Mechanism for targeting the A-kinase anchoring protein AKAP18δ to the membrane

A-Kinase Anchoring Proteins in Cardiac Myocytes and Their Roles in Regulating Calcium Cycling

The rate of calcium cycling and calcium transient amplitude are critical determinants for the efficient contraction and relaxation of the heart. Calcium-handling proteins in the cardiac myocyte are altered in heart failure, and restoring the proper function of those proteins is an effective potential therapeutic strategy. The calcium-handling proteins or their regulators are phosphorylated by a cAMP-dependent kinase (PKA), and thereby their activity is regulated. A-Kinase Anchoring Proteins (AKAPs) play a seminal role in orchestrating PKA and cAMP regulators in calcium handling and contractile machinery. This cAMP/PKA orchestration is crucial for the increased force and rate of contraction and relaxation of the heart in response to fight-or-flight. Knockout models and the few available preclinical models proved that the efficient targeting of AKAPs offers potential therapies tailor-made for improving defective calcium cycling. In this review, we highlight important studies that identified AKAPs and their regulatory roles in cardiac myocyte calcium cycling in health and disease.

AKAP18δ Anchors and Regulates CaMKII Activity at Phospholamban-SERCA2 and RYR

BACKGROUND

The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺-ATPase 2 (SERCA2) mediates Ca²⁺ reuptake into SR and thereby promotes cardiomyocyte relaxation, whereas the ryanodine receptor (RYR) mediates Ca²⁺ release from SR and triggers contraction. Ca²⁺/CaMKII (CaM [calmodulin]-dependent protein kinase II) regulates activities of SERCA2 through phosphorylation of PLN (phospholamban) and RYR through direct phosphorylation. However, the mechanisms for CaMKIIδ anchoring to SERCA2-PLN and RYR and its regulation by local Ca²⁺ signals remain elusive. The objective of this study was to investigate CaMKIIδ anchoring and regulation at SERCA2-PLN and RYR.

METHODS

A role for AKAP18δ (A-kinase anchoring protein 18δ) in CaMKIIδ anchoring and regulation was analyzed by bioinformatics, peptide arrays, cell-permeant peptide technology, immunoprecipitations, pull downs, transfections, immunoblotting, proximity ligation, FRET-based CaMKII activity and ELISA-based assays, whole cell and SR vesicle fluorescence imaging, high-resolution microscopy, adenovirus transduction, adenoassociated virus injection, structural modeling, surface plasmon resonance, and alpha screen technology.

RESULTS

Our results show that AKAP18δ anchors and directly regulates CaMKIIδ activity at SERCA2-PLN and RYR, via 2 distinct AKAP18δ regions. An N-terminal region (AKAP18δ-N) inhibited CaMKIIδ through binding of a region homologous to the natural CaMKII inhibitor peptide and the Thr17-PLN region. AKAP18δ-N also bound CaM, introducing a second level of control. Conversely, AKAP18δ-C, which shares homology to neuronal CaMKIIα activator peptide (N2B-s), activated CaMKIIδ by lowering the apparent Ca²⁺ threshold for kinase activation and inducing CaM trapping. While AKAP18δ-C facilitated faster Ca²⁺ reuptake by SERCA2 and Ca²⁺ release through RYR, AKAP18δ-N had opposite effects. We propose a model where the 2 unique AKAP18δ regions fine-tune Ca²⁺-frequency-dependent activation of CaMKIIδ at SERCA2-PLN and RYR.

CONCLUSIONS

AKAP18δ anchors and functionally regulates CaMKII activity at PLN-SERCA2 and RYR, indicating a crucial role of AKAP18δ in regulation of the heartbeat. To our knowledge, this is the first protein shown to enhance CaMKII activity in heart and also the first AKAP (A-kinase anchoring protein) reported to anchor a CaMKII isoform, defining AKAP18δ also as a CaM-KAP.

Scattering versus fluorescence self-quenching: more than a question of faith for the quantification of water flux in large unilamellar vesicles?

