1
|
Zhong S, Borlak J. Sex differences in the tumor promoting effects of tobacco smoke in a cRaf transgenic lung cancer disease model. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:957-983. [PMID: 38245882 PMCID: PMC10861769 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-023-03671-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Tobacco smoke (TS) is the leading cause for lung cancer (LC), and female smokers are at a greater risk for LC. Yet, the underlying causes are unknown. We performed whole genome scans in TS exposed wild type and histologically characterized tumor lesions of cRaf transgenic mice. We constructed miRNA-gene and transcription factor-miRNA/gene regulatory networks and determined sex-specific gene regulations by evaluating hormone receptor activities. We validated the findings from TS exposed cRaf mice in a large cohort of smoking and never-smoking LC patients. When compared to males, TS prompted a sevenfold increase in tumor multiplicity in cRaf females. Genome-wide scans of tumor lesions identified 161 and 53 genes and miRNAs, which code for EGFR/MAPK signaling, cell proliferation, oncomirs and oncogenes, and 50% of DEGs code for immune response and tumor evasion. Outstandingly, in transgenic males, TS elicited upregulation of 20 tumor suppressors, some of which are the targets of the androgen and estrogen receptor. Conversely, in females, 18 tumor suppressors were downregulated, and five were specifically repressed by the estrogen receptor. We found TS to perturb the circadian clock in a sex-specific manner and identified a female-specific regulatory loop that consisted of the estrogen receptor, miR-22-3p and circadian genes to support LC growth. Finally, we confirmed sex-dependent tumor promoting effects of TS in a large cohort of LC patients. Our study highlights the sex-dependent genomic responses to TS and the interplay of circadian clock genes and hormone receptors in the regulation of oncogenes and oncomirs in LC growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shen Zhong
- Centre for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jürgen Borlak
- Centre for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Celli L, Gasparini P, Biino G, Zannini L, Cardano M. CRISPR/Cas9 mediated Y-chromosome elimination affects human cells transcriptome. Cell Biosci 2024; 14:15. [PMID: 38291538 PMCID: PMC10829266 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-024-01198-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sexual dimorphism represents a key concept in the comprehension of molecular processes guiding several sex-specific physiological and pathological mechanisms. It has been reported that genes involved in many disorders show a sex-dependent expression pattern. Moreover, the loss of Y chromosome (LOY), found to be a physiological age-driven phenomenon, has been linked to many neurodegenerative and autoimmune disorders, and to an increased cancer risk. These findings drove us towards the consideration that LOY may cause the de-regulation of disease specific networks, involving genes located in both autosomal and sex chromosomes. RESULTS Exploiting the CRISPR/Cas9 and RNA-sequencing technologies, we generated a Y-deficient human cell line that has been investigated for its gene expression profile. Our results showed that LOY can influence the transcriptome displaying relevant enriched biological processes, such as cell migration regulation, angiogenesis and immune response. Interestingly, the ovarian follicle development pathway was found enriched, supporting the female-mimicking profile of male Y-depleted cells. CONCLUSION This study, besides proposing a novel approach to investigate sex-biased physiological and pathological conditions, highlights new roles for the Y chromosome in the sexual dimorphism characterizing human health and diseases. Moreover, this analysis paves the way for the research of new therapeutic approaches for sex dimorphic and LOY-related diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ludovica Celli
- Istituto di Genetica Molecolare "Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza", CNR, 27100, Pavia, Italy
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Via Fratelli Cervi 93, 20054, Segrate, Italy
| | - Patrizia Gasparini
- Epigenomic and Biomarkers of Solid Tumors, Department of Research, Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale dei Tumori, Via Venezian 1, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Ginevra Biino
- Istituto di Genetica Molecolare "Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza", CNR, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Laura Zannini
- Istituto di Genetica Molecolare "Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza", CNR, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
| | - Miriana Cardano
- Istituto di Genetica Molecolare "Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza", CNR, 27100, Pavia, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jin K, Liu C, Cheng H, Fei Q, Huang Q, Xiao Z, Yu X, Wu W. TGF-β1-induced RAP2 regulates invasion in pancreatic cancer. Acta Biochim Biophys Sin (Shanghai) 2022; 54:361-369. [PMID: 35538031 PMCID: PMC9828032 DOI: 10.3724/abbs.2022015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Pancreatic cancer is highly lethal due to its aggressive invasive properties and capacity for metastatic dissemination. Additional therapeutic targets and effective treatment options for patients with tumours of high invasive capacity are required. Ras-related protein-2a (RAP2) is a member of the GTP-binding proteins. RAP2 has been reported to be widely upregulated in many types of cancers via regulating cytoskeleton reorganization, cell proliferation, migration, and adhesion, as well as inflammation. As a member of the RAS oncogene family, which has been demonstrated to drive pancreatic cancer oncogenesis and many other malignancies, the physiological roles of RAP2 in pancreatic cancer have seldom been discussed. In the present study, we explored the correlation between RAP2 expression and the prediction of overall survival of pancreatic cancer patients. Mechanistic studies were carried out to shed light on the role of RAP2 in pancreatic cancer invasion and how RAP2 is regulated in the invasive process. Our results demonstrated that patients with higher RAP2 expression showed unfavourable prognoses. studies demonstrated that silencing of inhibited the invasion of pancreatic cancer cells. Moreover, our results demonstrated that transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), an inducer of the metastatic potential of pancreatic cancer cells, regulates the expression of RAP2 via the transcription factor c-Myc. In conclusion, the present study uncovered RAP2 as a novel predictive marker and therapeutic target for pancreatic cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kaizhou Jin
