstration of the dramatic effects of PGE2 on the progression of human CD8+ T cells toward replicative senescence, a terminal dysfunctional state associated multiple pathologies during aging and chronic HIV-1 infection. Our data show that exposure of chronically activated CD8+ T cells to physiological levels of PGE2 and iso-PGE2 promotes accelerated acquisition of markers of senescence, including loss of CD28 expression, increased expression of p16 cell cycle inhibitor, reduced telomerase activity, telomere shortening and diminished production of key cytotoxic and survival cytokines. Moreover, the CD8+ T cells also produced higher levels of reactive oxygen species, suggesting that the resultant oxidative stress may have further enhanced telomere loss. Interestingly, we observed that even chronic activation per se resulted in increased CD8+ T cell production of PGE2, mediated by higher COX-2 activity, thus inducing a negative feedback loop that further inhibits effector function. Collectively, our data suggest that the elevated levels of PGE2 and iso-PGE2, seen in various cancers and HIV-1 infection, may accelerate progression of CD8+ T cells towards replicative senescence in vivo. Inhibition of COX-2 activity may, therefore, provide a strategy to counteract this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer P. Chou
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Christina M. Ramirez
- Department of Biostatistics, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Danielle M. Ryba
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Megha P. Koduri
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Rita B. Effros
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- UCLA AIDS Institute, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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32
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Xu C, Tabebordbar M, Iovino S, Ciarlo C, Liu J, Castiglioni A, Price E, Liu M, Barton ER, Kahn CR, Wagers AJ, Zon LI. A zebrafish embryo culture system defines factors that promote vertebrate myogenesis across species. Cell 2013; 155:909-921. [PMID: 24209627 PMCID: PMC3902670 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2013.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 08/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Ex vivo expansion of satellite cells and directed differentiation of pluripotent cells to mature skeletal muscle have proved difficult challenges for regenerative biology. Using a zebrafish embryo culture system with reporters of early and late skeletal muscle differentiation, we examined the influence of 2,400 chemicals on myogenesis and identified six that expanded muscle progenitors, including three GSK3β inhibitors, two calpain inhibitors, and one adenylyl cyclase activator, forskolin. Forskolin also enhanced proliferation of mouse satellite cells in culture and maintained their ability to engraft muscle in vivo. A combination of bFGF, forskolin, and the GSK3β inhibitor BIO induced skeletal muscle differentiation in human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and produced engraftable myogenic progenitors that contributed to muscle repair in vivo. In summary, these studies reveal functionally conserved pathways regulating myogenesis across species and identify chemical compounds that expand mouse satellite cells and differentiate human iPSCs into engraftable muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cong Xu
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children’s Hospital Boston and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Mohammadsharif Tabebordbar
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Salvatore Iovino
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Joslin Diabetes Center, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Christie Ciarlo
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children’s Hospital Boston and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jingxia Liu
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children’s Hospital Boston and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Alessandra Castiglioni
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Joslin Diabetes Center, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Emily Price
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children’s Hospital Boston and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Min Liu
- Department of Physiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Elisabeth R. Barton
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - C. Ronald Kahn
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Joslin Diabetes Center, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Amy J. Wagers
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
- Joslin Diabetes Center, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Leonard I. Zon
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Children’s Hospital Boston and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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