The endeavors to understand the determinants of water permeation through membrane channels, the effect of the lipid or polymer membrane on channel function, the development of specific water flow inhibitors, the design of artificial water channels and aquaporins for the use in industrial water filtration applications all rely on accurate ways to quantify water permeabilities (P f). A commonly used method is to reconstitute membrane channels into large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) and to subject these vesicles to an osmotic gradient in a stopped-flow device. Fast recordings of either scattered light intensity or fluorescence self-quenching signals are taken as a readout for vesicle volume change, which in turn can be recalculated to accurate P f values. By means of computational and experimental data, we discuss the pros and cons of using scattering versus self-quenching experiments or subjecting vesicles to hypo- or hyperosmotic conditions. In addition, we explicate for the first time the influence of the LUVs size distribution, channel distribution between vesicles and remaining detergent after protein reconstitution on P f values. We point out that results such as the single channel water permeability (p f) depend on the membrane matrix or on the direction of the applied osmotic gradient may be direct results of the measurement and analysis procedure.

Native-like membrane models of E. coli polar lipid extract shed light on the importance of lipid composition complexity

BACKGROUND

Lipid-protein interactions stabilize protein oligomers, shape their structure, and modulate their function. Whereas in vitro experiments already account for the functional importance of lipids by using natural lipid extracts, in silico methods lack behind by embedding proteins in single component lipid bilayers. However, to accurately complement in vitro experiments with molecular details at very high spatio-temporal resolution, molecular dynamics simulations have to be performed in natural(-like) lipid environments.

RESULTS

To enable more accurate MD simulations, we have prepared four membrane models of E. coli polar lipid extract, a typical model organism, each at all-atom (CHARMM36) and coarse-grained (Martini3) representations. These models contain all main lipid headgroup types of the E. coli inner membrane, i.e., phosphatidylethanolamines, phosphatidylglycerols, and cardiolipins, symmetrically distributed between the membrane leaflets. The lipid tail (un)saturation and propanylation stereochemistry represent the bacterial lipid tail composition of E. coli grown at 37∘C until 3/4 of the log growth phase. The comparison of the Simple three lipid component models to the complex 14-lipid component model Avanti over a broad range of physiologically relevant temperatures revealed that the balance of lipid tail unsaturation and propanylation in different positions and inclusion of lipid tails of various length maintain realistic values for lipid mobility, membrane area compressibility, lipid ordering, lipid volume and area, and the bilayer thickness. The only Simple model that was able to satisfactory reproduce most of the structural properties of the complex Avanti model showed worse agreement of the activation energy of basal water permeation with the here performed measurements. The Martini3 models reflect extremely well both experimental and atomistic behavior of the E. coli polar lipid extract membranes. Aquaporin-1 embedded in our native(-like) membranes causes partial lipid ordering and membrane thinning in its vicinity. Moreover, aquaporin-1 attracts and temporarily binds negatively charged lipids, mainly cardiolipins, with a distinct cardiolipin binding site in the crevice at the contact site between two monomers, most probably stabilizing the tetrameric protein assembly.

CONCLUSIONS

The here prepared and validated membrane models of E. coli polar lipids extract revealed that lipid tail complexity, in terms of double bond and cyclopropane location and varying lipid tail length, is key to stabilize membrane properties over a broad temperature range. In addition, they build a solid basis for manifold future simulation studies on more realistic lipid membranes bridging the gap between simulations and experiments.

Lateral heterogeneity and domain formation in cellular membranes

As early as the development of the fluid mosaic model for cellular membranes, researchers began observing the telltale signs of lateral heterogeneity. Over the decades this has led to the development of the lipid raft hypothesis and the ensuing controversy that has unfolded, as a result. Here, we review the physical concepts behind domain formation in lipid membranes, both of their structural and dynamic origins. This, then leads into a discussion of coarse-grained, phenomenological approaches that describe the wide range of phases associated with lipid lateral heterogeneity. We use these physical concepts to describe the interaction between raft-lipid species, such as long-chain saturated lipids, sphingomyelin, and cholesterol, and non-raft forming lipids, such as those with short acyl chains or unsaturated fatty acids. While debate has persisted on the biological relevance of lipid domains, recent research, described here, continues to identify biological roles for rafts and new experimental approaches have revealed the existence of lipid domains in living systems. Given the recent progress on both the biological and structural aspects of raft formation, the research area of membrane lateral heterogeneity will not only expand, but will continue to produce exciting results.