- Department of Pancreatic SurgeryFudan University Shanghai Cancer CenterShanghai200032China
- Department of OncologyShanghai Medical CollegeFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer InstituteShanghai200032China
- Pancreatic Cancer InstituteFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
| | - Chen Liu
- Department of Pancreatic SurgeryFudan University Shanghai Cancer CenterShanghai200032China
- Department of OncologyShanghai Medical CollegeFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer InstituteShanghai200032China
- Pancreatic Cancer InstituteFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
| | - He Cheng
- Department of Pancreatic SurgeryFudan University Shanghai Cancer CenterShanghai200032China
- Department of OncologyShanghai Medical CollegeFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer InstituteShanghai200032China
- Pancreatic Cancer InstituteFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
| | - Qinglin Fei
- Department of Pancreatic SurgeryFudan University Shanghai Cancer CenterShanghai200032China
- Department of OncologyShanghai Medical CollegeFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer InstituteShanghai200032China
- Pancreatic Cancer InstituteFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
| | - Qiuyi Huang
- Department of Pancreatic SurgeryFudan University Shanghai Cancer CenterShanghai200032China
- Department of OncologyShanghai Medical CollegeFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer InstituteShanghai200032China
- Pancreatic Cancer InstituteFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
| | - Zhiwen Xiao
- Department of Pancreatic SurgeryFudan University Shanghai Cancer CenterShanghai200032China
- Department of OncologyShanghai Medical CollegeFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer InstituteShanghai200032China
- Pancreatic Cancer InstituteFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
| | - Xianjun Yu
- Department of Pancreatic SurgeryFudan University Shanghai Cancer CenterShanghai200032China
- Department of OncologyShanghai Medical CollegeFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer InstituteShanghai200032China
- Pancreatic Cancer InstituteFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
| | - Weiding Wu
- Department of Pancreatic SurgeryFudan University Shanghai Cancer CenterShanghai200032China
- Department of OncologyShanghai Medical CollegeFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
- Shanghai Pancreatic Cancer InstituteShanghai200032China
- Pancreatic Cancer InstituteFudan UniversityShanghai200032China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Simulated Microgravity Increases the Permeability of HUVEC Monolayer through Up-Regulation of Rap1GAP and Decreased Rap2 Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23020630. [PMID: 35054818 PMCID: PMC8776081 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23020630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Space microgravity condition has great physiological influence on astronauts’ health. The interaction of endothelial cells, which control vascular permeability and immune responses, is sensitive to mechanical stress. However, whether microgravity has significant effects on the physiological function of the endothelium has not been investigated. In order to address such a question, a clinostat-based culture model with a HUVEC monolayer being inside the culture vessel under the simulated microgravity (SMG) was established. The transmittance of FITC-tagged dextran was used to estimate the change of integrity of the adherens junction of the HUVEC monolayer. Firstly, we found that the permeability of the HUVEC monolayer was largely increased after SMG treatment. To elucidate the mechanism of the increased permeability of the HUVEC monolayer under SMG, the levels of total expression and activated protein levels of Rap1 and Rap2 in HUVEC cells, which regulate the adherens junction of endothelial cells, were detected by WB and GST pull-down after SMG. As the activation of both Rap1 and Rap2 was significantly decreased under SMG, the expression of Rap1GEF1 (C3G) and Rap1GAP in HUVECs, which regulate the activation of them, was further determined. The results indicate that both C3G and Rap1GAP showed a time-dependent increase with the expression of Rap1GAP being dominant at 48 h after SMG. The down-regulation of the expression of junctional proteins, VE-cadherin and β-catenin, in HUVEC cells was also confirmed by WB and immunofluorescence after SMG. To clarify whether up-regulation of Rap1GAP is necessary for the increased permeability of the HUVEC monolayer after SMG, the expression of Rap1GAP was knocked down by Rap1GAP-shRNA, and the change of permeability of the HUVEC monolayer was detected. The results indicate that knock-down of Rap1GAP reduced SMG-induced leaking of the HUVEC monolayer in a time-dependent manner. In total, our results indicate that the Rap1GAP-Rap signal axis was necessary for the increased permeability of the HUVEC monolayer along with the down-regulation of junctional molecules including VE-cadherin and β-catenin.
