Gating transitions in the palm domain of ASIC1a

Pathology and physiology of acid-sensitive ion channels in the bladder

Acid-sensitive ion channels (ASICs) are sodium-permeable channels activated by extracellular acidification. They can be activated and trigger the inward flow of Na+ when the extracellular environment is acidic, leading to membrane depolarization and thus inducing action potentials in neurons. There are four ASIC genes in mammals (ASIC1-4). ASIC is widely expressed in humans. It is closely associated with pain, neurological disorders, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, migraines, and many other disorders. Bladder pain syndrome/interstitial cystitis (BPS/IC) is a specific syndrome characterized by bladder pain. Recent studies have shown that ASICs are closely associated with the development of BPS/IC. A study revealed that ASIC levels are significantly elevated in a BPS/IC model. Additionally, researchers have reported differential changes in ASICs in the bladders of patients with neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (NLUTD) caused by spinal cord injury (SCI). In this review, we summarize the structure and physiological functions of ASICs and focus on the mechanisms by which ASICs mediate bladder disease.

Function and phylogeny support the independent evolution of an ASIC-like Deg/ENaC channel in the Placozoa

ASIC channels are bilaterian proton-gated sodium channels belonging to the large and functionally-diverse Deg/ENaC family that also includes peptide- and mechanically-gated channels. Here, we report that the non-bilaterian invertebrate Trichoplax adhaerens possesses a proton-activated Deg/ENaC channel, TadNaC2, with a unique combination of biophysical features including tachyphylaxis like ASIC1a, reduced proton sensitivity like ASIC2a, biphasic macroscopic currents like ASIC3, as well as low sensitivity to the Deg/ENaC channel blocker amiloride and Ca2+ ions. Structural modeling and mutation analyses reveal that TadNaC2 proton gating is different from ASIC channels, lacking key molecular determinants, and involving unique residues within the palm and finger regions. Phylogenetic analysis reveals that a monophyletic clade of T. adhaerens Deg/ENaC channels, which includes TadNaC2, is phylogenetically distinct from ASIC channels, instead forming a clade with BASIC channels. Altogether, this work suggests that ASIC-like channels evolved independently in T. adhaerens and its phylum Placozoa. Our phylogenetic analysis also identifies several clades of uncharacterized metazoan Deg/ENaC channels, and provides phylogenetic evidence for the existence of Deg/ENaC channels outside of Metazoa, present in the gene data of select unicellular heterokont and filasterea-related species.

Mechanisms of Action of the Peptide Toxins Targeting Human and Rodent Acid-Sensing Ion Channels and Relevance to Their In Vivo Analgesic Effects

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are voltage-independent H⁺-gated cation channels largely expressed in the nervous system of rodents and humans. At least six isoforms (ASIC1a, 1b, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4) associate into homotrimers or heterotrimers to form functional channels with highly pH-dependent gating properties. This review provides an update on the pharmacological profiles of animal peptide toxins targeting ASICs, including PcTx1 from tarantula and related spider toxins, APETx2 and APETx-like peptides from sea anemone, and mambalgin from snake, as well as the dimeric protein snake toxin MitTx that have all been instrumental to understanding the structure and the pH-dependent gating of rodent and human cloned ASICs and to study the physiological and pathological roles of native ASICs in vitro and in vivo. ASICs are expressed all along the pain pathways and the pharmacological data clearly support a role for these channels in pain. ASIC-targeting peptide toxins interfere with ASIC gating by complex and pH-dependent mechanisms sometimes leading to opposite effects. However, these dual pH-dependent effects of ASIC-inhibiting toxins (PcTx1, mambalgin and APETx2) are fully compatible with, and even support, their analgesic effects in vivo, both in the central and the peripheral nervous system, as well as potential effects in humans.