PRDM9 forms a trimer by interactions within the zinc finger array

PRDM9 is a trans-acting factor directing meiotic recombination to specific DNA-binding sites by its zinc finger (ZnF) array. It was suggested that PRDM9 is a multimer; however, we do not know the stoichiometry or the components inducing PRDM9 multimerization. In this work, we used in vitro binding studies and characterized with electrophoretic mobility shift assays, mass spectrometry, and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy the stoichiometry of the PRDM9 multimer of two different murine PRDM9 alleles carrying different tags and domains produced with different expression systems. Based on the migration distance of the PRDM9-DNA complex, we show that PRDM9 forms a trimer. Moreover, this stoichiometry is adapted already by the free, soluble protein with little exchange between protein monomers. The variable ZnF array of PRDM9 is sufficient for multimerization, and at least five ZnFs form already a functional trimer. Finally, we also show that only one ZnF array within the PRDM9 oligomer binds to the DNA, whereas the remaining two ZnF arrays likely maintain the trimer by ZnF-ZnF interactions.

Novel Histidine Kinase Gene HisK2301 from Rhodosporidium kratochvilovae Contributes to Cold Adaption by Promoting Biosynthesis of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Glycerol

Hybrid histidine kinase (HHKs) are widespread in fungi, but their roles in the regulation of fungal adaptation to environmental stresses remain largely unclear. To elucidate this, we cloned HisK2301 from Rhodosporidium kratochvilovae strain YM25235, characterized HisK2301 as a novel HHK, and further investigated the role of HisK2301 by overexpressing it in YM25235. Our results revealed that HisK2301 can promote adaptation of YM25235 to cold, osmotic, and salt stresses. During cold stress, HisK2301 significantly enhanced the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and intracellular glycerol. HisK2301 also augmented the expression levels of Δ¹²/Δ¹⁵ fatty acid desaturase ( RKD12) and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase1 ( GPD1), which are responsible for PUFA and glycerol biosynthesis, respectively. To conclude, our findings give the first insight into the defense and mechanisms of HisK2301 in fungi against cold stress and suggest the potential use of the novel cold-adapted HHK HisK2301 in industrial processes, such as large-scale production of PUFA.

Quantification of Water Flux in Vesicular Systems

Water transport across lipid membranes is fundamental to all forms of life and plays a major role in health and disease. However, not only typical water facilitators like aquaporins facilitate water flux, but also transporters, ion channels or receptors represent potent water pathways. The efforts directed towards a mechanistic understanding of water conductivity determinants in transmembrane proteins, the development of water flow inhibitors, and the creation of biomimetic membranes with incorporated membrane proteins or artificial water channels depend on reliable and accurate ways of quantifying water permeabilities Pf. A conventional method is to subject vesicles to an osmotic gradient in a stopped-flow device: Fast recordings of scattered light intensity are converted into the time course of vesicle volume change. Even though an analytical solution accurately acquiring Pf from scattered light intensities exists, approximations potentially misjudging Pf by orders of magnitude are used. By means of computational and experimental data we point out that erroneous results such as that the single channel water permeability pf depends on the osmotic gradient are direct results of such approximations. Finally, we propose an empirical solution of which calculated permeability values closely match those calculated with the analytical solution in the relevant range of parameters.