Collapse
|
5
|
Li H, Liang J, Wang J, Han J, Li S, Huang K, Liu C. Mex3a promotes oncogenesis through the RAP1/MAPK signaling pathway in colorectal cancer and is inhibited by hsa-miR-6887-3p. Cancer Commun (Lond) 2021; 41:472-491. [PMID: 33638620 PMCID: PMC8211350 DOI: 10.1002/cac2.12149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although Mex3 RNA‐binding family member A (Mex3a) has demonstrated an important role in multiple cancers, its role and regulatory mechanism in CRC is unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the role and clinical significance of Mex3a in CRC and to explore its underlying mechanism. Methods Western blotting and quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction (qRT‐PCR) were performed to detect the expression levels of genes. 5‐Ethynyl‐2'‐deoxyuridine (EDU) and transwell assays were utilized to examine CRC cell proliferation and metastatic ability. The R software was used to do hierarchical clustering analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis. Overexpression and rescue experiments which included U0126, a specific mitogen activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular regulated protein kinase (MEK/ERK) inhibitor, and PX‐478, a hypoxia‐inducible factor 1 subunit alpha (HIF‐1α) inhibitor, were used to study the molecular mechanisms of Mex3a in CRC cells. Co‐immunoprecipitation (Co‐IP) assay was performed to detect the interaction between two proteins. Bioinformatics analysis including available public database and Starbase software (starbase.sysu.edu.cn) were used to evaluate the expression and prognostic significance of genes. TargetScan (www.targetscan.org) and the miRDB (mirdb.org) website were used to predict the combination site between microRNA and target mRNA. BALB/c nude mice were used to study the function of Mex3a and hsa‐miR‐6887‐3p in vivo. Results Clinicopathological and immunohistochemical (IHC) studies of 101 CRC tissues and 79 normal tissues demonstrated that Mex3a was a significant prognostic factor for overall survival (OS) in CRC patients. Mex3a knockdown substantially inhibited the migration, invasion, and proliferation of CRC cells. Transcriptome analysis and mechanism verification showed that Mex3a regulated the RAP1 GTPase activating protein (RAP1GAP)/MEK/ERK/HIF‐1α pathway. Furthermore, RAP1GAP was identified to interact with Mex3a in Co‐IP experiments. Bioinformatics and dual‐luciferase reporter experiments revealed that hsa‐miR‐6887‐3p could bind to the 3'‐untranslated regions (3'‐UTR) of the Mex3a mRNA. hsa‐miR‐6887‐3p downregulated Mex3a expression and inhibited the tumorigenesis of CRC both in vitro and in vivo. Conclusions Our study demonstrated that the hsa‐miR‐6887‐3p/Mex3a/RAP1GAP signaling axis was a key regulator of CRC and Mex3a has the potential to be a new diagnostic marker and treatment target for CRC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haixia Li
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, P. R. China
| | - Jinghui Liang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, P. R. China
| | - Jiang Wang
- Weifang People's Hospital, Weifang, Shandong, 261000, P. R. China
| | - Jingyi Han
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, P. R. China
| | - Shuang Li
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, P. R. China
| | - Kai Huang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, P. R. China
| | - Chuanyong Liu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, P. R. China.,Provincial Key Lab of Mental Disorder, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250012, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Wu J, Niu Q, Yuan J, Xu X, Cao L. Novel compound cedrelone inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma progression via PBLD and Ras/Rap1. Exp Ther Med 2019; 18:4209-4220. [PMID: 31777531 PMCID: PMC6862430 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2019.8080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although it is known that Phenazine biosynthesis-like domain-containing protein (PBLD) expression is downregulated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), its biological function is unclear. Additionally, no agents capable of upregulating PBLD exist. In the current study, the relationship between PBLD and HCC was analyzed using clinicopathological specimens. A HCC cell model, microarray analysis and an animal model were used to verify the therapeutic effect of cedrelone on HCC. The present study demonstrated that PBLD inhibited HCC progression. Furthermore, the present study revealed that cedrelone possessed treated-HCC capabilities via targeted PBLD overexpression. The epithelial-mesenchymal transition phenotype and growth rate were inhibited and the apoptosis ratio was promoted by cedrelone following PBLD overexpression. The Ras and Ras-proximate-1 signaling pathways were also determined to be regulated by cedrelone via PBLD activation in HCC. PBLD may therefore be an independent predictor of HCC progression and a novel target for HCC treatment. Additionally, the PBLD activator, cedrelone, may be a potential drug for HCC treatment in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiansong Wu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, General Hospital of the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force, Beijing 100088, P.R. China