Accessibility of ENaC extracellular domain central core residues

The epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC)/degenerin family has a similar extracellular architecture, where specific regulatory factors interact and alter channel gating behavior. The extracellular palm domain serves as a key link to the channel pore. In this study, we used cysteine-scanning mutagenesis to assess the functional effects of Cys-modifying reagents on palm domain β10 strand residues in mouse ENaC. Of the 13 ENaC α subunit mutants with Cys substitutions examined, only mutants at sites in the proximal region of β10 exhibited changes in channel activity in response to methanethiosulfonate reagents. Additionally, Cys substitutions at three proximal sites of β and γ subunit β10 strands also rendered mutant channels methanethiosulfonate-responsive. Moreover, multiple Cys mutants were activated by low concentrations of thiophilic Cd2+. Using the Na+ self-inhibition response to assess ENaC gating behavior, we identified four α, two β, and two γ subunit β10 strand mutations that changed the Na+ self-inhibition response. Our results suggest that the proximal regions of β10 strands in all three subunits are accessible to small aqueous compounds and Cd2+ and have a role in modulating ENaC gating. These results are consistent with a structural model of mouse ENaC that predicts the presence of aqueous tunnels adjacent to the proximal part of β10 and with previously resolved structures of a related family member where palm domain structural transitions were observed with channels in an open or closed state.

Acid-sensing ion channel 3: An analgesic target

Acid-sensing ion channel 3 (ASIC3) belongs to the epithelial sodium channel/degenerin (ENaC/DEG) superfamily. There are 7 different ASIC subunits encoded by 5 different genes. Most ASIC subunits form trimeric ion channels that upon activation by extracellular protons mediate a transient inward current inducing cellular excitability. ASIC subunits exhibit differential tissue expression and biophysical properties, and the ability of subunits to form homo- and heteromeric trimers further increases the complexity of currents measured and their pharmacological properties. ASIC3 is of particular interest, not only because it exhibits high expression in sensory neurones, but also because upon activation it does not fully inactivate: a transient current is followed by a sustained current that persists during a period of extracellular acidity, i.e. ASIC3 can encode prolonged acidosis as a nociceptive signal. Furthermore, certain mediators sensitize ASIC3 enabling smaller proton concentrations to activate it and other mediators can directly activate the channel at neutral pH. Moreover, there is a plethora of evidence using transgenic mouse models and pharmacology, which supports ASIC3 as being a potential target for development of analgesics. This review will focus on current understanding of ASIC3 function to provide an overview of how ASIC3 contributes to physiology and pathophysiology, examining the mechanisms by which it can be modulated, and highlighting gaps in current understanding and future research directions.

Mutation of a conserved glutamine residue does not abolish desensitization of acid-sensing ion channel 1

Desensitization is a common feature of ligand-gated ion channels, although the molecular cause varies widely between channel types. Mutations that greatly reduce or nearly abolish desensitization have been described for many ligand-gated ion channels, including glutamate, GABA, glycine, and nicotinic receptors, but not for acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) until recently. Mutating Gln276 to a glycine (Q276G) in human ASIC1a was reported to mostly abolish desensitization at both the macroscopic and the single channel levels, potentially providing a valuable tool for subsequent studies. However, we find that in both human and chicken ASIC1, the effect of Q276G is modest. In chicken ASIC1, the equivalent Q277G slightly reduces desensitization when using pH 6.5 as a stimulus but desensitizes, essentially like wild-type, when using more acidic pH values. In addition, steady-state desensitization is intact, albeit right-shifted, and recovery from desensitization is accelerated. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate that the Gln277 side chain participates in a hydrogen bond network that might stabilize the desensitized conformation. Consistent with this, destabilizing this network with the Q277N or Q277L mutations largely mimics the Q277G phenotype. In human ASIC1a, the Q276G mutation also reduces desensitization, but not to the extent reported previously. Interestingly, the kinetic consequences of Q276G depend on the human variant used. In the common G212 variant, Q276G slows desensitization, while in the rare D212 variant desensitization accelerates. Our data reveal that while the Q/G mutation does not abolish or substantially impair desensitization as previously reported, it does point to unexpected differences between chicken and human ASICs and the need for careful scrutiny before using this mutation in future studies.

Evolution of acid nociception: ion channels and receptors for detecting acid

Nociceptors, i.e. sensory neurons tuned to detect noxious stimuli, are found in numerous phyla of the Animalia kingdom and are often polymodal, responding to a variety of stimuli, e.g. heat, cold, pressure and chemicals, such as acid. Owing to the ability of protons to have a profound effect on ionic homeostasis and damage macromolecular structures, it is no wonder that the ability to detect acid is conserved across many species. To detect changes in pH, nociceptors are equipped with an assortment of different acid sensors, some of which can detect mild changes in pH, such as the acid-sensing ion channels, proton-sensing G protein-coupled receptors and several two-pore potassium channels, whereas others, such as the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 ion channel, require larger shifts in pH. This review will discuss the evolution of acid sensation and the different mechanisms by which nociceptors can detect acid. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue 'Evolution of mechanisms and behaviour important for pain'.