Undulations Drive Domain Registration from the Two Membrane Leaflets

Phase separation in biological membranes plays an important role in protein targeting and transmembrane signaling. Its occurrence in both membrane leaflets commonly gives rise to matching liquid or liquid-ordered domains in the opposing monolayers. The underlying mechanism of such co-localization is not fully understood. The decrease of the line tension around the thicker ordered domain constitutes an important driving force. Yet, robust domain coupling requires an additional energy source, which we have now identified as thermal undulations. Our theoretical analysis of elastic deformations in a lipid bilayer shows that stiffer lipid domains tend to distribute into areas with lower fluctuations of monolayer curvature. These areas naturally align in the opposing monolayers. Thus, coupling requires both membrane leafs to display a heterogeneity in splay rigidities. The heterogeneity may either originate from intrinsic lipid properties or be acquired by adsorption of peripheral molecules. Undulations and line tension act synergistically: the gain in energy due a minimized line tension is proportional to domain radius and thus primarily fuels the registration of smaller domains; whereas the energetic contribution of undulations increases with membrane area and thus primarily acts to coalesce larger domains.

Application of Peak Intensity Analysis to Measurements of Protein Binding to Lipid Vesicles and Erythrocytes Using Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy: Dependence on Particle Size

Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is a sensitive analytical tool for investigation of processes accompanied by changes in the mobility of molecules and complexes. In the present work, peak intensity analysis (PIA) in combination with the solution stirring using FCS setup was applied to explore the interaction between fluorescently labeled protein ligands and corresponding receptors located on membranes. In the system composed of biotinylated liposomes and fluorescently labeled streptavidin as a ligand, PIA allowed us to determine the optimum receptor concentration and demonstrate the essential dependence of the binding efficacy on the length of the linker between the biotin group and the polar head group of the lipid. The binding was dependent on the size of liposomes which was varied by lipid extrusion through filters of different pore diameters. The sensitivity of the method was higher with the liposomes of larger sizes. The PIA approach can be applied not only to liposomes but also to relatively large objects, e.g., erythrocytes or Sepharose beads derivatized with lactose as a receptor for the binding of viscumin and ricin.

The A-Kinase Anchoring Protein (AKAP) Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β Interaction Protein (GSKIP) Regulates β-Catenin through Its Interactions with Both Protein Kinase A (PKA) and GSK3β

The A-kinase anchoring protein (AKAP) GSK3β interaction protein (GSKIP) is a cytosolic scaffolding protein binding protein kinase A (PKA) and glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β). Here we show that both the AKAP function of GSKIP, i.e. its direct interaction with PKA, and its direct interaction with GSK3β are required for the regulation of β-catenin and thus Wnt signaling. A cytoplasmic destruction complex targets β-catenin for degradation and thus prevents Wnt signaling. Wnt signals cause β-catenin accumulation and translocation into the nucleus, where it induces Wnt target gene expression. GSKIP facilitates control of the β-catenin stabilizing phosphorylation at Ser-675 by PKA. Its interaction with GSK3β facilitates control of the destabilizing phosphorylation of β-catenin at Ser-33/Ser-37/Thr-41. The influence of GSKIP on β-catenin is explained by its scavenger function; it recruits the kinases away from the destruction complex without forming a complex with β-catenin. The regulation of β-catenin by GSKIP is specific for this AKAP as AKAP220, which also binds PKA and GSK3β, did not affect Wnt signaling. We find that the binding domain of AKAP220 for GSK3β is a conserved GSK3β interaction domain (GID), which is also present in GSKIP. Our findings highlight an essential compartmentalization of both PKA and GSK3β by GSKIP, and ascribe a function to a cytosolic AKAP-PKA interaction as a regulatory factor in the control of canonical Wnt signaling. Wnt signaling controls different biological processes, including embryonic development, cell cycle progression, glycogen metabolism, and immune regulation; deregulation is associated with diseases such as cancer, type 2 diabetes, inflammatory, and Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

AKAP18:PKA-RIIα structure reveals crucial anchor points for recognition of regulatory subunits of PKA