| | - Qiang Niu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, General Hospital of the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force, Beijing 100088, P.R. China
| | - Jie Yuan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, General Hospital of the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force, Beijing 100088, P.R. China
| | - Xiaodan Xu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, General Hospital of the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force, Beijing 100088, P.R. China
| | - Liuxia Cao
- Department of Infectious Diseases, General Hospital of the People's Liberation Army Rocket Force, Beijing 100088, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tsygankova OM, Keen JH. A unique role for clathrin light chain A in cell spreading and migration. J Cell Sci 2019; 132:jcs.224030. [PMID: 30975920 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.224030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Clathrin heavy chain is the structural component of the clathrin triskelion, but unique functions for the two distinct and highly conserved clathrin light chains (CLCa and CLCb, also known as CLTA and CLTB, respectively) have been elusive. Here, we show that following detachment and replating, CLCa is uniquely responsible for promoting efficient cell spreading and migration. Selective depletion of CLCa, but not of CLCb, reduced the initial phase of isotropic spreading of HeLa, H1299 and HEK293 cells by 60-80% compared to siRNA controls, and wound closure and motility by ∼50%. Surface levels of β1-integrins were unaffected by CLCa depletion. However, CLCa was required for effective targeting of FAK (also known as PTK2) and paxillin to the adherent surface of spreading cells, for integrin-mediated activation of Src, FAK and paxillin, and for maturation of focal adhesions, but not their microtubule-based turnover. Depletion of CLCa also blocked the interaction of clathrin with the nucleation-promoting factor WAVE complex, and altered actin distribution. Furthermore, preferential recruitment of CLCa to budding protrusions was also observed. These results comprise the first identification of CLCa-specific functions, with implications for normal and neoplastic integrin-based signaling and cell migration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oxana M Tsygankova
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Signaling Program of the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - James H Keen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cell Biology and Signaling Program of the Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Foote AG, Wang Z, Kendziorski C, Thibeault SL. Tissue specific human fibroblast differential expression based on RNAsequencing analysis. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:308. [PMID: 31014251 PMCID: PMC6480701 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-5682-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Physical forces, such as mechanical stress, are essential for tissue homeostasis and influence gene expression of cells. In particular, the fibroblast has demonstrated sensitivity to extracellular matrices with assumed adaptation upon various mechanical loads. The purpose of this study was to compare the vocal fold fibroblast genotype, known for its unique mechanically stressful tissue environment, with cellular counterparts at various other anatomic locales to identify differences in functional gene expression profiles. Results By using RNA-seq technology, we identified differentially expressed gene programs (DEseq2) among seven normal human fibroblast primary cell lines from healthy cadavers, which included: vocal fold, trachea, lung, abdomen, scalp, upper gingiva, and soft palate. Unsupervised gene expression analysis yielded 6216 genes differentially expressed across all anatomic sites. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed grouping based on anatomic site origin rather than donor, suggesting global fibroblast phenotype heterogeneity. Sex and age-related effects were negligible. Functional enrichment analyses based on separate post-hoc 2-group comparisons revealed several functional themes within the vocal fold fibroblast related to transcription factors for signaling pathways regulating pluripotency of stem cells and extracellular matrix components such as cell signaling, migration, proliferation, and differentiation potential. Conclusions Human fibroblasts display a phenomenon of global topographic differentiation, which is maintained in isolation via in vitro assays. Epigenetic mechanical influences on vocal fold tissue may play a role in uniquely modelling and maintaining the local environmental cellular niche during homeostasis with vocal fold fibroblasts distinctly specialized related to their anatomic positional and developmental origins established during embryogenesis. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-019-5682-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander G Foote
- Department of Surgery, Division of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Ziyue Wang
- Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin - Madison, College of Letters and Science, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Christina Kendziorski
- Department of Biostatistics & Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Susan L Thibeault