Mutations in the palm domain disrupt modulation of acid-sensing ion channel 1a currents by neuropeptides

Modulation by neuropeptides enhances several functions of acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs), such as pain sensation and acid-induced neuronal injury. The acid-induced opening of ASICs is transient, because of a rapid desensitization. Neuropeptides containing an Arg-Phe-amide motif affect ASIC desensitization and allow continuous activity of ASICs. In spite of the importance of the sustained ASIC activity during prolonged acidification, the molecular mechanisms of ASIC modulation by neuropeptides is only poorly understood. To identify the FRRFa (Phe-Arg-Arg-Phe-amide) binding site on ASIC1a, we carried out an in silico docking analysis and verified functionally the docking predictions. The docking experiments indicated three possible binding pockets, located (1) in the acidic pocket between the thumb, finger, β-ball and palm domains, (2) in a pocket at the bottom of the thumb domain, and (3) in the central vestibule along with the connected side cavities. Functional measurements of mutant ASIC1a confirmed the importance of residues of the lower palm, which encloses the central vestibule and its side cavities, for the FRRFa effects. The combined docking and functional experiments strongly suggest that FRRFa binds to the central vestibule and its side cavities to change ASIC desensitization.

Molecular basis of inhibition of acid sensing ion channel 1A by diminazene

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are trimeric proton-gated cation permeable ion channels expressed primarily in neurons. Here we employed site-directed mutagenesis and electrophysiology to investigate the mechanism of inhibition of ASIC1a by diminazene. This compound inhibits mouse ASIC1a with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 2.4 μM. At first, we examined whether neutralizing mutations of Glu79 and Glu416 alter diminazene block. These residues form a hexagonal array in the lower palm domain that was previously shown to contribute to pore opening in response to extracellular acidification. Significantly, single Gln substitutions at positions 79 and 416 in ASIC1a reduced diminazene apparent affinity by 6-7 fold. This result suggests that diminazene inhibits ASIC1a in part by limiting conformational rearrangement in the lower palm domain. Because diminazene is charged at physiological pHs, we assessed whether it inhibits ASIC1a by blocking the ion channel pore. Consistent with the notion that diminazene binds to a site within the membrane electric field, diminazene block showed a strong dependence with the membrane potential. Moreover, a Gly to Ala mutation at position 438, in the ion conduction pathway of ASIC1a, increased diminazene IC50 by one order of magnitude and eliminated the voltage dependence of block. Taken together, our results indicate that the inhibition of ASIC1a by diminazene involves both allosteric modulation and blocking of ion flow through the conduction pathway. Our findings provide a foundation for the development of more selective and potent ASIC pore blockers.

ASIC3 fine-tunes bladder sensory signaling

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are trimeric proton-activated, cation-selective neuronal channels that are considered to play important roles in mechanosensation and nociception. Here we investigated the role of ASIC3, a subunit primarily expressed in sensory neurons, in bladder sensory signaling and function. We found that extracellular acidification evokes a transient increase in current, consistent with the kinetics of activation and desensitization of ASICs, in ~25% of the bladder sensory neurons harvested from both wild-type (WT) and ASIC3 knockout (KO) mice. The absence of ASIC3 increased the magnitude of the peak evoked by extracellular acidification and reduced the rate of decay of the ASIC-like currents. These findings suggest that ASICs are assembled as heteromers and that the absence of ASIC3 alters the composition of these channels in bladder sensory neurons. Consistent with the notion that ASIC3 serves as a proton sensor, 59% of the bladder sensory neurons harvested from WT, but none from ASIC3 KO mice, fired action potentials in response to extracellular acidification. Studies of bladder function revealed that ASIC3 deletion reduces voiding volume and the pressure required to trigger micturition. In summary, our findings indicate that ASIC3 plays a role in the control of bladder function by modulating the response of afferents to filling.