A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) interact with the dimerization/docking (D/D) domains of regulatory subunits of the ubiquitous protein kinase A (PKA). AKAPs tether PKA to defined cellular compartments establishing distinct pools to increase the specificity of PKA signalling. Here, we elucidated the structure of an extended PKA-binding domain of AKAP18β bound to the D/D domain of the regulatory RIIα subunits of PKA. We identified three hydrophilic anchor points in AKAP18β outside the core PKA-binding domain, which mediate contacts with the D/D domain. Such anchor points are conserved within AKAPs that bind regulatory RII subunits of PKA. We derived a different set of anchor points in AKAPs binding regulatory RI subunits of PKA. In vitro and cell-based experiments confirm the relevance of these sites for the interaction of RII subunits with AKAP18 and of RI subunits with the RI-specific smAKAP. Thus we report a novel mechanism governing interactions of AKAPs with PKA. The sequence specificity of each AKAP around the anchor points and the requirement of these points for the tight binding of PKA allow the development of selective inhibitors to unequivocally ascribe cellular functions to the AKAP18-PKA and other AKAP-PKA interactions.

Introducing a fluorescence-based standard to quantify protein partitioning into membranes

The affinity of peripheral membrane proteins for a lipid bilayer can be described using the partition coefficient (KP). Although several methods to determine KP are known, all possess limitations. To address some of these issues, we developed both: a versatile method based on single molecule detection and fluorescence imaging for determining KP, and a simple measurement standard employing hexahistidine-tagged enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP-His6) and free standing membranes of giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) functionalized with NTA(Ni) lipids as binding sites. To ensure intrinsic control, our method features two measurement modes. In the single molecule mode, fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) is applied to quantify free and membrane associated protein concentrations at equilibrium and calculate KP. In the imaging mode, confocal fluorescence images of GUVs are recorded and analyzed with semi-automated software to extract protein mean concentrations used to derive KP. Both modes were compared by determining the affinity of our standard, resulting in equivalent KP values. As observed in other systems, eGFP-His6 affinity for membranes containing increasing amounts of NTA(Ni) lipids rises in a stronger-than-linear fashion. We compared our dual approach with a FCS-based assay that uses large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs), which however fails to capture the stronger-than-linear trend for our NTA(Ni)-His6 standard. Hence, we determined the KP of the MARCKS effector domain with our FCS approach on GUVs, whose results are consistent with previously published data using LUVs. We finally provide a practical manual on how to measure KP and understand it in terms of molecules per lipid surface.

Local partition coefficients govern solute permeability of cholesterol-containing membranes

The permeability of lipid membranes for metabolic molecules or drugs is routinely estimated from the solute's oil/water partition coefficient. However, the molecular determinants that modulate the permeability in different lipid compositions have remained unclear. Here, we combine scanning electrochemical microscopy and molecular-dynamics simulations to study the effect of cholesterol on membrane permeability, because cholesterol is abundant in all animal membranes. The permeability of membranes from natural lipid mixtures to both hydrophilic and hydrophobic solutes monotonously decreases with cholesterol concentration [Chol]. The same is true for hydrophilic solutes and planar bilayers composed of dioleoyl-phosphatidylcholine or dioleoyl-phosphatidyl-ethanolamine. However, these synthetic lipids give rise to a bell-shaped dependence of membrane permeability on [Chol] for very hydrophobic solutes. The simulations indicate that cholesterol does not affect the diffusion constant inside the membrane. Instead, local partition coefficients at the lipid headgroups and at the lipid tails are modulated oppositely by cholesterol, explaining the experimental findings. Structurally, these modulations are induced by looser packing at the lipid headgroups and tighter packing at the tails upon the addition of cholesterol.

BK channel-mediated relaxation of urinary bladder smooth muscle: a novel paradigm for phosphodiesterase type 4 regulation of bladder function