- Department of Surgery, Division of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Methylation level of Rap1GAP and the clinical significance in MDS. Oncol Lett 2018; 16:7287-7294. [PMID: 30546468 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.9503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies on the pathogenesis of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) have identified multiple associated gene mutations, including mutations of tetmethylcytosinedioxygenase 2, isocitrate dehydrogenase [NADP(+)] 1 cytosolic, isocitrate dehydrogenase [NADP(+)] 2 mitochondrial and additional sex combs like 1 transcriptional regulator, all of which may be considered epigenetic regulators. Furthermore, mutations of RAS type GTPase family genes have been identified in 10-15% patients with MDS. The authors' previous study on the gene expression profile of cluster of differentiation 34+ cells using microarray analysis identified elevated expression of RAP1GTPase activating protein 1 (Rap1GAP) in patients with MDS compared with that in non-malignant blood diseases (NM) control group. To further investigate the mechanism of increased Rap1GAP expression, the methylation pattern of the promoter of this gene was determined in 86 patients with MDS (n=29), acute myeloid leukemia (AML) (n=31) or NM (n=26) using bisulfite-specific polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequencing. The results demonstrated that the methylation of Rap1GAP occurred in all 29 patients with MDS at multiple CpG sites. The methylation level of Rap1GAP in patients with MDS was decreased compared with that in patients with NM. Significant differences at 4CpG sites (5,7,8 and 12) of Rap1GAP promoter were identified between MDS and NM. Furthermore, based on the present clinical records of the patient cohort, the methylation status of Rap1GAP promoter did not appear to be associated with the clinicopathological characteristics of patients with MDS, including age, gender and International Prognosis Score System. The difference in methylation level at CpG site 8 of Rap1GAP promoter was identified to be significantly increased in patients with MDS-refractory anemia with ring sideroblasts compared with that in the MDS-refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia or MDS-unclassified groups. The results of the present study suggest that patients with MDS exhibit a lower overall methylation level within Rap1GAP promoter compared with patients with NM or AML. In addition, the methylation level at the four identified CpG sites can distinguish between MDS and NM.
Collapse
|
10
|
Shah S, Brock EJ, Jackson RM, Ji K, Boerner JL, Sloane BF, Mattingly RR. Downregulation of Rap1Gap: A Switch from DCIS to Invasive Breast Carcinoma via ERK/MAPK Activation. Neoplasia 2018; 20:951-963. [PMID: 30144784 PMCID: PMC6106701 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Diagnosis of breast ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) presents a challenge since we cannot yet distinguish those cases that would remain indolent and not require aggressive treatment from cases that may progress to invasive ductal cancer (IDC). The purpose of this study is to determine the role of Rap1Gap, a GTPase activating protein, in the progression from DCIS to IDC. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) analysis of samples from breast cancer patients shows an increase in Rap1Gap expression in DCIS compared to normal breast tissue and IDCs. In order to study the mechanisms of malignant progression, we employed an in vitro three-dimensional (3D) model that more accurately recapitulates both structural and functional cues of breast tissue. Immunoblotting results show that Rap1Gap levels in MCF10.Ca1D cells (a model of invasive carcinoma) are reduced compared to those in MCF10.DCIS (a model of DCIS). Retroviral silencing of Rap1Gap in MCF10.DCIS cells activated extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), induced extensive cytoskeletal reorganization and acquisition of mesenchymal phenotype, and enhanced invasion. Enforced reexpression of Rap1Gap in MCF10.DCIS-Rap1GapshRNA cells reduced Rap1 activity and reversed the mesenchymal phenotype. Similarly, introduction of dominant negative Rap1A mutant (Rap1A-N17) in DCIS-Rap1Gap shRNA cells caused a reversion to nonmalignant phenotype. Conversely, expression of constitutively active Rap1A mutant (Rap1A-V12) in noninvasive MCF10.DCIS cells led to phenotypic changes that were reminiscent of Rap1Gap knockdown. Thus, reduction of Rap1Gap in DCIS is a potential switch for progression to an invasive phenotype. The Graphical Abstract summarizes these findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seema Shah
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ethan J Brock
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ryan M Jackson
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Kyungmin Ji
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Julie L Boerner
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Bonnie F Sloane
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Raymond R Mattingly