Mapping allosteric linkage to channel gating by extracellular domains in the human epithelial sodium channel

The epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) mediates sodium absorption in lung, kidney, and colon epithelia. Channels in the ENaC/degenerin family possess an extracellular region that senses physicochemical changes in the extracellular milieu and allosterically regulates the channel opening. Proteolytic cleavage activates the ENaC opening, by the removal of specific segments in the finger domains of the α- and γ ENaC-subunits. Cleavage causes perturbations in the extracellular region that propagate to the channel gate. However, it is not known how the channel structure mediates the propagation of activation signals through the extracellular sensing domains. Here, to identify the structure-function determinants that mediate allosteric ENaC activation, we performed MD simulations, thiol modification of residues substituted by cysteine, and voltage-clamp electrophysiology recordings. Our simulations of an ENaC heterotetramer, α₁βα₂γ, in the proteolytically cleaved and uncleaved states revealed structural pathways in the α-subunit that are responsible for ENaC proteolytic activation. To validate these findings, we performed site-directed mutagenesis to introduce cysteine substitutions in the extracellular domains of the α-, β-, and γ ENaC-subunits. Insertion of a cysteine at the α-subunit Glu⁵⁵⁷ site, predicted to stabilize a closed state of ENaC, inhibited ENaC basal activity and retarded the kinetics of proteolytic activation by 2-fold. Our results suggest that the lower palm domain of αENaC is essential for ENaC activation. In conclusion, our integrated computational and experimental approach suggests key structure-function determinants for ENaC proteolytic activation and points toward a mechanistic model for the allosteric communication in the extracellular domains of the ENaC/degenerin family channels.

Naked mole-rat acid-sensing ion channel 3 forms nonfunctional homomers, but functional heteromers

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) form both homotrimeric and heterotrimeric ion channels that are activated by extracellular protons and are involved in a wide range of physiological and pathophysiological processes, including pain and anxiety. ASIC proteins can form both homotrimeric and heterotrimeric ion channels. The ASIC3 subunit has been shown to be of particular importance in the peripheral nervous system with pharmacological and genetic manipulations demonstrating a role in pain. Naked mole-rats, despite having functional ASICs, are insensitive to acid as a noxious stimulus and show diminished avoidance of acidic fumes, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. Here we cloned naked mole-rat ASIC3 (nmrASIC3) and used a cell-surface biotinylation assay to demonstrate that it traffics to the plasma membrane, but using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology we observed that nmrASIC3 is insensitive to both protons and the non-proton ASIC3 agonist 2-guanidine-4-methylquinazoline. However, in line with previous reports of ASIC3 mRNA expression in dorsal root ganglia neurons, we found that the ASIC3 antagonist APETx2 reversibly inhibits ASIC-like currents in naked mole-rat dorsal root ganglia neurons. We further show that like the proton-insensitive ASIC2b and ASIC4, nmrASIC3 forms functional, proton-sensitive heteromers with other ASIC subunits. An amino acid alignment of ASIC3s between 9 relevant rodent species and human identified unique sequence differences that might underlie the proton insensitivity of nmrASIC3. However, introducing nmrASIC3 differences into rat ASIC3 (rASIC3) produced only minor differences in channel function, and replacing the nmrASIC3 sequence with that of rASIC3 did not produce a proton-sensitive ion channel. Our observation that nmrASIC3 forms nonfunctional homomers may reflect a further adaptation of the naked mole-rat to living in an environment with high-carbon dioxide levels.

The nonproton ligand of acid-sensing ion channel 3 activates mollusk-specific FaNaC channels via a mechanism independent of the native FMRFamide peptide

The degenerin/epithelial sodium channel (DEG/ENaC) superfamily of ion channels contains subfamilies with diverse functions that are fundamental to many physiological and pathological processes, ranging from synaptic transmission to epileptogenesis. The absence in mammals of some DEG/ENaCs subfamily orthologues such as FMRFamide peptide-activated sodium channels (FaNaCs), which have been identified only in mollusks, indicates that the various subfamilies diverged early in evolution. We recently reported that the nonproton agonist 2-guanidine-4-methylquinazoline (GMQ) activates acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs), a DEG/ENaC subfamily mainly in mammals, in the absence of acidosis. Here, we show that GMQ also could directly activate the mollusk-specific FaNaCs. Differences in ion selectivity and unitary conductance and effects of substitutions at key residues revealed that GMQ and FMRFamide activate FaNaCs via distinct mechanisms. The presence of two activation mechanisms in the FaNaC subfamily diverging early in the evolution of DEG/ENaCs suggested that dual gating is an ancient feature in this superfamily. Notably, the GMQ-gating mode is still preserved in the mammalian ASIC subfamily, whereas FMRFamide-mediated channel gating was lost during evolution. This implied that GMQ activation may be essential for the functions of mammalian DEG/ENaCs. Our findings provide new insights into the evolution of DEG/ENaCs and may facilitate the discovery and characterization of their endogenous agonists.