Elevation of intracellular cAMP and activation of protein kinase A (PKA) lead to activation of large conductance voltage- and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channels, thus attenuation of detrusor smooth muscle (DSM) contractility. In this study, we investigated the mechanism by which pharmacological inhibition of cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) with rolipram or Ro-20-1724 (C(15)H(22)N(2)O(3)) suppresses guinea pig DSM excitability and contractility. We used high-speed line-scanning confocal microscopy, ratiometric fluorescence Ca(2+) imaging, and perforated whole-cell patch-clamp techniques on freshly isolated DSM cells, along with isometric tension recordings of DSM isolated strips. Rolipram caused an increase in the frequency of Ca(2+) sparks and the spontaneous transient BK currents (TBKCs), hyperpolarized the cell membrane potential (MP), and decreased the intracellular Ca(2+) levels. Blocking BK channels with paxilline reversed the hyperpolarizing effect of rolipram and depolarized the MP back to the control levels. In the presence of H-89 [N-[2-[[3-(4-bromophenyl)-2-propenyl]amino]ethyl]-5-isoquinolinesulfonamide dihydrochloride], a PKA inhibitor, rolipram did not cause MP hyperpolarization. Rolipram or Ro-20-1724 reduced DSM spontaneous and carbachol-induced phasic contraction amplitude, muscle force, duration, and frequency, and electrical field stimulation-induced contraction amplitude, muscle force, and tone. Paxilline recovered DSM contractility, which was suppressed by pretreatment with PDE4 inhibitors. Rolipram had reduced inhibitory effects on DSM contractility in DSM strips pretreated with paxilline. This study revealed a novel cellular mechanism whereby pharmacological inhibition of PDE4 leads to suppression of guinea pig DSM contractility by increasing the frequency of Ca(2+) sparks and the functionally coupled TBKCs, consequently hyperpolarizing DSM cell MP. Collectively, this decreases the global intracellular Ca(2+) levels and DSM contractility in a BK channel-dependent manner.

Small-molecule screening identifies modulators of aquaporin-2 trafficking

In the principal cells of the renal collecting duct, arginine vasopressin (AVP) stimulates the synthesis of cAMP, leading to signaling events that culminate in the phosphorylation of aquaporin-2 water channels and their redistribution from intracellular domains to the plasma membrane via vesicular trafficking. The molecular mechanisms that control aquaporin-2 trafficking and the consequent water reabsorption, however, are not completely understood. Here, we used a cell-based assay and automated immunofluorescence microscopy to screen 17,700 small molecules for inhibitors of the cAMP-dependent redistribution of aquaporin-2. This approach identified 17 inhibitors, including 4-acetyldiphyllin, a selective blocker of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase that increases the pH of intracellular vesicles and causes accumulation of aquaporin-2 in the Golgi compartment. Although 4-acetyldiphyllin did not inhibit forskolin-induced increases in cAMP formation and downstream activation of protein kinase A (PKA), it did prevent cAMP/PKA-dependent phosphorylation at serine 256 of aquaporin-2, which triggers the redistribution to the plasma membrane. It did not, however, prevent cAMP-induced changes to the phosphorylation status at serines 261 or 269. Last, we identified the fungicide fluconazole as an inhibitor of cAMP-mediated redistribution of aquaporin-2, but its target in this pathway remains unknown. In conclusion, our screening approach provides a method to begin dissecting molecular mechanisms underlying AVP-mediated water reabsorption, evidenced by our identification of 4-acetyldiphyllin as a modulator of aquaporin-2 trafficking.

Electrostatically induced recruitment of membrane peptides into clusters requires ligand binding at both interfaces

Protein recruitment to specific membrane locations may be governed or facilitated by electrostatic attraction, which originates from a multivalent ligand. Here we explored the energetics of a model system in which this simple electrostatic recruitment mechanism failed. That is, basic poly-L-lysine binding to one leaflet of a planar lipid bilayer did not recruit the triply-charged peptide (O-Pyromellitylgramicidin). Clustering was only observed in cases where PLL was bound to both channel ends. Clustering was indicated (i) by the decreased diffusional PLL mobility D_PLL and (ii) by an increased lifetime τ_PLL of the clustered channels. In contrast, if PLL was bound to only one leaflet, neither D_PLL nor τ_P changed. Simple calculations suggest that electrostatic repulsion of the unbound ends prevented neighboring OPg dimers from approaching each other. We believe that a similar mechanism may also operate in cell signaling and that it may e.g. contribute to the controversial results obtained for the ligand driven dimerization of G protein-coupled receptors.