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gao WL, Ye GC, Liu LW, Wei L. The downregulation of Rap1 GTPase-activating protein is associated with a poor prognosis in colorectal cancer and may impact on tumor progression. Oncol Lett 2018; 15:7661-7668. [PMID: 29725465 PMCID: PMC5920375 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.8305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Rap1 GTPase-activating protein (Rap1GAP) has been reported to serve an important role in various types of cancer by specific stimulation as a negative regulator of Rap1 activity. However, the role of Rap1GAP in colorectal cancer (CRC) has yet to be fully elucidated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the expression of Rap1GAP in CRC tissues and to elucidate its clinical significance. The expression of Rap1GAP, matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) and E-cadherin in 227 CRC tissues and paired para-carcinoma tissues was detected by immunohistochemistry. Associations between Rap1GAP expression and clinicopathological characteristics, and between Rap1GAP expression and prognostic value (OS + DFS) in CRC were investigated. Furthermore, associations between Rap1GAP expression and MMP-9 expression, and between Rap1GAP expression and E-cadherin expression were also investigated. Rap1GAP expression was markedly downregulated in CRC tissues compared with para-carcinoma tissues. Decreased expression of Rap1GAP was significantly associated with depth of invasion, lymph node metastasis, advanced Tumor-Node-Metastasis stage and a poor prognosis in patients with CRC following surgery. Furthermore, univariate and multivariate analyses revealed that Rap1GAP was an independent poor prognostic factor for disease-free survival and overall survival. In addition, Rap1GAP expression was negatively associated with MMP-9 and positively associated with E-cadherin in 227 CRC samples. In brief, the results of the present study suggested that Rap1GAP may be involved in tumor progression in CRC and may serve as a potential target for prognostic prediction of patients with CRC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Li Gao
- Department of General Surgery, Huzhou Central Hospital, Zhejiang University, Huzhou, Zhejiang 313000, P.R. China
| | - Guo-Chao Ye
- Department of General Surgery, Huzhou Central Hospital, Zhejiang University, Huzhou, Zhejiang 313000, P.R. China
| | - Li-Wei Liu
- Department of General Surgery, Huzhou Central Hospital, Zhejiang University, Huzhou, Zhejiang 313000, P.R. China
| | - Lu Wei
- Department of General Surgery, Huzhou Central Hospital, Zhejiang University, Huzhou, Zhejiang 313000, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Yang Y, Zhang J, Yan Y, Cai H, Li M, Sun K, Wang J, Liu X, Wang J, Duan X. Low expression of Rap1GAP is associated with epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and poor prognosis in gastric cancer. Oncotarget 2018; 8:8057-8068. [PMID: 28009991 PMCID: PMC5352382 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.14074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Rap1GAP is a crucial tumor suppressor, but its role in gastric cancer (GC) is little investigated. In this study, we found that the expression of Rap1GAP was decreased in GC. Low expression of Rap1GAP was positively correlated with advanced pTNM stage, Borrmann types, tumor diameter and poor prognosis in patients with GC. Low expression of Rap1GAP correlated with loss of E-cadherin expression, and anomalous positivity of MMP2 expression. Multivariate analysis showed that low expression of Rap1GAP was an independent prognostic factor. Ectopic expression of Rap1GAP impaired cell migration and invasion, promoted the expression of E-cadherin and decreased the expression of MMP2. These results suggest that Rap1GAP functions as a novel suppressor of EMT and tumor metastasis in GC, and loss of Rap1GAP predicts poor prognosis in GC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ya Yang
- The Second Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China.,Department III of Radiation Oncology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450000, Henan, China
| | - Jia Zhang
- The Second Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yan Yan
- The Second Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Hui Cai
- Department of Vascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Min Li
- The Second Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Kai Sun
- The Second Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jizhao Wang
- The Second Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xu Liu
- The Second Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiansheng Wang
- The Second Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiaoyi Duan
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, Shaanxi, China