The Thumb Domain Mediates Acid-sensing Ion Channel Desensitization

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are cation-selective proton-gated channels expressed in neurons that participate in diverse physiological processes, including nociception, synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. ASIC subunits contain intracellular N and C termini, two transmembrane domains that constitute the pore, and a large extracellular loop with defined domains termed the finger, β-ball, thumb, palm, and knuckle. Here we examined the contribution of the finger, β-ball, and thumb domains to activation and desensitization through the analysis of chimeras and the assessment of the effect of covalent modification of introduced Cys at the domain-domain interfaces. Our studies with ASIC1a-ASIC2a chimeras showed that swapping the thumb domain between subunits results in faster channel desensitization. Likewise, the covalent modification of Cys residues at selected positions in the β-ball-thumb interface accelerates the desensitization of the mutant channels. Studies of accessibility with thiol-reactive reagents revealed that the β-ball and thumb domains reside apart in the resting state but that they become closer to each other in response to extracellular acidification. We propose that the thumb domain moves upon continuous exposure to an acidic extracellular milieu, assisting with the closing of the pore during channel desensitization.

Novel Insights into Acid-Sensing Ion Channels: Implications for Degenerative Diseases

Degenerative diseases often strike older adults and are characterized by progressive deterioration of cells, eventually leading to tissue and organ degeneration for which limited effective treatment options are currently available. Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs), a family of extracellular H(+)-activated ligand-gated ion channels, play critical roles in physiological and pathological conditions. Aberrant activation of ASICs is reported to regulate cell apoptosis, differentiation and autophagy. Accumulating evidence has highlighted a dramatic increase and activation of ASICs in degenerative disorders, including multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, intervertebral disc degeneration and arthritis. In this review, we have comprehensively discussed the critical roles of ASICs and their potential utility as therapeutic targets in degenerative diseases.

Structural domains underlying the activation of acid-sensing ion channel 2a

The acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are a family of ion channels expressed throughout the mammalian nervous system. The principal activator of ASICs is extracellular protons, and ASICs have been demonstrated to play a significant role in many physiologic and pathophysiologic processes, including synaptic transmission, nociception, and fear. However, not all ASICs are proton-sensitive: ASIC2a is activated by acid, whereas its splice variant ASIC2b is not. We made a series of chimeric ASIC2 proteins, and using whole-cell electrophysiology we have identified the minimal region of the ASIC2a extracellular domain that is required for ASIC2 proton activation: the first 87 amino acids after transmembrane domain 1. We next examined the function of different domains within the ASIC2b N-terminus and identified a region proximal to the first transmembrane domain that confers tachyphylaxis upon ASIC2a. We have thus identified domains of ASIC2 that are crucial to channel function and may be important for the function of other members of the ASIC family.

Biophysical properties of acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs)

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are ligand-gated ion channels that are exquisitely sensitive to extracellular protons and can sense transient as well as sustained acidification. In this review, we will discuss activation and desensitization of ASICs by protons. We show that a linear reaction scheme can reproduce the basic electrophysiological properties of ASICs, including steady-state desensitization. Moreover, we will discuss how a desensitizing receptor can sense sustained acidosis and what we know about the putative proton sensor. We will briefly discuss modulation of proton gating by neuropeptides and small positively charged ligands. Finally, we will review the pore properties of ASICs and their relation to the recently reported crystal structure of the open ASIC pore. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Acid-Sensing Ion Channels in the Nervous System'.

Architectural and functional similarities between trimeric ATP-gated P2X receptors and acid-sensing ion channels

ATP-gated P2X receptors and acid-sensing ion channels are two distinct ligand-gated ion channels that assemble into trimers. They are involved in many important physiological functions such as pain sensation and are recognized as important therapeutic targets. They have unrelated primary structures and respond to different ligands (ATP and protons) and are thus considered as two different ion channels. As a consequence, comparisons of the biophysical properties and underlying mechanisms have only been rarely made between these two channels. However, the recent determination of their molecular structures by X-ray crystallography has revealed unexpected parallels in the architecture of the two pores, providing a basis for possible functional analogies. In this review, we analyze the structural and functional similarities that are shared by these trimeric ion channels, and we outline key unanswered questions that, if addressed experimentally, may help us to elucidate how two unrelated ion channels have adopted a similar fold of the pore.