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Rap1GAP inhibits tumor progression in endometrial cancer. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017; 485:476-483. [PMID: 28196746 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.02.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Endometrioid adenocarcinoma (EAC) is a common endometrial cancer with recent dramatic increases in incidence. Previous findings indicate that Rap1GAP acts as a tumor suppressor inhibiting Ras superfamily protein Rap1 in multiple aggressive carcinomas; however, Rap1GAP expression in EAC has not been investigated. In this study, the tumor suppressing activity of Rap1GAP in EAC was explored. METHODS EAC cell lines were used to examine Rap1GAP levels by real-time RT-PCR and western blotting and the effects of Rap1GAP on cancer cell invasion and migration. Rap1GAP expression was analyzed by immunohistochemical staining for Rap1GAP, E-cadherin in surgically resected tumors of 114 EAC patients scored according to EAC differentiation grade. Prognostic variables such as age, stage, grade, tumor size, and immunostaining for Rap1GAP, E-cadherin were evaluated using Cox regression multivariate analysis. RESULTS Low Rap1GAP expression was detected in poorly differentiated EAC cells. Rap1GAP deficiency significantly accelerated while Rap1 deficiency decreased cancer cell migration and invasion. Patients with higher Rap1GAP, E-cadherin, and especially combined Rap1GAP/E-cadherin levels had better overall survival than EAC patients with no or weak expression. In addition, Rap1GAP expression was an independent prognostic factor in EAC. CONCLUSIONS Inhibition of Rap1GAP expression increases EAC cell migration and invasion through upregulation of Rap1. Low expression of Rap1GAP correlates with poor EAC differentiation. Our findings suggest that Rap1GAP is an important tumor suppressor with high prognostic value in EAC.
Collapse
|
14
|
Abstract
Ras-associated protein-1 (Rap1), a small GTPase in the Ras-related protein family, is an important regulator of basic cellular functions (e.g., formation and control of cell adhesions and junctions), cellular migration, and polarization. Through its interaction with other proteins, Rap1 plays many roles during cell invasion and metastasis in different cancers. The basic function of Rap1 is straightforward; it acts as a switch during cellular signaling transduction and regulated by its binding to either guanosine triphosphate (GTP) or guanosine diphosphate (GDP). However, its remarkably diverse function is rendered by its interplay with a large number of distinct Rap guanine nucleotide exchange factors and Rap GTPase activating proteins. This review summarizes the mechanisms by which Rap1 signaling can regulate cell invasion and metastasis, focusing on its roles in integrin and cadherin regulation, Rho GTPase control, and matrix metalloproteinase expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Lei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Ruo-Chen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Ken Cheng
- Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Brian Z Ring
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Li Su
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China.,Research Institute of Huazhong University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518063, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Qu D, Huang H, DI J, Gao K, Lu Z, Zheng J. Structure, functional regulation and signaling properties of Rap2B. Oncol Lett 2016; 11:2339-2346. [PMID: 27073477 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2016.4261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Ras family small guanosine 5'-triphosphate (GTP)-binding protein Rap2B is is a member of the Ras oncogene family and a novel target of p53 that regulates the p53-mediated pro-survival function of cells. The Rap2B protein shares ~90% homology with Rap2A, and its sequence is 70% identical to other members of the Rap family such as RaplA and RaplB. As a result, Rap2B has been theorized to have similar signaling effectors to the GTPase-binding protein Rap, which mediates various biological functions, including the regulation of sterile 20/mitogen-activated proteins. Since its identification in the early 1990s, Rap2B has elicited a considerable interest. Numerous studies indicate that Rap2B exerts specific biological functions, including binding and stimulating phospholipase C-ε and interferon-γ. In addition, downregulation of Rap2B affects the growth of melanoma cells. The present review summarizes the possible effectors and biological functions of Rap2B. Increasing evidence clearly supports the association between Rap2B function and tumor development. Therefore, it is conceivable that anticancer drugs targeting Rap2B may be generated as novel therapies against cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Debao Qu
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China; Department of Radiotherapy, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China
| | - Hui Huang
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China
| | - Jiehui DI
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China; Jiangsu Center for the Collaboration and Innovation of Cancer Biotherapy, Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China
| | - Keyu Gao
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China
| | - Zheng Lu
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China
| | - Junnian Zheng
- Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China; Jiangsu Center for the Collaboration and Innovation of Cancer Biotherapy, Cancer Institute, Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China; Center of Clinical Oncology, The Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical College, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221002, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Nussinov R, Tsai CJ, Muratcioglu S, Jang H, Gursoy A, Keskin O. Principles of K-Ras effector organization and the role of oncogenic K-Ras in cancer initiation through G1 cell cycle deregulation. Expert Rev Proteomics 2015; 12:669-82. [DOI: 10.1586/14789450.2015.1100079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
17
|
Walther C, Mayrhofer M, Nilsson J, Hofvander J, Jonson T, Mandahl N, Øra I, Gisselsson D, Mertens F. Genetic heterogeneity in rhabdomyosarcoma revealed by SNP array analysis. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2015; 55:3-15. [DOI: 10.1002/gcc.22285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Charles Walther
- Department of Clinical Genetics; University and Regional Laboratories, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University; Lund Sweden
| | - Markus Mayrhofer
- Array & Analysis Facility, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University; Sweden
| | - Jenny Nilsson
- Department of Clinical Genetics; University and Regional Laboratories, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University; Lund Sweden
| | - Jakob Hofvander
- Department of Clinical Genetics; University and Regional Laboratories, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University; Lund Sweden
| | - Tord Jonson
- Department of Clinical Genetics; University and Regional Laboratories, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University; Lund Sweden
| | - Nils Mandahl
- Department of Clinical Genetics; University and Regional Laboratories, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University; Lund Sweden
| | - Ingrid Øra
- Department of Pediatric Oncology; Skåne University Hospital; Lund Sweden
| | - David Gisselsson
- Department of Clinical Genetics; University and Regional Laboratories, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University; Lund Sweden
| | - Fredrik Mertens
- Department of Clinical Genetics; University and Regional Laboratories, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University; Lund Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
The alternative splicing factor Nova2 regulates vascular development and lumen formation. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8479. [PMID: 26446569 PMCID: PMC4633719 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular lumen formation is a fundamental step during angiogenesis; yet, the molecular mechanisms underlying this process are poorly understood. Recent studies have shown that neural and vascular systems share common anatomical, functional and molecular similarities. Here we show that the organization of endothelial lumen is controlled at the post-transcriptional level by the alternative splicing (AS) regulator Nova2, which was previously considered to be neural cell-specific. Nova2 is expressed during angiogenesis and its depletion disrupts vascular lumen formation in vivo. Similarly, Nova2 depletion in cultured endothelial cells (ECs) impairs the apical distribution and the downstream signalling of the Par polarity complex, resulting in altered EC polarity, a process required for vascular lumen formation. These defects are linked to AS changes of Nova2 target exons affecting the Par complex and its regulators. Collectively, our results reveal that Nova2 functions as an AS regulator in angiogenesis and is a novel member of the ‘angioneurins' family. The alternative splicing factor Nova2 is best known for its pivotal function in the brain. Giampietro et al. reveal an important role for Nova2 in the regulation of alternative splicing of transcripts in the vascular endothelium that are crucial for the maintenance of endothelial cell polarity and vessel lumen formation in zebrafish.
Collapse
|
19
|
Pebworth MP, Cismas SA, Asuri P. A novel 2.5D culture platform to investigate the role of stiffness gradients on adhesion-independent cell migration. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110453. [PMID: 25310593 PMCID: PMC4195729 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Current studies investigating the role of biophysical cues on cell migration focus on the use of culture platforms with static material parameters. However, migrating cells invivo often encounter spatial variations in extracellular matrix stiffness. To better understand the effects of stiffness gradients on cell migration, we developed a 2.5D cell culture platform where cells are sandwiched between stiff tissue culture plastic and soft alginate hydrogel. Under these conditions, we observed migration of cells from the underlying stiff substrate into the alginate matrix. Observation of migration into alginate in the presence of integrin inhibition as well as qualitative microscopic analyses suggested an adhesion-independent cell migration mode. Observed migration was dependent on alginate matrix stiffness and the RhoA-ROCK-myosin-II pathway; inhibitors specifically targeting ROCK and myosin-II arrested cell migration. Collectively, these results demonstrate the utility of the 2.5D culture platform to advance our understanding of the effects of stiffness gradients and mechanotransductive signaling on adhesion-independent cell migration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark-Phillip Pebworth
- Department of Bioengineering, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California, United States of America
| | - Sabrina A. Cismas
- Department of Bioengineering, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California, United States of America
| | - Prashanth Asuri
- Department of Bioengineering, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|