Proton-sensitive cation channels and ion exchangers in ischemic brain injury: new therapeutic targets for stroke?

Ischemic brain injury results from complicated cellular mechanisms. The present therapy for acute ischemic stroke is limited to thrombolysis with the recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA) and mechanical recanalization. Therefore, a better understanding of ischemic brain injury is needed for the development of more effective therapies. Disruption of ionic homeostasis plays an important role in cell death following cerebral ischemia. Glutamate receptor-mediated ionic imbalance and neurotoxicity have been well established in cerebral ischemia after stroke. However, non-NMDA receptor-dependent mechanisms, involving acid-sensing ion channel 1a (ASIC1a), transient receptor potential melastatin 7 (TRPM7), and Na(+)/H(+) exchanger isoform 1 (NHE1), have recently emerged as important players in the dysregulation of ionic homeostasis in the CNS under ischemic conditions. These H(+)-sensitive channels and/or exchangers are expressed in the majority of cell types of the neurovascular unit. Sustained activation of these proteins causes excessive influx of cations, such as Ca(2+), Na(+), and Zn(2+), and leads to ischemic reperfusion brain injury. In this review, we summarize recent pre-clinical experimental research findings on how these channels/exchangers are regulated in both in vitro and in vivo models of cerebral ischemia. The blockade or transgenic knockdown of these proteins was shown to be neuroprotective in these ischemia models. Taken together, these non-NMDA receptor-dependent mechanisms may serve as novel therapeutic targets for stroke intervention.

Independent contribution of extracellular proton binding sites to ASIC1a activation

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are a group of trimeric cation permeable channels gated by extracellular protons that are mainly expressed in the nervous system. Despite the structural information available for ASIC1, there is limited understanding of the molecular mechanism that allows these channels to sense and respond to drops in extracellular pH. In this report, we employed the substituted cysteine accessibility method and site-directed mutagenesis to examine the mechanism of activation of ASIC1a by extracellular protons. We found that the modification of E238C and D345C channels by MTSET reduced proton apparent affinity for activation. Furthermore, the introduction of positively charged residues at position 345 rendered shifted biphasic proton activation curves. Likewise, channels bearing mutations at positions 79 and 416 in the palm domain of the channel showed reduced proton apparent affinity and biphasic proton activation curves. Of significance, the effect of the mutations at positions 79 and 345 on channel activation was additive. E79K-D345K required a change to a pH lower than 2 for maximal activation. In summary, this study provides direct evidence for the presence of two distinct proton coordination sites in the extracellular region of ASIC1a, which jointly facilitate pore opening in response to extracellular acidification.

Conformational changes in the lower palm domain of ASIC1a contribute to desensitization and RFamide modulation

Acid-sensing ion channel 1a (ASIC1a) is a proton-gated cation channel that contributes to fear and pain as well as neuronal damage following persistent cerebral acidosis. Neuropeptides can affect acid-induced neuronal injury by altering ASIC1a inactivation and/or steady-state desensitization. Yet, exactly how ASIC1a inactivation and desensitization occur or are modulated by peptides is not completely understood. We found that regions of the extracellular palm domain and the β_11-12 linker are important for inactivation and steady-state desensitization of ASIC1a. The single amino acid substitutions L280C and L415C dramatically enhanced the rate of inactivation and altered the pH-dependence of steady-state desensitization. Further, the use of methanethiosulfonate (MTS) reagents suggests that the lower palm region (L280C) undergoes a conformational change when ASIC1a transitions from closed to desensitized. We determined that L280C also displays an altered response to the RFamide peptide, FRRFamide. Further, the presence of FRRFamide limited MTS modification of L280C. Together, these results indicate a potential role of the lower palm domain in peptide modulation and suggest RFamide-related peptides promote conformational changes within this region. These data provide empirical support for the idea that L280, and likely this region of the central vestibule, is intimately involved in channel inactivation and desensitization.